Earthquake

-One of nature’s greatest hazards to life and property

-Strong earthquakes at a certain location only occurs once every 50-100 years.
How Earthquakes happen?
a) Tectonic Plates
b) Volcanic Activity
c) Conventional and Nuclear Explosion
d) Sliding/Fall of Large soil/rock mass
e) Meteorite impact
f) The filling of reservoirs
The earthquakes produced by volcanic activity, a soil or rock mass collapse, a
conventional explosion, a meteorite impact, or the filling of reservoirsand wells are,
for the most part, of a relatively small size and affect only an area of limi ted extent.
Earthquakes generated by a nuclear explosion may be strong, but the factors that
generate these earthquakes are known and may be controlled. In contrast, the
earthquakes generated by tectonic forces may be exceptionally large and may
affect a large geographical region at once. In fact, most of the catastrophic
earthquakes that have occurred through historical times have been of the tectonic
type.

PLATE TECTONICS THEORY

Developed in the 1960's, plate tectonics is the theory that the earth's lithosphere
(outer rigid shell) is composed of several dozen "plates", or pieces, which float on a ductile
mantle. Plates are combinations of two units, continents and ocean basins. A plate may
be an ocean basin alone, or a continent alone, or a combination of ocean basin and
continent (common). Varying between 0 to 100mm per year, the movement of a plate is
driven by convection in the underlying hot and viscous mantle. Hot material near the
Earth's core rises, and colder mantle rock sinks. The convection drive plates tectonics
through a combination of pushing and spreading apart at mid-ocean ridges and pulling
and sinking downward at subduction zones. Scientists continue to study and debate the
mechanisms that move the plates. Tectonic plates are subdivided into major (or primary)
plates and minor (or secondary) plates.

Major Plates
A major plate is any plate with an area greater than 20
million km².
1. Pacific Plate – 103,300,000 km²
2. North American Plate – 75,900,000 km²
3. Eurasian Plate – 67,800,000 km2
4. African Plate – 61,300,000 km²
5. Antarctic Plate – 60,900,000 km²
6. Indo-Australian Plate – 58,000,000 km²
Often considered two plates:
a. Australian Plate – 47,000,000 km²
b. Indian Plate – 11,900,000 km²
7. South American Plate – 43,600,000 km²
Minor Plates
A minor plate is any plate with an area less than 20 million
km² but greater than 1 million km².
1. Somali Plate – 16,700,000 km²
2. Nazca Plate – 15,600,000 km²
3. Philippine Sea Plate – 5,500,000 km²
4. Arabian Plate – 5,000,000 km²
5. Caribbean Plate – 3,300,000 km²
6. Cocos Plate – 2,900,000 km²
7. Caroline Plate – 1,700,000 km²
8. Scotia Plate – 1,600,000 km²
9. Burma Plate – 1,100,000 km²
10. New Hebrides Plate – 1,100,000 km²
 Convection Currents
Many geologists believe that the mantle "flows" because of convection currents.
Convection currents are caused by the very hot material at the deepest part of the
mantle rising, then cooling, sinking again and then heating, rising and repeating
the cycle over and over. When the convection currents flow in the mantle they also
move the crust. The convection currents in the mantle moves the plates of the
Earth.

PLATE BOUNDARIES: HOW DO PLATES MOVE?

Kinds of Plate Tectonic Boundaries:

 Divergent Boundary  it occurs when two tectonic plates move away from each
other. They are characterized by a rift in the surface of the earth along the mid-
ocean ridges that exist in all of the major ocean basins. The ridges are composed
of volcanic mountains that erupt basalt onto the surface of the ocean and by that
process create new oceanic crust. The almost constant eruption of basalt causes
each side of the ridge to cool, crystallize, and move away from the ridge. Each
pulse of basalt eruption causes the two sides of the rift zone to move a little farther
apart. The rate of plate creation at divergent boundaries varies between about 2
and 6 centimeters per year. The creation of oceanic crust and movement away
from the mid-ocean ridges is called seafloor spreading. The most common
processes occurring along divergent boundaries are volcanism and earthquakes.
Many divergent boundaries are formed when a continent rifts apart and a mid-
ocean ridge forms between the two halves of the continent.
Examples:
o Mid-Atlantic Ridge at Iceland  is a classic example of this type of plate
boundary. The Ridge is a high area compared to the surrounding seafloor
because of the lift from the convection current below. (A frequent
misconception is that the Ridge is a build-up of volcanic materials, however,
the magma that fills the fissure does not flood extensively over the ocean
floor and stack up to form a topographic high. Instead, it fills the fissure and
solidifies. When the next eruption occurs, the fissure most likely develops
down the center of the cooling magma plug with half of the newly solidified
material being attached to the end of each plate.
o East Africa Rift Valley  is a classic example of this type of plate boundary.
The East Africa Rift is in a very early stage of development. The plate has
not been completely rifted and the rift valley is still above sea level but
occupied by lakes at several locations. The Red Sea is an example of a
more completely developed rift. There the plates have fully separated and
the central rift valley has dropped below sea level.

 Convergent Boundary  it is a boundary where two separate plates are colliding

into each other. They are boundaries at which crust is destroyed by the subduction
of oceanic crust beneath continental crust or other oceanic crust. Convergent
boundaries contain the broadest array of geologic activities. The movement of
oceanic crust beneath another crustal plate results in heating of materials that are
dragged down with the plate and eventual partial melting of the material. The
resulting magma moves upward towards the surface of the plate boundary forming
intrusions or andesitic volcanic eruptions. Contact metamorphism occurs along the
boundaries of the magma bodies and intrusions. The convergence of plates also
results in increased pressure and stress that, along with burial, result in regional
metamorphism throughout the continental side of the convergent boundary. The
grade of metamorphism increases with depth in the crust. Regional metamorphism
also occurs in convergent boundaries in which oceanic crust is subducted under
other oceanic crust, but it occupies a smaller volume and tends to be higher
pressure and lower temperature, often called blueschist metamorphism. Mountain
building accompanied by folding and faulting is another important feature of
convergent boundaries.

3 Kinds of Convergent Boundary

 Oceanic to continental
At some convergent boundaries, an oceanic plate collides with a continental
plate. Oceanic crust tends to be denser and thinner than continental crust, so
the denser oceanic crust gets bent and pulled under, or subducted, beneath
the lighter and thicker continental crust. This forms what is called a subduction
zone. As the oceanic crust sinks, a deep oceanic trench, or valley, is formed at
the edge of the continent. Trenches are created as a result of erosion by rivers
or by geological movement of tectonic plates. A trench is a type of excavation
or depression in the ground that is generally deeper than it is, and narrow
compared to its length. The crust continues to be forced deeper into the earth,
where high heat and pressure cause trapped water and other gasses to be
released from it. This, in turn, makes the base of the crust melt, forming magma.
 Ocean to Ocean
When a convergent boundary occurs between two oceanic plates one of
those plates will subduct beneath the other. Normally the older plate will
subduct because of its higher density.
Example:
The South American Plate is moving westwards due to sea floor spreading
at the Mid Atlantic Ridge. Where it meets the Caribbean Plate, it descends
(subducts) beneath it. This is because the oceanic lithosphere of the South
American Plate is cooler and denser than that of the Caribbean Plate. As
the South American Plate descends, it drags against the overlying plate,
causing both to fracture and deform.
 Continent to continent
In this type of convergent boundary a powerful collision occurs. The two
thick continental plates collide and both of them have a density that is much
lower than the mantle, which prevents subduction.
Example:
The Himalayas were formed by the collision of the Indian and Eurasian
Plates. This process began after the breakup of Pangaea, when India
became an island continent and began traveling northward toward Asia.
 The island of India slammed into Asia about 40 to 50 million years ago near
modern-day Tibet, crushing and folding the plates to form the Himalayan
mountain range. Its best known peaks, Mount Everest and K2, are among
several that measure over 8,000 meters (26,000 feet) high at their summits.
Since the Indian Plate is continuing in its northward movement into Asia,
the Himalayas continue to grow higher each year by small amounts (5 to 20
mm or 1 inch per year).

 Transform Boundaries  the two plates slide against each other in a sideways
motion. As two plates slide past one another, in a transform boundary, neither plate
is added to at the boundary, nor destroyed. The result of two massive plates
pushing against one another is that massive amounts of energy build up.
Occasionally this energy is released suddenly in the form of large earthquakes.
Example:
San Andreas Fault The slice of California to the west of the fault is slowly
moving north relative to the rest of California. Since motion along the fault is
sideways and not vertical, Los Angeles will not crack off and fall into the ocean
as popularly thought, but it will simply creep towards San Francisco at about
6 centimeters per year. In about ten million years, the two cities will be side by
side.

Famous of Plate Tectonics Boundaries:

1. Cascades Volcanoes (C)
2. San Andreas Fault Zone (T)
3. Appalachian Mountain Range (C)
4. Caribbean Volcanic Arc (C)
5. Mid-Atlantic Ridge (D)
6. Andes Mountain Range (C)
7. Mid-Atlantic Ridge above sea level at
Iceland (D)
8. Red Sea (D)
9. East African volcanoes & lakes (D)
10. East African linear lakes (D)
11. Himalaya Range in India and Asia (C)
12. Kuril Islands- between Kamchatka &
Japan (C)
13. Aleutian Islands (C)
14. Alpine Fault- South Island, New Zealand (T)

FAULT
- A fault is a planar fracture or discontinuity in a volume of rock, across which there has
been significant displacement as a result of rock-mass movement.
- Most earthquakes are caused by energy released by rapid movement on active faults.
- They range in size from micrometers to thousands of kilometers in length and tens of
kilometers in depth, but they are generally much thinner than they are long or deep.

FAULT CLASSIFICATIONS
(According to Frequency of Movement)
1. Active faults  are structure along which we expect displacement to occur. By
definition, since a shallow earthquake is a process that produces displacement across a
fault, all shallow earthquakes occur on active faults.
2. Inactive faults  are structures that we can identify, but which do not have
earthquakes. As you can imagine, because of the complexity of earthquake activity,
judging a fault to be inactive can be tricky, but often we can measure the last time
substantial offset occurred across a fault. If a fault has been inactive for millions of years,
it's certainly safe to call it inactive. However, some faults only have large earthquakes
once in thousands of years, and we need to evaluate carefully their hazard potential.
3. Reactivated faults  form when movement along formerly inactive faults can help to
alleviate strain within the crust or upper mantle. (Deformation in the New Madrid seismic
zone in the central United States is a good example of fault reactivation. Structure formed
about 500 Ma ago are responding to a new forces and relieving strain in the mid-
continent.)

(According to Geometry of Faulting)

 Dip-slip Faults  occurs when the hanging wall moved predominantly up or down
relative to the footwall

1. NORMAL FAULT
- the crust is being pulled apart wherein the overlying (hanging-wall) block moves
down with respect to the lower (foot wall) block
- The Basin and Range Province in North America and the East African Rift Zone
are two well-known regions where normal faults are spreading apart Earth's crust.
 2. REVERSED/THRUST FAULT
- the crust is being compressed wherein the hanging-wall block moves up and over
the footwall block – reverse slip on a gently inclined plane is referred to as thrust
faulting.
- These faults are commonly found in collisions zones, where tectonic plates push
up mountain ranges such as the Himalayas and the Rocky Mountains.
 Strike-slip Faults  rocks are sliding past each other horizontally, with little to no
vertical movement
- Both the San Andreas and Anatolian Faults are strike-slip.

1. SINISTRAL STRIKE-SLIP FAULT

- the far side moves to the left (left-lateral)
2. DEXTRAL STRIKE-SLIP FAULT
- the far side moves to the right (right-lateral)
 Oblique-slip Fault  combination of dip-slip and strike-slip fault movements
- Example is the 1855 Wairarapa Fault rupture, which included both reverse and
dextral movement

MEGATHRUST EARTHQUAKE
- the most powerful earthquakes in the world
- occur at subduction zones at destructive convergent plate boundaries, where one
tectonic plate is forced underneath another
- Large sections of the two plates become locked together. Stress in the rocks builds up
storing energy in the rocks until they break creating great earthquakes that are often
magnitude 9.0 or higher.

- They have occurred in the Cascadia

Subduction Zone in the past and
scientists predict another will occur. The
2012 Chile Earthquake and the 2011
Japanese earthquakes were earthquake
megathrust events.
FORESHOCKS, MAIN SHOCKS & AFTERSHOCKS
- A foreshock is an earthquake that occurs before a
larger seismic event (the mainshock) and is related to
it in both time and space.
- An aftershock is a smaller earthquake that occurs
after a previous large earthquake, in the same area
of the main shock
- When any fault ruptures in an earthquake,
movement along the fault plane itself also stresses
and deforms the the surrounding crust. These stress
changes can often induce further smaller
earthquakes – aftershocks – that take the form of a
cloud of tremors that encompasses the initial rupture.
- If an aftershock is larger than the main shock, the
aftershock is redesignated as the main shock and the
original main shock is redesignated as a foreshock.
- An earthquake will be called an aftershock as long
as the rate of earthquakes is higher than it was before
the mainshock. For big earthquakes this might go on
for decades. Bigger earthquakes have more and
larger aftershocks.
- The designation of an earthquake as foreshock,
mainshock or aftershock is only possible after the full
sequence of events has happened.

SEISMIC WAVES  are elastic waves generated by an impulse such as an earthquake or an

explosion. They are the energy that travels through the earth and is recorded on seismographs.

Body Wave Surface Wave

- traveling through the interior of the earth - travelling only through the crust
- arrive before the surface waves - lower frequency than body waves
- has higher frequency than surface waves - almost enitrely responsible for the damage
and destruction associated with earthquakes
S-Waves P-Waves Rayleigh Waves Love Waves
- secondary wave - primary wave - rolls along the - fastest surface
- a.k.a. shear waves - a.k.a. compressional ground just like a wave wave
- 2nd to arrive at waves rolls across a lake or - moves the ground
siesmic stations - a.k.a. longitudinal an ocean from side-to-side
- 1.7 times slower waves - it moves the ground - produce entirely
than P waves - fastest kind of up and down, and horizontal motion
- shake the ground seismic wave side-to-side in the
perpendicular to the - 1st to arrive at same direction that the
direction in which they seismic stations wave is moving
are propagating - shake the ground in - Most of the shaking
- do not travel through the direction they are felt from an
liquid (ie. water, propagating earthquake is due to
molten rock, the - travel through the the Rayleigh wave
Earth's outer core) Earth's core