What is Ec/Io (and Eb/No)?

If someone asks you "Which Signal Level for good call quality: -80 dbm or -90 dBm?"

Beware, if you respond quickly, you might end up missing. This is because the correct
answer is ... it depends! The Signal Strength is a very important and essential measure
for any technology (GSM, CDMA, UMTS, LTE, etc.). However, it is not the only one: let's
talk a little today about another magnitude, equally important: the Signal Noise Ratio.

Although this ratio is of fundamental importance to any cellular system, is not well
understood by many professionals. On the opposite side, professionals with a good
understanding of this ratio are able for example, to correctly assess the RF links, and also
to perform more extensive optimizations, obtaining the best possible performance of the
system.

So, let's see a little about it?

Eb and No

To begin, we define the basic concepts of Eb and No. They are basic for any digital
communication system, and generally we talk about it when we deal with Bit Error Rate
and also Modulation techniques.

Simply put:

 Eb: Bit Energy.

o It represents the amount of energy per bit.
 No: Noise Spectral Density.
o Unit: Watts/Hz (or mWatts/Hz)

Which brings us to the classic definition of Eb/No:

 Eb/No: Bit Energy on the Spectral Noise Density.

o Unit: dB

It did not help much, does it?

Do not worry. Indeed, only with the theoretical definition is still very difficult to see how
this ratio is used, or how it can be measured.
But okay, let's walk a little further.
 Okay, so how is Eb/No measured?

To understand how this ratio can be measured, let's imagine a simple digital
communication system.

The ratio Eb/No is measured at the receiver, and serves to indicate how strong the signal
is.

Depending on the modulation technique used (BPSK, QPSK, etc.) we have different curves
for Bit Error Rate x Eb/No.

These curves are used as follows: for a certain RF signal, which is the bit errors rate that
I have? Is this bit error rate acceptable for my system?

Whereas the gain that digital has, then we can set a minimum criterion of signal to noise
ratio, in order to have each service (Voice/Data) operating acceptably.

In other words, we can theoretically determine how the performance would be for the
digital link.

Note: it is worth remembering here that this is a very complex subject. As always, we try
to introduce to you the most simplified possible through the use of examples and simple
concepts. Okay?

For example, a concept that could be explored here - since we are talking about digital
communication system - is the Noise Figure. But we do not want to repeat here all the
theory explained in the University. Nor was it to have mentioned the noise figure here, but
as we talked about it, just understand as a noise level that every receiver has, and that it
is due to the process of amplification and processing of signal.
Concepts like this, and other even more complex, can be studied, if you wish. But now,
let's continue with our signal to noise ratio.

Eb/No -> Ec/Io

The concept of Eb/No applies to any digital communication system. But today we are
talking specifically to Ec/Io, which is a measure of evaluation and decisions of CDMA and
UMTS.

Note: all the technology uses signal-interference ratio. For example, in GSM, we use C/I.

As we are speaking of codes, it becomes easier to understand the concepts by observing

a simplified diagram of Spread Spectrum Modulation.

In red, in transmitter have a narrowband signal with data or voice modulated. This signal
is spread and transmitted. And spreads through the middle (air). In the receiver, the signal
is despread - using the same sequence that was spread - and thus recovering the base
narrowband signal.

To proceed, we must know some more definitions. However, this point is quite delicate,
as we enter a conceptual area where we have differences between authors, differences in
translations/countries, where differences in technologies are applied, etc..

Let's try to define in a generic way, and only the main.

 No: Spectral Density of Noise;

o Noise generated by the RF components of the system, the air, among others.
 Io: Interference is the Broadband; Interfering co-channel, including yourself setor.
 E: is the signal (average) energy - do not confuse it with the sinal (average) power.
 b, c, s. ..: Energy are the power points in time, therefore related to the measure or 'length' of
the time (the average power is independent of time ).
o Hence it comes Eb, Ec and Es, respectively relating to Bit Chip and Symbol in different
times.

Note: With these concepts, several formulas can be derived with different numerators and
denominators. For example, Es = Eb * k, where k = number of bits per symbol. In QPSK
modulation, where k = 2, Es = 2 * Eb. And the derivations of formulas can reach far more
complex equations, such as the definitions of capacity of an AWGN channel, and further
deductions for equivalences (Ec/No, Eb/Nt, etc. ...). Again, it is not our purpose here
today. We only mention a few concepts, related.

Then come back to the practical level - noting that theoretical approaches can be done
more easily later, after the basics are understood.

So let's keep today in ratios most common: Eb/No and Ec/Io.

As we defined Eb/No is the Average Energy of a bit signal, on the Spectral Density of
Noise. It is primarily a parameter related to the manufacturer for different bearers (based
on the channel model). But it can also vary with the environment (urban, rural, suburban),
speed, diversity, use of power control, application type, etc..

And now we can begin to define Ec/Io, one of the most important systems in CDMA and
UMTS.

Note: An important observation is that often when we refer to Ec/Io, we are actually
referring to Ec/(Io + No). What happens is that for practical purposes, we only have Ec/Io,
because the interference is much stronger and the noise can be neglected. Otherwise: for
CDMA interference is like a noise, then both can be considered the same thing.

Okay, let's stop with the issues and concepts, and talk a little about the values of these
indicators and their use in practice.

Eb/No Positive and Ec/Io Negative?

In terms of values, and talking logarithmicly, if any ratio is less than 1, then the value is
negative. If greater than 1, positive.

We have Ec/Io in the air, which is spread across the spectrum: then we have negative
value to the ratio of energy on the total noise (the energy is lower than the Total
Interference). It is measured at the input of receiver (NodeB, UE, etc).

Regarding Eb/No, it is in the baseband after despreading and decoded only for one user -
then we have a positive amount of energy over the total noise. It is measured at the
output of receiver (NodeB, UE, etc).

Why should we use Ec/Io?

A more natural question would be: why we can not simply use the Signal Strength
measured by the mobile as a guide for operations such as handover?

The answer is simple: the measured signal level corresponds to the Total RF power - All
cells that the mobile sees.

So we need another quick and simple measure that allows us to evaluate the contribution
of each sector individually.

We used to measure the pilot channel signal of each sector to assess the quality: if the
level of the pilot is good, then also are good levels for the traffic channels for our call in
this sector. Likewise, if the pilot channel is degraded, so will the other channels (including
traffic) be, and it is best to avoid using the traffic channels in this sector.

UMTS and CDMA systems, we have a pilot channel, some other control channels such as
paging, and traffic channels.

The Ec/Io varies with several factors, such as the Traffic Load and and RF Scenario.

Of course, the Ec/Io is the final composition of all these factors simultaneously (Composite
Ec/Io), but it's easier to understand talking about each one separately.

Change in Ec/Io according to the Sector Traffic Load

Each sector transmits a certain power. Suppose in our example we have a pilot channel
power setting of 2 W, and a power of other control channels also fixed at 2 W.

To make it easier to understand, we calculate the Ec/Io (pilot channel power to total
power) of this sector in a situation where we have no busy traffic channel (0 W).

Thus we have:

Ec = 2 W

Io = 0 + 2 + 2 = 4 W

Ec/Io = (2/4) = 0.5 = -3 dB

Now assume that several traffic channels are busy (eg use 6 W for traffic channels). This
is a situation of traffic load, we'll see how is Ec/Io.
Ec = 2 W

Io = 2 + 2 + 6 = 10 W

Ec/Io = (2/10) = 0.2 = -7 dB

Conclusion: As the traffic load in the sector increases, the Ec/Io worsens.

Change in Ec/Io according to the scenario RF

According to the RF scenario - a single server sector, some or many servers sectors - we
can also take various measures to Ec/Io.

Considering first a situation without external interference, with only one server sector
(dominant), the ratio Ec/Io is about the same initially transmitted.

Ec/Io = (2/8) = 0.25 = -6 dB

Whereas a signal coming from this sector in the mobile at level of -90 dBm (Io = -90
dBm), we have Ec = -90 dBm + (- 6 db) = -96 dBm.

Let us now consider another situation. Instead of one, we have five sectors signal arriving
at the mobile (for simplicity, all with the same level of -90 dBm).

Now have Io = -83 dBm (which is the sum of five signals of -90 dBm). And the power of
our pilot channel remains the same (Ec = -96 dBm).

Thus: Ec/Io = -96 - (-83) = -13 dB

Conclusion: As many more sectors serves the mobile, the Ec/Io worsens.

This situation where we have many overlapping sectors, and with the same level of signal
is known as Pilot Pollution - the mobile sees them all at once - each acting as interferer to
each other.

The solution in such cases is to eliminate unwanted signals, by setting power parameters
or physical adjustments (tilt, azimuth), leaving just dominant signals which should exist
at this problematic place.

Okay, and what are typical values?

We have seen that for CDMA and UMTS systems, the measurement of Ec/Io which is very
important in the analysis, especially in handover decisions.
And now also understand the measure Ec/Io as the ratio of 'good' energy over 'bad'
energy, or 'cleaness' of signal.

But what are the practical values?

The value of Ec/Io fluctuates (varies), as well as any wireless signal. If the value starts to
get too low, you start to have dropped calls, or can not connect. But what then is a good
range of Ec/Io for a sign?

In practical terms, values of Ec/Io for a good evaluation of the network (in terms of this
indicator) are shown in the diagram below.

A composite Ec/Io ~ - 10 db is a reasonable value to consider as good.

Note: See we are talking about negative values, and considering them 'good'. In other
words, we are saying that energy is below the Noise (and still have a good situation).

This is a characteristic of the system itself, and Ec/Io 'most negative' or 'less negative' is
going to allow assessment of the communication.

In situations where Ec/Io is very low (high negative number), and the signal level too (also
high negative number), first we need to worry in enhancing the weak signal.

Another typical situation: if the measured Ec/Io is very low, even if you have a good signal
level, you can not connect, or the call will drop constantly.

I hope you've managed to understand how the Ec/Io is important for CDMA and UMTS.
Note, however, that this matter is very complex, and supplementary reading - books and
internet - can further help you become an expert on the subject.

Anyway, the content displayed serves as an excellent reference, especially if you're not
familiar with the concept of signal over noise for CDMA and UMTS.

And the Signal to Noise Ratio for other technologies?

The ratio Ec/Io is the most commonly used to assess the condition of energy over
interference, but applies only in technologies that use codes (Ec).

But the concepts understood here to CDMA and UMTS are very similar - apply - for any
technology, eg GSM, where we use the C/I.

Anyway, this is a topic for another tutorial, we saw today Ec/Io.

 Conclusion

Today we had a brief introduction on the Ec/Io ratio, a measurement for decisions in CDMA
and UMTS, and used togheter with the measured Signal Strength.

We have seen that it represents the ratio of signal energy within the duration of a chip of
the pilot channel, on the Spectral Density of Noise + Interference.

This is a very important measure, which somehow ignores the overall strength of the
signal, and focuses on how best to evaluate the pilot channel signal is desired, in relation
to noise that interferes with it.

Returning to our original question: A strong signal level does not necessarily indicate an
strong Ec/Io: it depends on the level of interference.

What is RTWP?
If you work with UMTS,'ve probably heard someone talk about RTWP. Its definition can be
found in a dictionary of acronyms, such as http://acronyms.thefreedictionary.com/RTWP:
Received Total Wideband Power.

Represents a measure of UMTS technology: the total level of noise within the UMTS
frequency band of any cell.

RTWP is related to uplink interference, and its monitoring helps control the call drops -
mainly CS. It also has importance in the capacity management, as it provides information
for the Congestion Control regarding Uplink Interference.

In UMTS, the uplink interference may vary due to several factors, such as the number of
users in the cell, the Service, Connection Types and Conditions of Radio, etc..

As our goal is to always be as simple as possible, we will not delve in terms of formulas or
concepts involved. We will then know the typical values, and know what must be done in
case of problems.

Typical Values

Ok, we know that RTWP can help us in checking the uplink interference, then we need to
know its typical values.

In a network is not loaded, normal, acceptable RTWP Average value is generally around -
104.5 and -105.5 dBm.
Values around -95 dBm indicate that the cell has some uplink interferers.

If the value is around -85 dBm, the situation is ugly, with strong uplink interferers.

Usually we have High, Low and Medium measures of RTWP. However, the maximum and
minimum values are recommended only as auxiliary or reference, since they may have
been caused by a peak of access, or even been forced to have a momentary value due to
some algorithm i.e..

Thus, the value that helps us, and has the most accurate information is the same Mean
RTWP!

For cases in which cell has two carriers, the difference between them RTWP should not
exceed 6 dB.
Based on these typical values, most vendors have an alarm: RTWP "Very High. "

What to do in case of problems?

We have seen that RTWP can cause performance degradation, mainly CS Call Drops. Note:
Actually, it's not RTWP that causes performance degradation. What happens is that when
its value is 'bad', it's actually indicating the presence of interference - the latter being
responsible for degradation.

But what can we do when we find bad values?

If RTWP is not at acceptable levels, some actions should be taken.

 The first thing to do is check if there is a configuration issue with the RNC or NodeB. This is the
most common case, especially in cases of new activations.
 Once verified the parameter settings, the next step is the physical examination, especially jumpers
and cables, often partially reversed. It also should be checked if there is faulty transmitters, or
any other problem that could generate intermodulation between the NodeB and the antenna.
 If the parameter settings and hardware are ok, the chance is very high that we have external
interference, such as a Interferer Repeater.

In cases where there may be external interference, we must begin to act after such a
prioritization based on how much this is affecting the cell KPI's across the network, if it
carry high traffic, major subscribers, etc..

Note: There are many forms of interference in the uplink, both internal and external. Only
a few are listed above. The deepening of all possibilities is beyond the goal of being simple
to teach the concepts, but this is a suggestion for whoever wants to deepen the study,
identification and elimination of interference.

In practice

to find - and eliminate - problems of interference is one of the biggest challenges in our
area. For being such a complex problem, we recommend that be collected enough data
for each investigation. Insufficient data collected can lead to erroneous conclusions, further
worsening the problem.

The uplink interference may appear only in specific periods. Thus, it is recommended that
data be collected from at least one week (7 days) for every 24 hours. Usually this amount
of data is sufficient. In the figure below, we see different days and times - colorful - a
fictional example where the interference occurred.

Data should be collected for the suspicious cell, but also for its adjacent cells, allowing it
to make a triangulation increasing the chances of locating the source of interference.

Another way to locate the source of interference is to do a test in field. An antenna guy
must gradually change the azimuth of the antenna, while another professional do RTWP
measurements. That is, through the information directing the antenna and the respective
values of RTWP, you can draw conclusions very good.

It is obvious that changing the online system may not be a good practice, and tests can
be made with a Yagi antenna and a Spectrum Analyzer.

Vendors offer several ways to measure RTWP, using the OSS, performance counters and
logs.

Conclusion

In this brief tutorial, we learn what is RTWP, and that the ideal typical value is about -
104.5 dBm and -105.5 dBm.

As the RTWP is directly related to Uplink Interference - and we know that interference is
the main cause of performance degradation - have concluded that improving RTWP, ie
making is as close as possible to -105 dBm, improving the Call Drop Rate!