PETROLEUM REFINING PROCESSES

1.1 PHYSICAL SEPARATION PROCESSES

1.1.1 Background

In the evolution of petroleum industry after crude oil was discovered the first
process that got developed was fractional distillation of crude oil. This physical
separation process since then still remains the key process. Simple distillation,
cannot be applied in refining crude oil. Crude oil consists of many components
with boiling points covering a great range of temperatures. Each finished product
such as motor spirit or kerosene comprises a large number of components with
different boiling points. Each product therefore has a boiling range having an
initial boiling point (I.B.P.) and a final boiling point (F.B.P.). By simple
distillation one cannot avoid considerable overlapping of the boiling ranges of the
fractions. To obtain narrow fractions, fractional distillation using fractionating
columns has to be employed.

A mixture of two miscible liquids will start boiling at a temperature lying

somewhere between the boiling points of the components, depending on their
relative proportions in the mixture. Thus, for instance, by addition alcohol
(boiling point 78o C) to the water, the boiling point of the lowerer the boiling point
becomes. When such a mixture starts boiling, it is not only the more volatile of
the two components which evaporates, the vapour also contains the less volatile
component.

When a liquid consists of two components, each of these contributes its own
quotum to the total vapour pressure of the liquid, so that when boiling takes place
the pressure in the still is made up of two parts, one exerted by the vapour of the
first component, the other by the vapour of the second and, since the sum of these
partial pressures of the components is equal to atmospheric, the combined vapours
leave the liquid, that is to say, both of the components are able to evaporate at the
same time.

The Partial pressure of each component is principally dependent on the vapour

pressure of the component in a pure state, and on its proportion in the liquid
mixture, so that for the same proportion in the liquid the percentage in the vapour
will be highest for the component with the highest vapour pressure.

This can be expressed also by saying that the more valatile substance evaporates
more readily, so that its percentage in the vapour is greater than in the liquid.
Because the evaporated part of the liquid contains a higher percentage of the
lighter component than the original liquid, the remainder will necessarily contain
 a smaller percentage. Consequently, the boiling point of the remaining liquid will
be higher than that of the original liquid. This will be true as evaporation goes on,
so that longer the evaportion proceeds the higher boiling point of the remainder of
the liquid. Thus, for such a mixture there is no question of a constant boiling
temperature.

For petroleum products consisting of many components, with boiling points

covering a great range of temperatures, this phenomenon will be still more
pronounced. The boiling temperature will rise continuously from the temperature
at which the product starts boiling i.e. the initial boiling point (I.B.P.), up to the
temperature when the last remnant of liquid evaporates, i.e. the final boiling point
(F.B.P.). This boiling range will, of course, be a function of the boiling points of
all components present and their respective percentages in the mixture, but for a
long series of components the initial boiling point will be principally determined
by the components with the lower boiling points, while the final boiling point is
more exclusively a function of the heavier hydrocarbons. Thus, the boiling range
can be very wide.

1.1.2 Fractional Distillation

By simple distillation one cannot avoid considerable overlapping of the boiling

ranges of the fractions, because the lightest components remain partly in the
residue, while much heavier constituents are in the vapours. Consequently, the
I.B.P. of the residue is well below the F.B.P. of the distillate; moreover, the
boiling ranges of the products are by no means narrow.

To obtain narrow fractions, a more complicated process is required, based

principally on repeated distillation. Suppose a distillate is again partly evaporated:
the more volatile components, which were already more concentrated in the
distillate, than in the original, will again be more concentrated in the second
distillate. By repeating this procedure several times, eventually a fraction can be
produced consisting of the lightest constituents in a concentrated form. However,
the efficiency of separation is very low; only a small part of the light fractions is
obtained in this way, because at each evaporating stage, part of them is left behind
in the liquid.

In order to get a quantitative separation between the desired fractions, it is

necessary not only to effect evaporation in many successive stages but, moreover,
to return the residue of each stage into the preceding one, in which it is again
partly evaporated for purpose of driving out light fractions once more. As this
goes on continually, the final residue will eventually be freed from light fractions.
This process is called “rectification”.
1.1.3 Fractionating Columns

The crude oil which is being pumped to the furnace first passes through heat
exchangers, where it picks up heat from the outgoing vapours and residue. Before
it reaches the furnac, its temperature has risen to, say, 180o C. In the furnace, the
crude oil is heated to 340o -370o C, depending on the crude oil and on the residue
needed. The heated oil leaving the pipe still passes to the fractionating columns,
where the separation into fractions or “cuts” takes place. These columns are long
cylindrical vessels set up on end and fitted with a large number of trays of a
special type.

The mixture of vapour and liquid leaving the pipe still is led in at a point near the
bottom of one of these fractionating columns, where it rises gradually through the
vapour uptakes shown. As it rises it cools and a certain amount condenses on each
tray, until is kept just above the holes in the bubble-cap, so that all the vapour has
to pass through liquid, and at the same time liquid head is not very large in order
to avoid excessive pressure drops. It will be apparent that each tray is a little
cooler than the one below it and that, therefore, lighter and lighter products will
be present on each tray as the vapour passes up the column. As the vapours
bubble through the liquid on these trays, that part of the vapour will condense
which has the same boiling point as the liquid on the tray, and in addition any
light fractions present in the liquid on the tray will be re-evaporated. The
temperature throughout such a column is controlled at the bottom by the
temperature of the crude oil leaving the pipe still, and at the top by pumping back
a certain amount of the material which leave the top of the column after
condensing it (this distillate pumped back is termed “reflux”)

In this way, by controlling the temperature at the top and at the bottom, the
temperature variation throughout is kept under control, so that the temperature of
each tray garies gradually from the bottom of the column to the top. The amount
of liquid which is pumped back to the top of the column can be varied as required,
in order to give the correct temperature at the top of the column, which, in turn,
controls the final boiling point of the gasoline leaving at the top.

In most cases, improvement in fractionating efficiency is obtained by supplying

additional heat to the product in the bottom part of the fractionating column. This
is done by pumping the oil at the bottom of the column either through a furnace or
through a heat exchanger, where it is heated, and then back again over some
stripping trays in the column. Such an arrangement is referred to as a “reboiler’

1.1.4 Side -Strippers

Although each tray has the tendency to collect liquid of a small range of boiling
points, yet, on account of the complete range of vapours bubbling through any
one tray, a certain amount of material will condense which has a lower boiling
point than the bulk of the liquid on that tray. It is customary, therefore, to draw
 the liquid from a selected tray out of the main column into a small subsidiary
column called a “side stripper” and allow it to flow down through several bubble
trays. While passing over these trays, it meets an upward stream of steam, injected
at the bottom of the stripper, which boils off the lightest components and thus
narrows the boiling range. The vapours thus boiled off, together with the steam,
re-enter the main column.

Other means of supplying heat to side-strippers employ the roboiling principle,

hot residue being used as heat medium.

By using two or more of these side-strippers in conjunction with one main

column, streams of white spirit, kerosene and gas oil can be obtained direct from
the plant, without further distillation. This arrangement considerably simplifies
the production of the various grades of distillates and places the refiner in a
position to manufacture gasolines and the other products mentioned above of the
correct distillation range, without the necessity of redistillation.

1.1.5 Vacuum and Pressure Distillation

The heaviest fractions of crude oil requires such high temperatures to evaporate
them that cracking might occur. In order to avoid this, distillation is carried out
under vacuum, thus lowering the boiling point.

For the very light fractions, condensation of the vapours cannot be obtained at
atmospheric pressure and temperature, so that distillation is carried out under
pressure, which increases the boiling point and, consequently, the temperature at
which condensation can be obtained.

1.1.6 A Typical Crude Distillation Unit (CDU)

Having discussed the process of fractional distillation and fractionating columns

we now come to describe a typical crude distillation unit. Through the process of
evolution over the years various developments and improvements in the
equipment design have taken place. Bubble cap trays have been replaced by a
variety of other types such as sieve trays and “Calming section trays” which is a
proprietary shell device. Through application of “Calming section trays” Shell
claim a reduction of 15 to 20% in the column area compared with conventional
trays. Considerable improvements have been made in the design and construction
of furnaces. The conventional furnaces have been superseded by vertical types
with vastly improved combustion equipment such that excess air as low as 5% is
now possible compared to 25-30% excess air in older furnaces. With escalating
price of petroleum, waste heat recovery through improved heat exchange has
assumed a great significance. In the latest design, therefore, has the heat transfer
area as well as the configuration of heat exchanger trains. Last but not the least
the advent of microprocessors has lead to process control and process
optimization using online programmable logic controllers.
 A typical crude distillation unit can have a variety of configurations depending
upon the type of crude being processed, yield requirement etc. we give a Shell
design of a 2 column crude distillation unit integrated wit a gas tail and high
vacuum unit, to obtain a sharp separation, especially in the gas oil range a second
column has been provided which works under a moderate vacuum. The two-
column set-up is claimed to give a gain in heavy gas oil yield of 1% wt. On crude
compared to a one-column system, at virtually the same cost.

The crude oil is first processed through a desalter which is a standard feature in all
crude units. Sodium and Magnesium Chlorides carried in the crude, dissociate as
the temperature of the crude goes up there by releasing HCL in the system. This
leads to corrosion. The crude is therefore, desalted. The crude after being pre-
heated in heat exchangers goes to the preflash vassel. While the flashed vapours
go directly to the primary crude splitter the liquid is heated in the furnace to a
temperature around 250o C before entering this column. Apart from the top reflux
a number of circulating refluxes have been provided which exchange heat with
the crude oil in heat exchangers. The column tops are treated in a hydrotreater
bottoms go to gasoline splitter and top to deethanizer and finally to C3 –C4
splitter.

Kerosene and part of light gas oil is taken out as a side stream. The column
bottom is passed through a furnace, raised to a temperature of around 350o C
before entering the secondary crude splitter operates at slight vacuum. The top
product is the balance of the light gas oil, the sidestream is the heavy gas oil and
the bottom product is the long residue.

Long residue is heated to a temperature somewhat below 400o C before entering

the high vacuum column. Top product is a gas oil stream, first side stream is a
light waxy distillate which could be a feedstock for lube base and the second side
stream is heavy waxy distillate for cracking.

Amongst the physical separation processes, separation through fractional

distillation depends upon the difference in volatility of different components.
However when the volatility difference is too small other techniques would need
to be adopted, some of these processes are described here after in brief.

1.1.7 Extractive Distillation

The difference in volatility of the components to be separated is enhanced by the

addition of a solvent or an entrainer. The variation of distillation in which a
solvent of low volatility is used to enhance separation is called Extractive
Distillation. An example is the separation of butanes from butanes with furfural.
When a solvent of high volatility is added as an entrainer, the operation is called
azeotropic distillation is the production of high purity toluene using methy1
ketone as the entrainer and also distillation to produce anhydrous alcohol.
1.1.8 Absorption

Absorption is generally used to separate a higher-boiling constituent from other

components of a system of vapours and gases. The absorption medium is usually
an oil in the range of gas oil. Absorption is widely employed in the recovery of
natural gasoline from well gas and of vapours given off by storage tanks.
Absorption also obtains light hydrocarbons from many refining processes
(catalytic cracking, hydrocracking, coking etc.). The solvent oil may be heavy
gasoline, kerosenes, or even heavier oils. The absorbed products are recovered by
fractionating or steamstripping.

1.1.9 Adsorption

Adsorption is employed for about the same purpose as absorption; in the process
just mentioned natural gasoline may be separated from natural gas by adsorption
on charcoal. Adsorption is also used to remove undesirable colours from
lubricating oils, usually employing activated clay. The use of molecular sieves in
separating close boiling components deserves a special mention.

1.1.10 Filtration

Filtration after chilling is the usual method for removal of wax from waxy
distillates. The mixture of wax and adhering oil obtained from the press is frozen
and allowed to warm slowly so that the oil drains (sweats) from the cake thus
further purifying the cake.

1.1.11 Crystallization

Crystallization ranks as one of the oldest physical separation operations. By

means of crystallization. By means of crystallization, wax may be removed from
lubricating oil to yield crystalline and microcystalline waxes of low oil content.
Crystallization has also been applied in the separation of p-xylene from C8
aromatics in high purity in terephthalic acid manufacture.

1.1.12 Extraction

Extraction involves the removal of a component from a liquid by means of the

selective solvent action of another liquid. In the Edeleanu process liquid
sulphurdioxide is used to extract aromatics from kerosene pool, Liquid SO2
selectively dissolves the aromatics leaving behind the low aromatic content
kerosene as the finished products. The aromatic extract is then separated from
SO2 through rectification and SO2 recirculated. Extraction is a widely used
process in many application.
1.1.13 Lubricating Oil Base Stocks

An interesting application of some of these physical separation processes is in the

production of lubricating oil base stocks. A variety of cuts is obtained from
vacuum distillation of crude oil depending upon the grade of base stock required.
These distitillate cuts are then subjected to the following process steps:

a) The aromatic content in these cuts is required to be brought down for

improvement of viscosity index. This is achieved through liquid-liquid
extraction using phenol or furfural as a solvent for aromatics. The solvent is
recovered in the solvent recovery section and recirculated.

b) Next follows the step of solvent dewaxing. MEX or MIBK are generally used
as solvents. Filtration after chilling through vacuum filters is the usual route to
Wax removal.

c) Finally the low aromatic content dewaxed oil is subjected to clay treatment or
hydrotreatment, for colour improvement.

1.2 CONVERSION PROCESSES

When automobile industry was in its infancy, it became obvious that the
production of large quantities of straight run gasoline from crude distillation
would involve production of much larger quantities of residual fuels than the
market could absorb. The demand for gasoline thus spurred on scientists to look
for means of obtaining a higher yield of this product from crude oil. The cracking
process brought the desired solution. Thermal cracking was begun on a
commercial scale in the U.S.A. around the year 1913. Around the year 1946 Fluid
Catalytic Cracking (F.C.C.) process was developed.

Cracking is essentially a high temperature treatment which breaks up heavier or

large hydrocarbon molecules into small ones, often at the same time altering their
internal structure. There is not sufficient hydrogen in the large molecules to
supply the needs of the small molecules into which they crack. Cracked molecules
are, therefore, mainly unsaturated and because of this they polymerize tosome
extent as soon as they are formed the result is that heavier molecules are also
formed at the same time. The total product of the cracking of a heavy oil (residue)
therefore, contains gases, light hydrocarbons (gasoline) and hydrocarbons with
large molecules, heavier than the original oil, as well as fractions boiling within
the range of the oil which has been cracked.

Unlike the physical separation processes described earlier, in the conversion

processes the basic structure of the hydrocarbon molecules gets converted into a
different structure; hence the name. Numerous processes have been developed in
 petroleum refining and petrochemical industry to covert one hydrocarbon type
into another. Some of the basic conversions steps have been described below:

- Cracking or Pyrolysis: Cracking Pyrolysis involves breaking down of

large hydrocarbon molecules into smaller molecules by heat or
catalytic action. Zeolite catalysts are commonly used.

- Polymerization: Linking of similar molecules; the joining together of

light olefins.

- Alkylation: The union of an olefin with an aromatic for a paraffinic

hydrocarbon.

- Hydrogenation: Addition of hydrogen to an olefin.

- Dehydrogenation; Removal of hydrogen from the molecule.

Dehydrogenation of napthenes to produce aromatics is an important
refining process for naphtha reforming.

- Isomerization: Alteration of the arrangement of the atoms in a

molecule without changing the number of atoms of the numerous
conversation processes applied in petroleum refining the following
processes being important are described in detail:-

- Thermal cracking and Vis-breaking

- Catalytic cracking

- Hydrocracking

- H-oil cracking and other processes to upgrade residual fuel oils

- Naphtha reforming

1.2.1 Thermal Cracking

Thermal cracking is an attractive process for increasing the production of middle

distillates. Nowadays it is mainly applied in two forms, which can be
characterized as follows:-

[a] In a simple refinery, where additional naphtha and gas oil fractions need to be
produced, long residue (i.e. the fraction of crude boiling above about 350o C)
will usually be the feed available for thermal cracking. All or part of this feed
can be cracked to a varying degree of severity in a one or two-stage unit and
with or without a high vacuum unit, depending on a particular situation. Often
feedstock characteristics and product requirements are such that maximum
 severity of operation is desirable and possible. A varying degree of severity in
a one or two-stage unit and with or without a high vacuum unit, depending on
a particular situation. Often feedstock characteristics and product
requirements are such that maximum severity of operation is desirable and
possible. A varying degree of sophisticatication is conceivable for product
work-up section. Usually a maximum recovery of gas oil is aimed at and
therefore such units are named thermal gas oil units.

[b] In a complex refinery the straight run flashed distillate (boiling range between
350 and 500o C) is used as feedstock for the fluid catalytic cracker and /or
hydrocracker. The remaining short residue (fraction boiling above approx.
500o C) which invariably constitutes the bulk of the residual fuel oil pool has a
very high viscosity and consequently diluents (cutter stocks), such as gas oil
are needed to blend the short residue to commercial grade fuel oils. The
required amount of gas oil can be appreciable. It can be reduced to a
significant extent by subjecting the short residue to the cracking, which lowers
its viscosity. This operation is usually called visbreaking.

It is cracked in the first furnace and flashed in a cyclone at a high temperature.

The overhead of the cyclone goes to a fractionator. A side stream heavier than
gas oil (roughly 350-450o C fraction) is recovered from the fractionator and
cracked once again under more severe conditions in a distillate cracking
furnace. The effluent of this furnace also goes to the fractionator. This lay out
is referred to as two stage cracking.

The feed is subjected to a high vacuum distillation before being cracked. The
cracked residues are vacuum flashed to recover more feed for the cracking
stage. A very high conversion can be achieved in this way, because each feed
can be cracked under conditions yields are obtained while maintaining
adequate residue stability. Gas oil yields of about 30% wt. On feed can be
achieved. This scheme is particularly suitable for very light or waxy
feedstocks. A soaker can be applied for the short residue cracking under this
scheme.

1.2.2 Hydrocracking

(a) INTRODUCTION

Hydrogenation and hydrocracking are among the oldest catalytic processes

used in petroleum refining. It was originally employed in Germany in 1927
for converting lignite into gasoline and later used to convert petroleum
residues into distillable fractions. The first commercial hydrorefining
installation in the United States was in the 19300’s by Standard Oil Louisiana
in Baton Rouge, Louisiana. There was no significant increase in hydrorefining
of petroleum during the next 20 years. After that, hydrodesulfurization and
mild hydrogenation processes experienced a tremendous growth in the 1950’s,
 mostly because of large quantities of by-product hydrogen made available by
catalytic reforming of low octane naphthas to produce high octane gasoline.
Very little hydrocracking is effected in these operations.
In 1960. UOP announced that a commercially feasible hydrocracking process
was available to the petroleum industry, a process distinguished from
hydrogen treating of the 1950’s in that a substantial reduction in the molecular
weight of the gross product is effected. It was immediately accepted and at
present over 16 million MTA of capacity are licensed and considerable
additional capacity is in the design and planning stages. UOP Inc.’s
development, of course, started many years earlier. The first intensive work
dating back to the early 50’s included the conversion of residual oils into more
valuable products.

(b) APPLICATIONS

Hydrocracking is the most versatile of all petroleum refining processes – any

fraction from naphtha to asphalt can be processed, producing any desired
product with a molecular weight lower than that of the charge stock. At the
same time as hydrocracking takes place, sulfur, nitrogen and oxygen are
almost completely removed and olefins are saturated, thereby giving products
which are a mixture of essentially pure paraffins, napthenes and aromatics.

(c) REACTION REQUIREMENTS

Hydrogen is consumed in all hydrocracking reactions. Carbon-to-Carbon

bonds in paraffins are broken and the fragments hydrogenated to form two or
more lower molecular weight paraffins. Polycyclic aromatics are partially
saturated and ring opening in one or more places follows-at least one ring is
usually retained. Dual function catalysts containing both acid activity and
hydrogenation-dehydrogenation activity are required. The patent literature is
voluminous with disclosures of Group III metals composited with silica-
alumina substrates to provide the necessary functions for hydrocracking.

According to one theory, the hydrocracking reactions are initiated by partial

dehydrogenation over the metallic components in the catalyst to form an
olefin; of course, is in a very low concentration and is rapidly adsorbed on an
acid site and converted to a carbonium ion cracks (usually in the B-position)
to form two fragments may undergo further cracking, but at some critical
molecular weight they become hydrogenated, and desorbed from the catalyst
and constitute final product. It will be noted that this theory does not suggest a
chain reaction. The metallic component in the catalyst effects the following:

(i) Formation of an olefin.

(ii) Hydrogenation of fragments.
(iii) Prevents condensation reactions which lead to catalyst fouling.
The hydrocracking reactions are carried out by pumping the charge stock into a
catalyst bed – usually fixed – at elevated temperatures and pressures while
recycling a hydrogen stream. The process conditions employed vary widely
depending upon the nature of the charge stock and the products desired.
However, pressures usually range between 500 and 3000 PSIG and
temperatures between 260o and 427o C.

(d) FLOW SCHEMES

UOP uses three basic flow schemes: (a) Single-stage, (b) Two-Stage, (c)
Series-Flow; there are many modifications of each but pertinent features are
as follows. The choice of flow scheme depends upon the charge stock, the
desired products and the flexibility that is chosen for the process.

[i] Single Stage System

This system, fresh charge stock alongwith recycle hydrogen are heat
exchanged and heated to the desired reaction temperature, then contacted
with catalyst in the reactor. Hydrocracking reactions are exothermic; to
control temperatures in the desired range, conversion per pass can be limited
or cooling means such as quench recycle gas can be used. The reactor
effluent is heat exchanged and passed to a high-pressure separator.
Hydrogen-Highpressure separator liquid is flashed into a low-pressure drum
where most of the dissolved gases are removed from the normal liquid
product. The flash drum liquid is fed to a fractionator for separation into the
desired products. Fractionator bottoms boiling ranage of the products can be
recycled for complete conversion.

Many units are on stream employing the single stage, scheme. Some convert
naphtha into LPG. Others produce jet fuel diesel fuel and lube oil base
stocks from vaccum gas oil and/or deasphalted oil.

(ii) Two Stage System

In this scheme, there are two complete reactor stages each containing a
charge pump, recycle compressor, heat exchangers, heater, reactor, cooler
and high-pressure fractionator. The first stages are separated by the stripper
or fractionator. The first stage reactor decomposes nitrogen and sulfur
compounds, saturates olefins and partially saturates polycyclic aromatics.
The stripper or fractionator removed H2 S, NH3 and other light gases, leaving
a mixture of paraffins, napthenes and aromatics essentially free from
impurtities. The second stage processes the “cleaned up” charge and
converts it into the desired boiling range products. This system is the most
versatile of the two-reactor schemes as regards variety of charge stocks and
products which can be accommodated. A large number of such units are on
stream, charging feeds as heavy as vacuum gas oil and propane deasphaled
gas oils to produce naphtha, kerosene and distillates.
(iii) Series Flow System
The “Series flow” two- reactor system is similar to the one- reactor system
except that there are two reactors in series, as shown, each containing a
different catalyst. The first reactor performs the same function as the first
reactor in the “two stage” scheme. The second reactor carries out the
hydrocracking reactions in the presence of H2 S and NH3 . This scheme has
the advantage of being more economical to build and operate in some
instances. This scheme is being designed for a few cases, but only one is
presently in operation.

(e) Catalysts

UOP has six different catalysts which used separately and in conjunction
with each other in the three basic flow schemes: various combinations of
catalysts and flow schemes provide wide flexibility of applications.

Available catalyst types are as follows: DHC and HC catalysts, are used in
HC Unibon only. (Unibon is the name given by UOP to its hydrocracking
processes).

(i) DHC

These catalysts have the capacity of hydrocracking vacuum gas oils and
deasphalted oils to maximize distillate, such as jet fuel and diesel fuel, and
also to produce lube oil base stocks. There are two DHC catalysts: DHC-2
and DHC-5; selection depends upon the quality of charge stock and desired
products.

(ii) HC- 8

This catalyst is used in series flow units and has the capability of cracking
heavy gas oil into gasoline in the presence of ammonia, H2 ,S and water. It
can also be used to produce LPG from naphtha.

(iii) HC- 9

This catalyst is primarily employed for the production of LPG from

naphthas. It can also be used in the second stage of a two stage process
wherein it is desired to saturate the aromatics, as well as hydrocrack
naphthas and distillates.

(iv) RCD
This catalyst is employed for the direct desulfurization of reduced crudes
wherein minimum hydrocracking is desired.
 (v) BOC
This catalyst is employed when it is desired to process vacuum bottoms for
the production of distillable hydrocarbons, such as vacuum gas oil.

1.2.3 Upgradation of Vacuum Residues

The world wide trends are a shift from residual fuels towards middle distillates.
Increased Demand of jet fuel and Diesel oil for road transportation explains the
growing market for middle distillates. While FCC yields high octane gasoline
on the other, it does not produce any jet fuel or kerosene. FCC also produces
heavy cycle oils and clarified oil which can only be blended into furnace oil
pool.

Hydrocracking on the other hand is capable of giving much higher yields of

distillates including jet fuel with enormous flexibility to produce more of one
distillate or the other. This explains a relatively large percentage growth in the
total Hydrocracking capacity, internationally. The capital cost of a
Hydrocracker is higher than that of a FCC, for the same capacity and operating
cost also higher particularly if by product hydrogen from catalytic reformers is
not available. However, the choice between FCC and Hydrocracker will be
determined by factors such as the demand for the various kinds of distillates,
their prices and price differentials between those distillates and residual fuels.

Both the Hydrocracker and the FCC use vacuum gas oil (V.G.O) for feed stock
with certain specified limits for metal contaminants i.e. Nickel and Vanadium
and also Conradson Carbon Residue (CCR) – a property that determines the
extent of Coke formation that will occur. The metal contaminants as well as the
coke reduce the vacuum residue, therefore cannot be easily converted to
distillates and thus goes to the residual fuel oil pool. The only processing routes
available in the past, for the vacuum residues were Visbreaking and thermal
cracking which would yield small quantities of distillates but basically reduce
the viscosity thereby requiring lesser quantities of cutter stock for furnace oil
blending.

Source:
The above report has been extracted from the book ‘Technology in Indian
Petroleum Refining Industry by Department of Scientific & Industrial Research’.