Ground water – the water that lies beneath the - because it moves in response to

ground surface filling the pore space between differences in water pressure and
grains in bodies of sediment and elastic elevation, water within the upper part of
sedimentary rock, and filling cracks and crevices the saturated zone tends to move
in all types of rock. downward following the slope of the
water table
- Source of ground water is rain and snow
that falls to the ground a portion of which Aquifers – a body of saturated rock sediment
percolates down into the ground to through which water can move easily
become ground water.
- Good aquifers include sandstone,
Porosity & Permeability conglomerate, well-joined limestone,
bodies of sand and gravel, and some
• Porosity – the percentage of rock or
fragmental or fractured volcanic rocks
sediment that consist of voids or
such as columnar basalt.
openings
• Permeability – the capacity of a rock to
• Unconfined Aquifer – a partially filed
transmit a fluid such as water or
aquifer exposed to the land surface and
petroleum through pores and fractures
marked by a rising and falling water table
• Porous – a rock that holds much water
• Confined aquifer (artesian aquifer): an
• Permeable - a rock that allows water to
aquifer completely filled with pressurized
flow easily through it
water and separated from the land
• Impermeable – a rock that does not
surface by a relatively impermeable
allow water to flow through it easily
confining bed, such as shale
Subsurface Water – zone of aeration or vadose
Wells - a deep hole, generally cylindrical, that
zone or unsaturated zone overlies phreatic zone
is dug of drilled into the ground to penetrate
pore spaces partly filled with water contains soil
an aquifer within the saturated zone
moisture
• Recharge - the addition of new water to
Zone of Saturation or Phreatic Zone –
the saturated zone
Water Table – perched water table: the top of a
• cone of depression - a depression of the
body of ground water separated from the main
water table formed around a well when
water table beneath it by a zone that is not
water is pumped out; it is shaped like an
saturated
inverted cone
• saturated zone: the subsurface zone in
• drawdown - the lowering of the water
which all rock openings are filled with
table near a pumped well
water
• artesian well - a well in which water rises
• water table: the upper surface of the
above the aquifer
zone of saturation
• artesian system – water rises above the
• vadose zone: a subsurface zone in which
level in aquifer because of hydrostatic
rock openings are generally unsaturated
pressure
and filled partly with air and partly with
water; above the saturated zone • Potentiometric surface – height to
which water pressure would raise the
• capillary fringe: a transition zone with
water
higher moisture content at the base of
the vadose zone just above the water Springs and Streams
table
• spring: a place where water flows
Movement of Groundwater – factors affecting naturally from rock onto the land surface
the flow of ground water. The slope of water table
• gaining stream: a stream that receives
– the steeper the water table the faster ground
water from the zone of saturation
water moves permeability – if rock pores are small
and poorly connected, water moves slowly, when • losing stream: a stream that looses
openings are large and well connected, the flow water to the zone of saturation
of water is more rapid.
Pollution of Ground Water
- most ground water moves relatively
slowly through rock underground
 • pesticides, herbicides, fertilizers: by inorganic silica carried in by ground
chemicals that are applied to agricultural water
crops that can find their way into ground
• concentration: a hard, round mass that
water when rain or irrigation water
develops when a considerable amount of
leaches the poisons downward into the
cementing material precipitates locally in
soil
a rock, often around an organic nucleus
• pumping wells can cause or aggravate
• geodes: partly hollow, globe-shaped
ground-water pollution
bodies found in some limestones and
• Balancing Withdrawal and Recharge - locally in other rocks
a local supply of groundwater will last
Consequences of Ground Water Withdrawal –
indefinitely if it is withdrawn for use at a
overlapping cones of depression cause lowering
rate equal to or less than the rate of
of regional water table
recharge to the aquifer
Water mining – rate of recharge too slow for
- if ground water is withdrawn faster than
replenishment in human life time
it is being recharged, however, the supply
is being reduced and will one day be Hot Water Underground
gone
- to avoid the problems of falling water • hot springs: springs in which the water is
tables, subsidence, and compaction, warmer than human body temperature
many towns use artificial recharge to
• water can gain heat in two ways while
increase recharge; natural floodwaters or
underground:
treated industrial or domestic
wastewaters are stored in infiltration - ground water may circulate near
ponds in the surface to increase the rate a magma chamber or a body of
of water percolation into the ground cooling igneous rock

Effects of Ground-Water Action - ground water may circulate

unusually deep in the earth
• caves (or caverns): naturally formed
underground chamber. most caves • geyser: a type of hot spring that
develop when slightly acidic ground periodically erupts hot water and stream;
water dissolves limestone along joints the water is generally near boiling
and bedding planes, opening up cavern (100oC)
systems as calcite is carried away in
Geothermal Energy
solution. most caves probably are formed
by ground water circulating below the • Electricity can be generated by
water table harnessing naturally occurring stream
and hot water in areas that are
• stalactites: icicle-like pendants of
exceptionally hot underground
dripstone hanging from cave ceilings,
(geothermal areas);
generally slender and are commonly
aligned along cracks in the ceiling, which • nonelectric uses of geothermal energy
act as conduits for ground water include space heating, as well as paper
manufacturing, ore processing, and food
• stalagmites: cone-shaped masses of
preparation
drip-stone formed on cave floors,
generally directly below stalactites

• sinkholes: closed depressions found on

land surfaces underlain by limestone;
they form either by the collapse of a cave
roof or by solution as descending water
enlarges a crack in limestone

• karst topography: an area with many

sinkholes and with cave systems beneath
the land surface

• petrified wood: develops when porous

buried wood is either filled in or replaced
Collection and Distribution of Water

Intakes – consist of opening, strainer, or grating

through which the water enters, and the conduit
conveying the water usually by gravity, to a well
or sump.

Factors to be considered in designing and

locating intakes

1. source of supply impounding reservoir, lake, or

river

2. character of the intake surroundings, depth of

water, character of bottom, navigation
requirements, effects of current, floods, storms
upon the structure and in scouring the botton

3. location with respect to source of pollution

4. prevalence of floating material such as ice, logs,

and vegetation

• intake from reservoir

• lake intake
• river intake
• intake reservoir

Water Distribution System

1. Gravity distribution – this is possible when the

source of supple is a lake or impounding reservoir
at some elevation above the city so that sufficient
pressure can be maintained in the mains for
domestic and fire service