Driving and Engine Cycles

Evangelos G. Giakoumis

Driving and Engine Cycles

123
Evangelos G. Giakoumis
Department of Thermal Engineering,
School of Mechanical Engineering
National Technical University of Athens
Athens
Greece

ISBN 978-3-319-49033-5 ISBN 978-3-319-49034-2 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-49034-2
Library of Congress Control Number: 2016956823

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Preface

Environmental pollution has been one of the most significant threats faced by
mankind in the last decades. It affects severely the whole planet, resulting in mil-
lions of premature deaths every year, degradation of the human life level, and
considerable financial burden on individuals and the whole society. Passenger cars,
light- and heavy-duty trucks and buses, and non-road equipment, i.e., vehicles
powered by fossil-fueled internal combustion engines, are among the major con-
tributors to the anthropogenic-related environmental issues, particularly in large
cities. The authorities, having acknowledged this fact from the early 50s, proceeded
to various measures, such as legislation of gradually stricter emission limits, cleaner
fuels, inspection and maintenance tests.
Many books have been published in the last decades dealing with
vehicular-related environmental issues. A lot of these books have focused on
emission limits and emission legislation in general. Others deal with pollutant
emissions analyzing their production mechanisms; additionally, a significant por-
tion has been concerned with after-treatment control. None of these subjects are
dealt with in this book. In contrast, it seems that there has been no book dealing
exclusively with certification cycles, i.e., the test schedules employed at type
approval level to test the vehicle, being representative of the concerned vehicle’s or
engine’s duty cycle. Instead, with few exceptions, driving cycles have been pre-
sented in the past mainly as ‘accompanying text’ to manuscripts dealing with
pollutant regulations and emission limits. Since, to the best of the author’s
knowledge, no comprehensive analysis of drive cycles has ever been attempted, this
is the gap in the open literature that the present book aims to fill.
In the following chapters, an effort has been made to cover all possible subjects
related to drive cycles, namely describe what a test cycle is, how it is constructed,
and provide detailed historical information on the development of the most
influential certification test schedules employed in the past. Moreover, the short-
comings of the various cycles with respect to their representativeness (in terms of
driving activity and emission results) will be highlighted, as well as their most
important technical specifications. The book also aims to combine this information
with typical performance and emission results from real vehicles operation, in order

v
vi Preface

for the reader to draw a more complete picture on how the vehicle/engine behaves
during a test cycle regarding development of engine speed, torque, power, as well
as pollutant emissions. The results that will be presented stem from both (experi-
mentally validated) simulations and experiments. Moreover, an extensive part of the
book is dedicated to engine-dynamometer cycles, for heavy-duty and non-road
engines/vehicles, which have been dealt with in the past even more scarcely.
It should be pointed out that it has never been the intention to provide an
exhaustive list of all test cycles or their technical specifications. This holds true as
regards the numerous non-legislated test schedules. For legislated cycles, on the
other hand, a detailed presentation of all of them will be provided. Owing to the
availability of large amount of data regarding U.S., European, and (recently
developed) worldwide regulations, these cycles will be presented in more detail,
particularly vis-à-vis their historical background. On the other hand, owing to
language limitations and reluctance of the relevant authorities in Japan to provide
background information, the analysis of Japanese test cycles will be considerably
shorter. The discussion of drive cycles will be primarily from a mechanical engi-
neer’s point of view and only secondarily from a traffic engineering perspective.
The book is organized as follows: Chap. 1 serves as an introduction to driving
cycles and test procedures in general. Test cycles are defined and classified with the
focus on why certification cycles for all kinds of vehicles should be transient.
A description of the main attributes follows for all cycle types (chassis and engine,
modal and transient). Emphasis is given here on representativeness issues, also
providing and analyzing various cycle metrics. The procedure followed when
constructing a driving cycle is also discussed at the end of the chapter. Chapters 2
and 3 provide details on driving cycles for passenger cars and light-duty trucks,
which form the biggest and oldest category (Chap. 2), and motorcycles (Chap. 3).
These have been exclusively of the chassis-dynamometer type. Test cycles for
heavy-duty engines/vehicles are discussed in Chap. 4. An interesting characteristic
for these test schedules is that both chassis and engine-dynamometer cycles have
been employed in the past, the latter on a stationary or transient form. All of them
are discussed in detail. Chapter 5 deals with non-road engines/vehicles, such as
those utilized in agricultural and construction equipment, marine and locomotive
applications. The relevant cycles here are exclusively of the engine-dynamometer
type. Lastly, Chap. 6 serves as an introduction to the experimental procedure during
vehicle or engine certification in the laboratory, discussing the driving cycle test.
Various topics are dealt with such as type approval issues, dynamometers, the
coast-down test, and, primarily, the experimental setup and the equations used to
calculate emissions and fuel consumption during the cycle execution in the
laboratory.
One inherent feature of test cycles is their numerous technical specifications.
These are provided collectively in the Appendix, for the most important schedules,
and on a relatively detailed basis. It was intentional to not incorporate many
‘numbers’ inside the text. In any case, some technical specifications are important to
supply context, particularly when comparing cycles; such comparisons form an
Preface vii

important component of the book. In order to understand the basis under which
these technical characteristics have been derived, the interested reader is advised
to check initially the introductory text in the Appendix, where the exact
equations/logic is provided.
Although the biggest part of the book deals with driving cycles, i.e., those
executed on a chassis-dynamometer where the whole vehicle is under test, it was
decided to title the book ‘Driving and Engine Cycles’ so as to cover the second
important category as well, namely engine-dynamometer cycles, which are also
discussed in detail.
The present book is intended to serve as a reference for engineers and
researchers, but it should also be useful to students as a supplementary text on
exhaust pollution courses. Although for much of its length, it does not require
specific technical knowledge and can be rather easily conceived by most people
involved in the research and study of engine emissions and fuel economy, it is
expected that the reader is already familiar with emission regulation matters and
with some basic aspects of internal combustion engines operation.
Lastly, and bearing in mind that the broad subject of emission legislation is
constantly evolving, the reader should always have in mind that a regulation valid
when preparing this book (2016) might have been superseded at the time of reading it.

Athens, Greece
November 2016 Evangelos G. Giakoumis
Acknowledgments

The author wishes to acknowledge several individuals who helped in various ways
the writing of this book, namely Prof. Emeritus C.D. Rakopoulos, Prof. D.T.
Hountalas, Dr. A. Dimaratos, Prof. D.C. Kyritsis, Ms. S. Schmidt, Ms. Anna Eleni
Giakoumi, Messrs R. Brezny, Z. Chen, K. Chun, M. Cox, T. Drongitis,
K. Engeljehringer, A. Kerkhof, C. Mi, N.-O. Nylund, S. Park, S. Zhang, T. Zheng, as
well as various current and former employees of the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency (C. Courtois, C. France, J. France, J. Spieth, and T. Wysor).
Work conducted over the past few years by some of my students, under my
supervision, is also presented in the next chapters. The contribution of A. Alafouzos,
A. Alysandratou, S. Lioutas, N. Kakouras, G. Triantafyllou, E. Velidakis, C. Vitsas,
and A. Zahiotis is greatly acknowledged.
I would also like to express my gratitude to the supporting staff at Springer for
their continuous help.
Lastly, the various publishers and companies that have granted permission to
reproduce figures and photographs from their publications are gratefully
acknowledged; they are also credited in the text.

ix
Contents

1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... 1
1.1 Motor Vehicles: Environmental Pollution, Emission
Legislation and Recent Trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 The Importance of Transient Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.3 Fundamentals of Test Cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.3.1 Chassis-Dynamometer Cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.3.2 Engine-Dynamometer Cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
1.4 Drive Cycle Development Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
1.4.1 Collection of Driving Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
1.4.2 Data Analysis and Cycle Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
2 Light-Duty Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
2.1 European Union . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
2.1.1 European Driving Cycle ECE+EUDC/NEDC . . . . . . . . . . . 67
2.1.2 Non-legislated Cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
2.2 United States of America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
2.2.1 California 7-Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
2.2.2 FTP-72 and FTP-75 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
2.2.3 Highway Fuel Economy Test—HFET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
2.2.4 Supplemental FTP US06 and SC03 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
2.2.5 New York City Cycle—NYCC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
2.2.6 California LA-92 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
2.2.7 Special Purpose Cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
2.3 Japan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
2.3.1 4-Mode—J4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
2.3.2 10-Mode—J10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
2.3.3 11-Mode—J11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
2.3.4 10-15 Mode—J10-15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
2.3.5 JC08 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131

xi
xii Contents

2.4 Australia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

2.5 Worldwide—WLTC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
2.6 Other Countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
2.7 Comparative Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
3 Motorcycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
3.1 ECE R47 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
3.2 ECE R40 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
3.3 U.S. EPA Urban Dynamometer Driving Schedule . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
3.4 Indian Driving Cycle—IDC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
3.5 Worldwide Motorcycle Test Cycle—WMTC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
4 Heavy-Duty Vehicles and Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
4.2 Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
4.2.1 Free Acceleration Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
4.2.2 Steady-State R49 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
4.2.3 Chassis-Dynamometer FIGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
4.2.4 Steady-State ESC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
4.2.5 ELR Smoke Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
4.2.6 Transient ETC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
4.2.7 Other European Non-legislated Chassis-Dynamometer
Cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
4.3 United States of America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
4.3.1 Steady-State Gasoline 9 Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
4.3.2 Steady-State Diesel 13 Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
4.3.3 Federal Smoke Test. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
4.3.4 Chassis-Dynamometer Heavy-Duty UDDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
4.3.5 Transient FTP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
4.3.6 Snap Acceleration Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
4.3.7 Other U.S. Non-legislated Chassis-Dynamometer
Cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
4.4 Japan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
4.4.1 Steady-State 6 Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
4.4.2 Steady-State 13 Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
4.4.3 Chassis-Dynamometer JE05 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
4.5 Worldwide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
4.5.1 Chassis-Dynamometer WTVC. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
4.5.2 Transient WHTC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
4.5.3 Steady-State WHSC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
4.6 Other Countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
Contents xiii

4.7 Comparative Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269

4.7.1 Chassis-Dynamometer Cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
4.7.2 Engine-Dynamometer Cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
5 Non-Road Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
5.1 Steady-State Cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
5.2 Transient Cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
6 Driving Cycles Test Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
6.2 Dynamometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
6.3 Road-Load Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
6.4 Coast-Down Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
6.5 Emissions Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
6.5.1 Chassis Testing Employing Constant Volume
Sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... 326
6.5.2 Engine-Dynamometer Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... 336
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... 344
Appendix A—Technical Specifications of Chassis-Dynamometer
Cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
Notation

a Acceleration (m/s2)
A Area (m2)
C Concentration (ppm or %)
E Emission (g or g/km or g/kWh)
f Sampling frequency (Hz)
F Force (N)
g Gravitational acceleration (m/s2)
H Humidity (g water/kg dry air)
Kh NOx humidity correction factor
Kr Multiplicative regeneration factor
m, M Mass (g or kg)
N Rotational speed (rpm) or Number
p Pressure (Pa or bar)
P Power (kW)
S Distance (m or km)
t Time (s)
T Absolute temperature (K) or Torque (Nm)
V Volume (m3) or vehicle speed (km/h or mph)
W Work (J) or weight (kg)

Greek symbols
h Road grade (%)
H Moment of inertia (kgm2)
q Density (kg/m3)
r Standard deviation

xv
xvi Notation

Subscripts
a Aerodynamic
act Actual
d Dry or drag
da Dilution air
deg Diluted exhaust gas
eg Exhaust gas
f Frontal or fuel
fr Friction
g Gas
gr Gravitational or grade
i Each pollutant
in Inertia
j Each mode
norm Normalized
PM Particulate matter
r Rolling or regeneration
ref Reference
tr Traction
V Vehicle
w Wet or weighted

Abbreviations
ACEA Association des Constructeurs Européens d’ Automobiles
(European Automobile Manufacturers Association), www.acea.be
AMA Approved mileage accumulation (cycle)
CAA Clean Air Act
CAAA Clean Air Act Amendments
CARB California Air Resources Board, http://www.arb.ca.gov
CBD Central business district
CFR Code of federal regulations (USA), www.ecfr.gov
CFV Constant flow venturi
CH4 Methane
CI Compression ignition
CNG Compressed natural gas
CO Carbon monoxide
CO2 Carbon dioxide
CUEDC Composite urban emissions drive cycle
CVS Constant volume sampling (a universally applied technique for
measuring pollutants mass emissions during driving cycles—Chap. 6)
CWF Carbon weight fraction
DF Dilution factor
Notation xvii

DI Direct injection (fuel injection takes place inside the cylinder after the
intake valves have closed)
DOC Diesel oxidation catalyst (a catalytic converter employed in diesel
engines for oxidation of CO and HC to CO2 and H2O)
DPF Diesel particulate filter (the DPF traps particulates; these are
periodically burned through an ECU-initiated brief regeneration
event involving high-load operation that generates exhaust gas
temperatures in the range of 500–550 °C capable of burning the
particulates and restoring the trap)
EC European Commission, http://ec.europa.eu
ECU Engine control unit (an electronic unit that gathers engine and vehicle
data from various sensors, processes them based on stored maps,
and determines, through various actuators, the exact timing of fuel
injection, spark plug ignition, etc.)
EEA European Environment Agency, http://www.eea.europa.eu
EEC European Economic Community (the predecessor of European Union,
1958–1993)
EEV Enhanced environment-friendly vehicle
EGR Exhaust gas recirculation (part of the exhaust gas leaving the cylinder,
after being cooled, is inducted into the engine in order to limit
in-cylinder combustion temperatures and reduce the production
of NOx)
ELR European Load Response
EPA Environmental Protection Agency (USA), https://www3.epa.gov
ESC European steady-state cycle
ETC European transient cycle
EU European Union, http://europa.eu
EUDC Extra urban driving cycle
EV Electric vehicle
FC Fuel consumption
FIGE Forschungsinstitut für Geräusche und Erschütterungen
FR Federal register
FTP Federal test procedure
GDI Gasoline direct injection (type of spark ignition engine that applies a
stratified charge (rich in the vicinity of the spark plug and leaner toward
the cylinder walls), primarily aiming to reduce fuel consumption)
GDP Gross domestic product
GHG Greenhouse gas
GPF Gasoline particulate filter
GRPA Group de Rapporteurs sur la Pollution de l’Air
GRPE Group de Rapporteurs sur la Pollution et l’ Énergie
GTR Global technical regulation
GVW Gross vehicle weight (maximum operating weight of a vehicle
including the vehicle’s chassis, body, engine, engine fluids, fuel,
accessories, driver, passengers, and cargo, according to the legislation)
xviii Notation

HC Hydrocarbons
HD Heavy duty
HDE Heavy-duty engine
HDV Heavy-duty vehicle
HEV Hybrid-electric vehicle
HFET Highway fuel economy test
HHDDT Heavy heavy-duty diesel truck (cycle)
I.C. Internal combustion
I/M, IM Inspection and maintenance
ICCT International Council on Clean Transportation
IDC Indian driving cycle
ISO International Organization for Standardization, http://www.iso.org
LD Light duty
LDT Light-duty truck
LDV Light-duty vehicle
LEV Low-emission vehicle
LNT Lean NOx trap, also known as NOx adsorber (deNOx after-treatment
system employing zeolite as adsorbent, where NOx is trapped;
the filter requires some kind of periodic regeneration to be
restored/emptied)
LoS Level of service (measure used to describe the quality of traffic
conditions)
LPG Liquefied petroleum gas
MDPV Medium-duty passenger vehicle
MOVES Motor vehicle emission simulator
mph Miles per hour
MVEG Motor vehicle emissions group
MY Model year
NEDC New European driving cycle
NG Natural gas
NHTSA National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (USA),
http://www.nhtsa.gov
NMHC Non-methane hydrocarbons
NMOG Non-methane organic gases (the sum of non-oxygenated and
oxygenated hydrocarbons contained in a gas sample, including,
at a minimum, all oxygenated organic gases containing 5 or fewer
carbon atoms (i.e., aldehydes, ketones, alcohols, and ethers), and all
known alkanes, alkenes, alkynes, and aromatics containing
12 or fewer carbon atoms, excluding methane)
NOx Nitrogen oxides
NRSC Non-road steady-state cycle
NRTC Non-road transient (composite) cycle
NTE Not to exceed
NYCC New York city cycle
OBD On-board diagnostics
Notation xix

OCE Off-cycle emissions

OCTA Orange County Transportation Authority
OICA Organisation Internationale des Constructeurs d’Automobiles
(International Organization of Motor Vehicle Manufacturers),
www.oica.net
OPEC Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries
PDP Positive displacement pump
PEMS Portable emissions measurement system
PFI Port fuel injection (conventional spark ignition engine,
where the fuel is injected onto the inlet valve and is mixed with the
incoming air)
PFSS Partial flow sampling system
PI Positive ignition
PKE Positive kinetic energy (m/s2)—Eq. (1.3)
PM Particulate matter
PMR Power-to-mass ratio (kW/t)
PN Particle number
RDE Real driving emissions
RMC Ramped modal cycle
RPA Relative positive acceleration (m/s2)—Eq. (1.2)
SAE Society of automotive engineers
SAFD Speed/acceleration frequency distribution
SBC Standard bench cycle
SCR Selective catalytic reduction (a, usually, vanadium-based catalyst,
where NOx is reduced to N2 employing ammonia NH3;
in most cases, a liquid urea solution is injected in the exhaust gas
stream prior to the SCR that is then converted to ammonia)
SET Supplemental emission test, or sulfate emission test
SFTP Supplemental federal test procedure
SI Spark ignition
SRC Standard road cycle
THC Total hydrocarbons
TRIAS Test Requirements and Instructions for Automobile
Standards (Japan)
UDC Urban driving cycle
UDDS Urban dynamometer driving schedule
UN United Nations, http://www.un.org
UNECE United Nations Economic Commission for Europe,
http://www.unece.org
VPR Volatile particle remover
VSP Vehicle specific power (kW/t)—Eq. (1.4)
wf Weighting factor (%)
WHDC Worldwide harmonized Heavy-Duty Certification Procedure
WHSC Worldwide harmonized Steady-State Cycle
WHTC Worldwide harmonized Transient Cycle
xx Notation

WLTC Worldwide harmonized Light-Duty Driving Test Cycle

WLTP Worldwide harmonized Light-Duty Vehicles Test Procedure
WMTC Worldwide harmonized Motorcycle Emissions Certification/Test
Procedure
WOT Wide open throttle
WTVC Worldwide Transient Vehicle Cycle