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Contact
Dr. Ron Bailey
Dept. 2522, 214 EMCS Bldg.
615 McCallie Avenue
Chattanooga, TN 37403
Phone: (423) 425-5454
Fax: (423) 425-5464

Electric Vehicles
Benefits of Electric Vehicles (including electric buses)
The Drive System
Electric Motor Comparison
Motor Characteristics
Control Systems
Battery Systems
How Does a Cell Work?
Performance of Vehicle Battery Systems
Battery Memory
Types of Charging
Charger Location/Coupling Options
Charging Methods
Charge Levels
Battery Management
Accessories (Power windows, heating, air, power steering, etc.)

There are many benefits of operating electric vehicles. First, there is no fuel odor as the
vehicles operate on batteries, not on gasoline, diesel, or some other type of combustible
fuel. Electric vehicles are quiet...the ride is virtually silent. By correctly using
regenerative braking, electric vehicles achieve greater brake life as well as create energy
through kinetic energy. By using high-tech composite technology, electric vehicles can be
much lighter than an ICE counterpart which also helps reduce brake wear along with
road wear.

Electric vehicles are much more energy efficient. Electric motors convert virtually all of
their fuel energy into usable power. The internal combustion engine (ICE) is less than
20% efficient.

Maintenance cost, including fuel cost, is much lower with an electric vehicle. There are
no tune ups or oil changes necessary. By eliminating everything on a vehicle
maintenance checklist that pertains to the ICE, it becomes a pretty short list. And, by
charging at night, the "fuel" for an electric vehicles is reduced up to one-fourth the cost
of gasoline or diesel.

Electric vehicles, especially electric buses, provide great public relations benefits. The
public and media alike love riding in and talking about zero-emission electric vehicles.

There are, however, two primary benefits of electric and hybrid-electric vehicles. Electric
and hybrid-electric vehicles can help reduce our nation's use of foreign oil, and reduce
pollution that negatively impacts health and well-being.

An electric vehicle is a motor vehicle, such as an automobile,

truck, or bus, that uses a rechargeable battery for fuel, replacing gasoline, diesel or other
types of combustible fuels. Gone is the internal combustion engine and the transmission.
An EV utilizes an electric motor or, in some applications, more than one motor to propel
the vehicle.

Electric vehicles are similar in many aspects to vehicles powered with internal
combustion engines. The chassis or body of many electric vehicles on the road today are
from vehicles that once contained an internal combustion engine (ICE). In most electric
vehicles, even the interior of the vehicle is unchanged and almost all electric vehicles
contain the same accessories as their internal combustion cousins.

The energy stored in the Electric Vehicle's rechargeable battery supplies power to the
motor controller. The motor controller is a device, which controls the amount of power
supplied to the electric drive motor(s) based on the position of the accelerator pedal. The
electrical power supplied to the electric drive motor(s) is used to generate an
electromotive force, which turns the shaft of the electric motor(s). This shaft is coupled
to the wheels of the vehicle and causes movement either forward or reverse, depending
on the direction the shaft is turning.

Refueling an electric vehicle consists of plugging in the vehicle's charge plug into an
outlet that is specifically designed for charging an electric vehicle. Recharging time
varies, depending on the battery type, capacity and the voltage/current output of the
charger. Most EV's can be recharged in about 6 hours.

The primary focus of EV's is to reduce the amount of noxious gases that are released into
the air due to the combustion process of an internal combustion engine. An electric
vehicle produces zero emissions. Some critics of the EV industry will argue that a
reduction of polluting gases has not taken place because of the emissions that are
generated in the production of electricity at the power plants. Though it is true that
power plants do produce some pollutants, the government has very strict regulations on
power plant emissions. And since power plants produce an excess of power at night,
when the demand is low, EV owners can use the excess power by recharging at night.
This makes the power plants more efficient.

Additionally, electric vehicles are much more energy efficient then ICE vehicles. Not only
is the propulsion system itself much more efficient, but energy loses through the
transmission and idling simply do not exist. Because there is no transmission,
acceleration is "seamless"; no jerking or noise....just nice and smooth.

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Benefits of Electric Vehicles (including electric buses)

An electric vehicle has many advantages over vehicles utilizing an internal combustion
engine. An electric vehicle is very clean. There are no gaseous emissions. Also eliminated
are other problem pollutants such as oil, transmission fluid and radiator fluid. In some
EV's, the only hydrocarbon based substance used is the grease which lubricates bearings.
 Electric vehicles are very simplistic. The
propulsion system in an ICE vehicle has hundreds of moving parts. An electric vehicle's
propulsion system has but one: the electric motor. In addition to reducing maintenance
costs and saving on lubricants and oils, the reduction in friction losses contributes to the
energy efficiency of electric vehicles.

Electric vehicles are very energy efficient. For every 100 units of fuel that are expended
in an ICE vehicle, only 16 actually result in propulsion. An electric vehicle, however, will
use almost 85 units out of 100 for driving the vehicle.

Electric vehicles have another significant advantage over ICE vehicles: regenerative
braking. When an electric vehicle is slowing down, the motor becomes a generator and
provides energy to the batteries. An additional benefit of this process is the braking effect
of the motor on the vehicle, thereby reducing brake wear.

An electric vehicle is very quiet. The problem for engineers designing these vehicles
becomes one not of muffling the motor but rather trying to quiet the noise of other
systems such as the air conditioning, power steering or air compressors.

Most electric vehicles do not utilize a transmission. The motors are usually single speed
and acceleration is smooth, no bump or jolt like transmissions in today's vehicles.

An electric vehicle can be recharged at home, saving a stop at a gas station. The only
downside to this is the time it takes to fully recharge an "empty" battery. In some cases
this could be as long as 6 hours. Charger technology is rapidly improving and it is
currently possible to recharge an "empty" battery to 80% full as quickly as 20 minutes.

The main obstacle facing electric vehicles today is the energy storage capability of
batteries. The capacity of the battery limits the range that the vehicle can travel. Many
different types of batteries are being tested for use in electric vehicles. These include
lead-acid, nickel-cadmium, nickel iron, nickel zinc, nickel metal hydride, sodium nickel
chloride, zinc bromine, sodium sulfur, lithium, zinc air and aluminum air. These
advanced batteries, although much more expensive, will in time enable an electric
vehicle to achieve the same range that today's fossil fueled vehicles can travel.

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The Drive System

An Electric Vehicle's drive system performs the same functions as that of a vehicle
powered by an internal combustion engine. The drive system is that part of the EV which
transmits mechanical energy to the traction wheels causing the EV to move. The
components used in an EV are very different from a standard vehicle. In an EV, a
transmission is not necessary. A transmission in a standard vehicle is used to give the
vehicle a certain torque or power at certain speeds by changing the gear input/output
ratio within the transmission. The change in gear ratio is governed by the speed(RPM)
that the vehicle's power plant, or engine, is turning. Because there is a mechanical shift
from one set of gears to another, a jolt is usually felt by passengers as speed is increased
or decreased and the transmission shifts to larger or smaller gears.

EV's utilize an electric motor to turn the wheels of the vehicles. There are several
different drive system designs in use today. These include vehicles with a single large
electric motor coupled to the rear wheels through a differential housing. Other designs
utilize two smaller motors to power each wheel separately through independent drive
shafts.

The most efficient design to date utilizes motors which are attached directly to the wheel.
These are referred to as "wheel motors". By eliminating driveshafts and differentials,
mechanical losses between the motor and wheels are kept at a minimum.The power
system of an electric vehicle includes both the drive system and control system. The
controller delivers power to the motor from the batteries. The motor in turn delivers
power to move the vehicle to the drive wheels through a gearbox..

Electric motors convert electrical energy into mechanical energy. Two types of electric
motors are used in electric vehicles to provide power to the wheels. The direct
current(DC) motor and the alternating current(AC) motor. DC motors are comprised of
three main components:

1. A set of field coils around the perimeter of the motor that

creates the magnetic forces which provide torque.
2. A rotor or armature mounted on bearings that turns inside the magnetic field
created by the field coils.
3. A commutating device that reverses the magnetic forces and makes the armature
turn, producing the mechanical force used to turn the drive wheels.
An AC motor is similar to the DC motor in that it also has a set of field coils and a rotor
or armature, however since there is a continuous current reversal (alternating current), a
commutating device is not needed. At this point in development, neither motor can be
considered superior to the other. They both have advantages and disadvantages as listed
below.

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Electric Motor Comparison

AC Motor DC Motor
Single-speed transmission Multi-speed transmission
Light weight Heavier at equivalent power
Less expensive More expensive
95% Efficiency at full load 85-95% Efficiency at full load
More expensive controller Simple controller
Motor/controller/inverter more expensive Motor/controller less expensive
As shown in the comparison, an AC motor is less expensive than a DC motor, an AC
system is more expensive due to the cost of the complex electronics associated with the
AC inverter and motor controller. AC motors are the most commonly used motor in
home appliances and machine tools. These motors are very reliable and because they
contain a single moving part, they should last the life of the vehicle with little or no
maintenance. Typical motor characteristics are listed in the table below.

Motor Characteristics
DC Brush Brushless DC Permanent AC
Type Magnet Induction
Peak efficiency 85-89 95-97 94-95
Efficiency at 10% Load 80-87 73-82 93-94
Max. RPM 4,000-6,000 4,000-10,000 9,000-15,000
Cost per shaft Hp $100-150 $100-130 $50-75
Relative Cost of Controller to DC Brush
1 3-5 6-8
Type
1 Hp = 746 Watts
The electric vehicle controller is the device which operates between the batteries and the
motor to control speed and acceleration. The controller transforms the battery's DC
current into alternating current for the AC motors or simply regulates current flow for
DC motors. The controller can also reverse the field coils of the motor so that when in a
braking mode, the motor becomes a generator and energy is put back into the batteries.
This is known as regenerative braking and over the course of a single charge can return
as high as 10% or more of the energy consumed by the drive system to the batteries.

Back to top
One of the well publicized benefits of an EV is regenerative braking. Regen braking is
common on nearly all vehicles now, yet few people seem to realize what happens. The
following paragraph is an attempt to explain how it works.

In the circuit shown above is an output pair of MOSFETs Metal Oxide Semiconducting
Field Effect Transistors), with the motor being driven. The output from the controller is
a pure d.c. voltage. The motor will generate a back e.m.f. which is proportional to its
speed of rotation. At zero load, or no acceleration, this back e.m.f. will rise to be equal to
the output from the controller.

The MOSFET is a bi-directional switch which conducts resistively (when it is turned on)
for both directions of current. So consider the situation when the current is zero and the
controller's output is now reduced. The motor's back e.m.f. is now higher than the
controller's output voltage - so the motor will try and feed current back into the
controller. If it succeeds in so doing the motor will be braked - we will have regenerative
braking.

This type of circuit (where hi-side is turned on when the low-side is off) is capable of
sourcing current or sinking it. The way this works is that the reversed motor current is
now a forward current to the flywheel MOSFET so when this is on it shorts out the motor
- whose braking current rises during this period (arrow B, reversed). The Flywheel
MOSFET now turns off, but this current must keep flowing - because of the motor's
inductance. So it flows as reverse current through the drive MOSFET, recharging the
battery as is does so. The extra voltage for this is derived from the energy stored in the
motor's inductance. The process of switching from drive to braking is entirely automatic.
Moreover it is done entirely by the motor's speed exceeding the drive voltage and
without any change of state or switching within the controller. The regen braking is, if
you like, a by-product of the design of the controller and almost a complete accident.

If the vehicle is driven down too steep a hill (or the demand speed is suddenly reduced so
that very hard braking results) the current generated by the motor could exceed that
which the MOSFETs can safely handle. Since this would blow the MOSFETs it must be
protected against so all controllers that give regenerative braking are also fitted with a
current limit to stop such failure.

In Hybrid Electric Vehicles this problem becomes even more complex because of the
unused current from the auxiliary power source. Since the drive motors are not drawing
current from the auxiliary power source, that current still must have some place to go.
The motor controller should monitor and take into account the excess current from the
auxiliary power source, so that in certain situations where too much current is present
with regen and APU operating, the regen MOSFET must also be turned off. to protect the
motor controller.

In early version of electric vehicles with DC motors, a simple variable resistor type
controller governed the acceleration and speed of the vehicle. Full current and power
was drawn from the battery all of the time. At lower speeds, when little power was
needed, high resistance was used to reduce the current to the motor. This resulted in a
large percentage of the battery's energy being wasted as heat dissipated by the resistor.
Modern controllers adjust speed and acceleration by and electronic process called pulse
width modulation(PWM). Switching devices such as IGBT's(very fast, high current rated
transistors) rapidly interrupt, turning on or off as needed, the flow of electricity to the
motors. High power is achieved when the intervals(time between pulses) are very short.
By increasing the time between pulses, the current is limited.

The wheel motor shown above is manufactured by Technologies M4.

As mentioned above, one of the more interesting designs for motors is to integrate the
motor directly into the wheel. These are called wheel motors and may very well become
the norm someday as they remove a tremendous amount of mechanical devices from the
vehicle by providing propulsion to the wheel...in the wheel!

The motor-wheel assembly is an elegant integration of an electric motor and other

components into a package that fits inside a regular-size tire.
The motor-wheel assembly consists of a highly efficient electric motor, a Motor-Wheel
Slave Controller (MWSC) including power and control electronics, a brake, wheel
bearings, a steerable front suspension interface and a heat sink embedded in the stator.
The configuration of the 3-phase synchronous motor consists of a central stator which
supports the windings and the inverter, surrounded by an external rotor which supports
the permanent magnets.

The wheel is directly mounted on the rotor for direct transmission of torque and
enhanced freewheeling. The motor assembly is liquid-cooled to sustain high continuous
power demands.

Bus manufacturers will appreciate the packaging advantages and interchangeability of

the motor-wheel rear axle, which easily fits within existing wheel housings. The axle
deep-offset cross member enables a wider floor aisle area in the low-floor configuration.

Selecting a motor for use in an EV involves many variables. No single type of motor can
be considered as the best. When an EV is being designed, questioned must be answered
before selecting a specific type of motor. How much power do you need, do you need
variable speeds, what is the operating voltage of the battery system, what kind of torque
do you need and at what speed, how much physical space can the motor occupy, how
much can it cost, what type of environment will the motor be operating in? Once these
questions are answer, you can make your motor selection. Once the motor has been
identified, a control system must be designed to make the motor functional.

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Control Systems
The most complex and important system in an EV is the control system. The control system is responsible
for governing the operation of the electric vehicle. The control system receives inputs from the operator,
Controllerfeedback signals from the motor controller and motor and also feedback signals from other
systems within the EV. The speed at which the control system must receive data from other systems, process
the data in an algorithm and output a response to the given conditions must be accomplished in milli-
seconds. This requires the control system to have a microprocessor, just like a computer, to accomplish its
tasks. Though no two control systems are identical, most of the feedback signals are similar. The table below
lists common components of a control system and the feedback signals that are sent to the microprocessor.
Component Feedback Signal
Electric Motor(s) Winding temperature
Rotor Speed (RPM)
Battery Voltage
Output Current
Temperature
Motor Controller Current (and direction of current)
Voltage
A motor controller. Temperature
 Leakage Current
Accelerator Pedal Voltage as a function of pedal position
Shift Selector FWD/REV
Range Selection
The control system must continuously monitor the feedback signals listed above. For
instance, if the temperature of the windings in the motor gets too hot, the magnetic
properties of that motor can be permanently altered or the windings may melt. By
feeding a signal back to the microprocessor, the control system can limit the output of
the motor if it senses a temperature rise. The same limiting or shutdown of any system
can take place if an undesirable condition is or has occurred. Other feedback signals give
information to the microprocessor to control the speed of the vehicle. The accelerator
pedal functions in much the same way as conventional vehicles. As the pedal is
depressed, an increasing signal voltage(not traction battery voltage) is sent to the
microprocessor which instructs the motor controller to increase the amount of current in
the motor windings, causing the motor to spin faster. As the signal voltage from the
accelerator pedal is decreased, the motor spins slower.

In some advanced control systems, it is possible to limit the amount of current that flows
to the motor, based on a switch selection. This allows the operator to adjust to a driving
style that fits a particular situation. For instance, if a driver needs a certain range(in
miles) from a single charge, the range selection can be set so that the microprocessor will
limit the amount of output current from the motor controllers to a preset limit. If the
preset limit is 100 amps, the microprocessor will not allow any current above this limit to
flow to the motors. In this mode, acceleration ability is sacrificed for range. If the driver
is in an area where the vehicle must climb steep grades, the range selector can be set so
that the maximum current capability of the motor controller and motor can be used. The
range selection feature is a valuable feature that adds to the efficiency of the motor
controller. The ultimate goal of a control system is to maximize the energy stored within
the traction battery and to prevent unsafe conditions from occurring within the electric
vehicle.

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Battery Systems
An electric vehicle's battery defines the range, acceleration
ability and recharge time for the vehicle. Because the battery
contains the energy to fuel an electric vehicle, and because
today's batteries do not provide electric vehicles with the same
range potential as ICE vehicles, batteries, and alternative
options such as flywheels and ultra capacitors, are the most
heavily studied areas in electric Battery cellvehicle technology.
An electric vehicle's battery,
with cells visible.
A battery cell normally consists of the 4
principal components shown at the left.
A cell contains a positive and negative
electrode, electrolyte, and a separator.
The positive electrode receives electrons
from the external circuit when the cell is
discharged. The negative electrode
donates electrons to the external circuit
as the cell discharges. The electrolyte
provides a mechanism for charge to flow
between positive and negative
electrodes. The separator electrically
isolates the positive and negative
electrodes.
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How Does a Cell Work?

When a battery or cell is inserted into a circuit, it completes
a loop which allows charge to flow uniformly around the
circuit. In the external part of the circuit, the charge flow is
electrons resulting in electrical current. Within the cell, the
charge flows in the form of ions, that are transported from
one electrode to the other. The flow is due to reduction and
oxidation reactions that occur at each electrode. For every
electron generated in an oxidation reaction at the negative
electrode, there is an electron consumed in a reduction
reaction at the positive electrode. The discharge reaction at
the positive electrode, which has a potential of 1.685 volts,
is given by:

The reaction at the negative electrode, which has a

Electron flow, reduction and oxidation
potential of .356 volts, is given by:
reaction, cutaway view.

This means that the overall voltage of a lead-acid cell is 2.04 volts. This value is known as
the standard electrode potential. Other factors, such as acid concentration can also affect
the voltage of a lead-acid cell. The typical open circuit voltage(no load condition) is
around 2.15 volts.

While the voltage of a cell is fixed by its chemistry, cell capacity is variable depending on
the quantity of active materials it contains. Individual cells may range from fractions of
an ampere-hour to thousands of ampere-hours. The capacity of a cell is essentially the
number of electrons that can be obtained from it. Since current is the number of
electrons per unit time, cell capacity is the current supplied by a cell over time and is
given in ampere-hours.

EV applications require a tremendous amount of energy. The traction battery on electric

vehicles consists of many cells that are connected electrically to meet the necessary
energy storage capacity. Batteries can be wired together in a series configuration or a
parallel configuration.

In a series configuration, the negative terminal of one battery is

connected to the positive terminal of the next and so on until the desired voltage and
energy capacity of the battery are met. The total pack voltage is can be found by
multiplying the number of batteries in the circuit by the individual cell voltage.

In a parallel configuration, the positive on one battery is connected to the positive on the
next and the same goes for the negative terminal. In this case, you can reach your desired
energy storage Parallel batterycapacity, but the total pack voltage is equal to the voltage
of the individual cell. The battery system consists of more than just a battery. There are a
host of other components within this system that monitor every pertinent variable about
the battery and recharging method.

The battery system consists of more than just a battery. There

are a host of other components within this system that monitor every pertinent variable
about the battery and recharging method.

Many different battery types are in use in electric vehicles today. The most common
batteries in use today are flooded lead-acid, sealed gel lead-acid, Nickel Cadmium (Ni
Cad) and Nickel Metal Hydride (NiMH).Battery types, sizes and configurations cover a
wide variety of options. When an EV manufacturer is in the design process, several
questions must be answered before the battery selection is made. This would include
questions such as how much space is available for the batteries, how much can they
weigh, what is the desired range, what is the weight of the vehicle, what is the targeted
vehicle cost, how will the batteries be recharged and what kind of drive system
requirements are needed. These are necessary questions because of the variety of battery
types available and the differences between them. The chart below lists the
characteristics of the most common types of batteries.

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Performance of Vehicle Battery Systems

Each specific type of battery has characteristics which make it either more or less
desirable to use in a specific application. Cost is always a major factor and the NiMH
battery tops the list in price with flooded lead acid batteries being the most inexpensive.
What is lost in the cost translation is the fact that NiMH batteries yield nearly twice the
performance (energy density per weight of the battery) than do conventional lead acid
batteries. Another factor that must be considered when making a battery comparison is
the recharge time. Lead acid batteries require a very long recharge period, as long as 6 to
8 hours. Lead acid batteries, because of their chemical makeup, cannot sustain high
current or voltage continuously during charge. The lead plates within the batteries heat
rapidly and cool very slowly. Too much heat results in a condition known as "gassing"
where hydrogen gas is released from the battery's vent cap. Over time, gassing reduces
the effectiveness of the battery and also increases the need for battery maintenance.
Batteries such as NiCad and NiMH are not as susceptible to heat and can be recharged
very quickly, allowing for high current or high voltage charges which can bring the
battery from a 20% state of charge to an 80% state of charge in as quick as 20 minutes.
Energy Density Power Density Cost on scale of 1 to
Battery Type Life Cycles Per Battery
Whr/kg W/kg 10
Current Lead Acid 35 150 500 1
Advanced Lead Acid 48 150 800 3
GM Ovonic NiMH 70 220 >600 8
SAFT NiMH 70 150 1,500 8
SAFT lithium ion 120 230 600 9
Lithium polymer 150 350 <600 10
Zebra sodium-nickel
86 150 <1000 4
chloride
Impact on Vehicle Life Cycle Cost, Initial Cost,
Range Acceleration
performance Replacement Cost Replacement Cost
The overall battery pack voltage varies from one vehicle to another. Discussions are
currently in progress with EV manufacturers in an attempt to standardize a vehicle's
nominal battery voltage. EV visionaries hope to have vehicle recharging stations
available in parking lots throughout a city. If EV's have a set battery pack voltage range,
all vehicles would be able to use the same chargers. Battery charger manufacturers are
currently developing "smart" chargers that are microprocessor based. The "smart"
charger would access the particular vehicle's data bank, and be able to regulate the
charge accordingly.

New technology battery systems are also driven by a microprocessor. The

microprocessor receives data from sensors within the battery pack. Temperature, current
output, battery voltage and fault detection are all fed back to the microprocessor which
can then calculate how much energy is remaining in the battery as well as how much has
been consumed. Monitoring the temperature and the resistance to the vehicle's ground
protects both the battery pack and the passengers from danger.

Battery configurations also vary greatly depending on the vehicle and the desired
redundancy of the system. Battery packs can be tied together in one long series circuit so
that the total pack voltage is the sum of all the cells in the series. Other systems use
multiple packs that are of equal voltage and parallel the multiple packs. This provides
redundancy to the system. If a cell goes bad in a single pack, the battery management
system can disable the output from that pack and the vehicle can continue to be driven
off of the remaining battery packs. The vehicle will lose the energy from the faulty pack
and range will be affected.

Shown to the left is a battery pack consisting of 27 individual 2 volt cells,

in a series circuit configuration to form a pack with a voltage of 54 volts.

Factors that influence battery selection for specific applications:

For pure electric vehicles, battery selection is a primarily a function of energy density.
Energy density is defined as the amount of energy stored in a cell or battery as a function
of the weight or volume. The ideal battery would therefore be the battery that yields the
most energy, occupies the smallest space and weighs the least(disregarding cost). The
most promising battery technologies available today are Lead-Acid(Pb-acid), nickel
cadmium(NiCd), nickel metal hydride(NiMH), lithium polymer and lithium ion
batteries. A comparison of energy densities is shown in the chart above. There are many
factors besides energy density that influence the type of battery selected for use in an
electric vehicle. These include cost, cycle life(the number of charge-discharge cycles
before the capacity diminishes from the original 100% to 80%), fast or rapid charge time
and specific power(the maximum load current the battery can provide for a very short
duration). Another criteria for selecting a battery type that is closely related to energy
density is a battery's specific energy.

Specific energy is energy density as a function of time measured in watt-hours per unit
mass. Specific energy is important because it affects the number of batteries necessary in
a particular application, and in turn the mass or weight of the batteries that a vehicle
needs to carry on-board to end up with a certain electric-only range. It is the most
important factor for EVs because it determines their total range, but not as critical for
HEVs which carry the majority of their energy in the form of a gaseous or liquid fuel.
Instead, for HEVs, a battery's specific power becomes the critical parameter in selecting
a battery.

Since HEVs utilize

two different energy sources, energy demands from the batteries are much less than in
EVs. Because hybrids normally only depend on the electrical energy stored on-board to
provide power for acceleration and hill climbing, batteries are sought that have a high
specific power rating and less mass. Specific power, is power per unit mass, so the ability
of the battery to enable high current draws for short durations with less weight is the
desired goal for HEVs. Shown at right is a chart which compares specific power between
battery types. No information was available for the lithium batteries at this time.

Battery chargers replenish the energy used by an electric vehicle

much like a gasoline pump refills a gas tank. One significant difference is that an electric
vehicle operator can fully charge the vehicle overnight, at home, rather than refueling at
a gasoline station. The battery charger is a device which converts the alternating current
distributed by electric utilities to the direct current needed to recharge the battery.

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Battery Memory

It is often heard that batteries have memory. When "memory" is talked about in the
same sentence with batteries, it means a battery has failed to produce it's stated capacity.
If a battery has a stated capacity of 100 amp-hours, and the cutoff voltage is consistently
reached when only 80% or 80 amp-hours has been consumed after having been charged
it is often referred to as the memory effect. There are many opinions as to whether or not
batteries have memory. The use of the term "memory" to describe the loss of capacity is
likely the source of the confusion. A battery's performance can be consistently poor,
having a discharge capacity within 2% to 3% during each discharge cycle. But batteries
do not get that way from "memory". They are several different causes of this poor
performance, and generally it is the battery's caretaker who is responsible for this effect.

Some of the more common causes of performance problems that are attributed to the
"memory" effect are;

1. Improper charging, i.e., consistently overcharging or undercharging

2. Exceeding battery temperature thresholds during charging or discharging

So what has happened to the battery that is experiencing a "memory" effect? Because of
the different types of batteries and chemicals involved, there is no single generic term
that can be applied that describes what causes the poor performance in all batteries.
However, what is known is that high temperatures alter the molecular structures of the
chemicals involved, which can lead to a higher internal resistance within the battery
which leads to voltage depression. Undercharging can lead to a buildup of lead sulfate on
the plates of lead-acid batteries which also increases the internal resistance of the battery
because currents become constricted and cannot flow through the full surface area of the
plates. Overcharging can have the same effect that high temperature has, altering the
crystal structures of the chemicals within the battery.

Can the battery's "memory" be erased? In most cases the answer is "yes". By proper
execution of several charge/discharge cycles, the memory effect can be destroyed and the
battery capacity will return to it's original value. In some cases, however, if a battery has
been poorly maintained for an extended period of time(months), it is possible that
permanent damage has occurred and the life and capacity of the battery is defined and
cannot be corrected.

Types of Charging

There are a number of different types of battery chargers based on the way they control
the charging rate.
Constant Voltage

A constant voltage is applied and the current flows into the battery (the highest current
occurs when the battery has been fully discharged and steps down to a low current when
the battery is nearly charged.) Electronics on constant voltage charges is relatively
simple, therefore, these types of chargers tend to be less expensive.

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Combination Constant Current/Constant Voltage

The charge cycle starts with a high constant current until the voltage reaches a set value,
then changes to a constant voltage control. This is the most sophisticated of the basic
types of battery chargers and generally increases the life of a battery by reducing heat
during the charging process. These chargers also tend to increase battery performance.

Pulse Charging

One of the advanced charging methods currently being evaluated eliminates the practice
of requiring constant current and/or constant voltage by "pulsing" voltage. A series of
very high current and voltage pulses are applied until the battery voltage reaches a set
value. The major advantage of a pulse charger is the significant reduction in heat which
allows the charger to operate at a high voltage rate even when the battery is almost full.
Additionally, the reduction in heat results in a reduction in "lost" energy. Thus, pulse
charging can significantly reduce charging time and are more energy efficient.

While there are many types of battery chargers available, the vehicle manufacturer will
supply or recommend the proper charger for the batteries in the electric vehicle.

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Charger Location/Coupling Options

Electric vehicle battery chargers may be onboard (in the electric vehicle) or offboard (at a
fixed location). As with many options, there are advantages and disadvantages with both
types. If the battery charger is onboard, the batteries can be recharged anywhere there is
an electric outlet. The drawback with onboard chargers is the limitation in their power
output because of size and weight restrictions dictated by the vehicle design. Offboard
charges are limited in their power output only by the ability of the batteries to accept the
charge. While the EV owner can shorten the time it takes to recharge the batteries with a
high-power, offboard charger, the flexibility to charge at different locations is restricted.

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Charging Methods
 There are two basic coupling
methods used to complete the connection between the utility power grid, the battery
charger, and the vehicle connector. The first is the traditional plug (called conductive
coupling). With this connection, the EV operator plugs his vehicle into the appropriate
outlet (i.e. 110 or 220 volts) to begin charging. This type of coupling can be used with the
charger in the car (onboard) or out of the car (offboard).

The second type of coupling is called inductive coupling. This type of coupling uses a
paddle which fits into a socket on the car. Rather than transferring the power by a direct
wire connection, power is transferred by induction, which is a magnetic coupling
between the windings of two separate coils, one in the paddle, the other mounted in the
vehicle.

Inductive Charging

The inductive charger has no direct electrical connection to the

vehicle. A weatherproof paddle transfers power to the vehicle’s charge port via magnetic
field . The Delco off-vehicle chargers provides a safe and easy-to-use system for EV
charging. Inserting the charge coupler is all that is required to initiate charging.
Charging can be terminated at any time by removing the coupler. Bi-directional
communication and built-in diagnostics ensure a safe connection and prevent the vehicle
from being driven while connected.
Conductive Charging

With a conductive charger, energy is transferred to the vehicle via metal-to-metal

contact. A connector, such as the AVCON (left), safely performs the link between a power
supply and the vehicle’s charge port.

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Charge Levels

Chargers are also classified by the level of power they can provide to the battery pack:

Level 1 - Common household type of circuit, rated to 120 volts/AC and rated to 15 amps.

Level one chargers use the standard household 3-prong connection and they are usually
considered portable equipment.

Level 2 - Permanently wired electric vehicle supply equipment used specially for electric
vehicle charging and it is rated up to 240 volts/AC, up to 60 amps, and up to 14.4
kilowatts.

Level 3 - Permanently wired electric vehicle supply equipment used specially for electric
vehicle charging and it is rated greater than 14.4 kilowatts. Fast chargers are rated as
Level 3 chargers. However, not all Level 3 chargers are considered as fast chargers. This
depends on the size of the battery pack to be charged and how much time is required to
charge the battery pack. A charger can be considered a fast charger if it is capable of
charging an average electric vehicle battery pack in 30 minutes or less.

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Battery Management

With so many differences in chargers and charging

methods, there existed a need to monitor the status of the batteries being charged and
discharged. Battery Management Systems (BMS) have been developed which are
microprocessor controlled allowing charge algorithms to be programmed into the system
for virtually all the different battery types. These systems monitor the energy consumed
by the vehicle while being driven, as well as temperature, individual cell voltages and
total pack voltage. The same process is monitored in reverse during charging creating a
safety net in the event of problems with a single cell within the battery pack.
With existing electric vehicles and battery chargers, it usually takes from several hours to
overnight to recharge an electric vehicle battery pack. The time required to recharge
electric vehicle batteries depends on the total amount of energy that can be stored in the
battery pack, and the voltage and current (i.e., power) available from the battery charger.

New developments in battery recharging decreases the time required to recharge electric
vehicle batteries to as little as 10-15 minutes. For example, pulse battery chargers have
demonstrated that the EV battery pack can be recharged in under 20 minutes without
damaging it. When this technology is fully deployed, electric charging stations, similar to
gas stations, will allow the electric vehicle operator to quickly recharge the battery pack.

This new charger technology, coupled with advanced batteries with a range of 200 miles
between recharging, will allow the electric vehicle operator the same freedom of the road
currently enjoyed by today's operators of gasoline-powered vehicles.

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Accessories (Power windows, heating, air, power steering, etc.)

An EV maintains the same accessory functions as a vehicle utilizing an internal

combustion engine. These accessories include radios, lights, heating and air
conditioning, power steering, and for larger vehicles such as trucks and buses, an air
system. However, the manner in which these devices obtain power is very different. A
combustion engine is equipped with a generator for 12 volt power. The engine cooling
system is the heat source for the vehicle. Air conditioning and power steering are
accomplished using a belt and pulley system which interfaces with a pump for the power
steering and a compressor for the air conditioning. Since electric vehicles do not utilize
an engine, alternative methods have been developed to work with EVs.

The 12 volt accessory system which supplies power to devices such as lights, radio,
windshield wiper and washer system, power windows and door locks or any other
electrical device on the vehicle consumes energy from the main traction battery. The
accessory system does not operate at the same voltage level as the traction system(the
system that provides power to the wheels), but is instead stepped down from a voltage
range of 324-216 volts DC to 12 volts DC though a device called a DC to DC converter.

There are several different methods that can be used to heat an electric vehicle. One of
the first methods used was known as "resistance" heating. Resistance heating is
accomplished using a heat element, similar to heat elements on a stove top or in the
oven. The heat element is warmed when electricity is applied, and a fan blows across the
element to disperse the heat. The disadvantages of this method included safety and
efficiency. Heat elements consume a large amount of energy. Other alternative methods
of heating included using heaters which burned a clean fuel such as liquid propane or
compressed natural gas. Cooling electric vehicles has been accomplished in the past
using standard air conditioning technology similar to window mount home air
conditioners. These air conditioners were effective though inefficient. Recent
developments in power electronics has enabled vehicle manufacturers to place an
efficient reversible heat pump, one that can cool or heat, into electric vehicles.

Power steering on an electric vehicle is accomplished by adding a single speed DC motor

and a motor controller. The motor is coupled to the power steering pump through gears
or a belt and pulley system. The motor controller's job is to keep the motor spinning at a
constant speed under varying loads. The air system on large trucks and buses utilizes this
same methodology with the DC motor turning the shaft of an air compressor. What is
important to realize here is that the DC motors will only come on and stay on if the
vehicle needs air or power steering. If the vehicle is stopped, power steering is not
needed and the power steering motor will shut off. Whenever the air tanks are full, that
motor will also shut off.

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