April 28, 2017 18:24 Research Publishing : IJAS Sample ijas0904-cont

CONTENTS 2017, VOLUME 09, NUMBER 04

Online Learning and Teacher Practice 1–12

Tracy R. Edwards

A Computer Project and Elementary Introduction to the World of Numerical 13–20

Computation
Gary Miller, Andriy Didenko and David Allison

The Emergence and Contributions of Christian Missions to the Civilization of Yoruba Kingdoms in 21–30
the Old Oyo Empire
Yetunde Ruth Balogun

Recognising the Importance of Strategic Business Network on Business Performance of SME 31–44
Manufacturing Firms in Malaysia: Analysing the Moderating Influence of Human Capital and
Business Environment
Ehsan Fansuree Surin, Oswald Timothy Edward, Mohd. Hazman Fitri Hussin and Ismail Ab. Wahab

Changes of Social Cohesion Within Ethnic Communities: A Case Study of the Japanese 45–60
Community in Sydney, Australia
Jun Nagatomo

Reframing the Word to the Act: A Study of a Screen Adaptation of R.K. Narayan’s Short 61–70
Story
P. Karthika Devi

Communication Strategies Used by Thai Service Providers in Pattaya City, 71–82

Thailand
Prathomwat Suraprajit

Relevance of the Current Electoral System in Malaysia: Time for Change? 83–90
Zainal Amin Ayub, Zuryati Mohamed Yusoff and Asmah Laili Yeon

Cultural Diversity in the Workplace: Exploring the Impact of Intercultural Training on the 91–100
Attitudes of Business Actors
Anikó Tompos and Lívia Ablonczy-Mihályka

Modernity and the Existential Metaphysics of Life and Death in Kafka’s 101–118
Metamorphosis
Pavlos E. Michaelides

Zora Neale Hurston, “The Bone Collector” of Harlem Renaissance: The Horizon Built on 119–130
Bones
Dilek Önder
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ii Contents

The Presence of the Unreal in Alice Munro’s Narrative 131–136

Barış Mete

The Effect of Zero-Bound Interest Rates on the Economy 137–148

Joanna Stawska

Evaluation of the Causes and Consequences of Tenant Eviction in EDE Metropolis, 149–158
Nigeria
Ankeli Ikpeme Anthony, Dabara Ibrahim Dabara, Omotehinshe Joseph Olusegun, Omoyosi
Gabriel Adeyemi and Agidi Oladejo Michael

The Production of Simple Sentence Structures in Schizophrenia 159–164

Ayşegül Özcan, Gülmira Kuruoğlu, Köksal Alptekin, Berna Akdede, Şilay Sevilmiş, Berna Yalınçetin
and Sumru Özsoy

Protection of Traditional Knowledge in Relation to Intellectual Property Rights on the Principle of 165–174
Justice for People as an Endeavour of National Economic Development
Imas Rosidawati Wiradirja, Fontian Munzil and Edy Santoso

A Comparative Study of Strategic Communication Application by Chinese and Foreign-Owned 175–190

Enterprises to Brand Crisis Management
Chen Xianhong and Chen Ni

The Role of Knowledge Transfer in Technical Translation 191–208

Ewa Piotrowska-Oberda

The Concept of Self-Defence in Islamic Jurisprudence 209–226

Khalid A. Owaydhah and Mohamed Yunnis

The Psychology and Politics of Ludwig Carl Moyzisch, Author of Operation 227–232
Cicero
William W. Bostock

Threshold Effect of FDI Spillover in China’s Equipment Manufacturing Industry 233–242

Ying Wang, Huiwen Lv and Chao Zhang

Research on the Financing Efficiency of Listed Machinery Manufacturing Companies in Jiangsu 243–252
Province Based on the Malmquist Index Model
Geng Cheng-Xuan, E Hai-Tao and Wang Ling

Female Voice Raised Against Patriarchal System in Angela Carter’s Wise 253–258
Children
Kevser Ateş

Importance and Ways of Raising Cultural Awareness in the English Language 259–266
Classroom
Tamari Dolidze

Cross-Language Equivalence and Cultural Similarity in Proverbs 267–272

Manana Rusieshvili-Cartledge and Rusudan Dolidze

Hypergeometric Functions in Mathematics and Theoretical Physics 273–282

Niyazi Yükçü

Does the Number Three (3) Mean Anything in James Joyce’s “A Portrait of the Artist as a Young 283–290
Man”?
Jive Lubbungu
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Contents iii

Talents Identification Project for Sports in Zimbabwe: Analysis of Preliminary 291–300

Results
Islay Pérez Martínez, Juan José Alfonso Prendes, Fortunate Sithole, Yvonne Utaumire, Victor
Masocha and Ariadna Quintana Díaz

The Art of Storytelling: Cognition and Action Through Stories 301–324

Amreen Mistry

Gender Perception of Safety in Urban Public Spaces: Case of New Delhi 325–334
Aarti Grover

Different Symbols in Fables of Different Culture 335–340

Tamila Dilaverova

Coping Resources of Psychological Stress Utilized by Orphans in Magona Village of Malamulele 341–348
Community in Limpopo Province, South Africa
Tsakani Mekie Baloyi and Fhatuwani James Takalani

The Use of Pronouns in Political Discourse 349–356

Maia Alavidze

Globalization and Self-Identity in Annie Proulx’s the Shipping News 357–362

Tamara Kobeshavidze

Predicting Factors for Quality of Life of Elderly in the Rural Areas 363–372
Suchada Wongsawat

The Role of Social Welfare Centres in Limiting Social Exclusion in Poland 373–388
Krystyna Kietlińska

Politics and Harold Pinter’s Plays 389–392

Darina Mskhaladze

Implementing Quality Management Systems in Higher Education Institutions (HEI): The Case of 393–400
RWTH Aachen University
Rebecca Lauther and Robert H. Schmitt

The Myth of Englishness and Historical Description in a History of the World in 10 1/2 Chapters 401–408
by Julian Barnes
Il-Yeong Kim and Jieun Eom

Innovation and Tradition: Susan Howe and the Difficulty of Printing Art in Printed 409–422
Form
Ma Leticia del Toro García

The Semantic Concept of Cohesion in the Public Discourse: On the Example of Assertive Texts in 423–432
the Media-Transmitted Public Discourse
Tamara Gazdić-Alerić, Bernardina Petrović and Marko Alerić

A Universal Grammar Account of Time-Relationship Signals in English and U

. kwu.ani. Verb 433–450
Phrases
Mabel Osakwe

Leadership and Mosque Performance in Rural and Urban Areas of Peninsular 451–472
Malaysia
Mahazan Abdul Mutalib, Wan Mohd. Fazrul Azdi Wan Razali, Muhammad Hashim, Nisar
Mohammad Ahmad, Zaharuddin Zakaria, Azman Abdul Rahman and Abdullah Abdul Ghani
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iv Contents

Behavioural Attitude of Road Users in Vhembe District Municipality, South 473–480

Africa
Olujimi Osidele, Nthaduleni Nethengwe and Farai Dondofema

Linguistic Typology in Language Teaching and Learning in Multilingual Environments, Migrants’ 481–494
Integration, and Preservation of Minority Languages
Kristian Pérez Zurutuza

The European Union and the Brics: Challenges and Power Relations Between Antagonism and 495–504
Interdependence
Marco António Batista Martins

Hacking the Catalogue: Developing Extended Cataloguing Processes in Library Makerspaces for 505–510
Shareable, Trackable and Accessible Dynamic Resources Supporting Steam
Education
Frances Flintoff

The Modern and Traditional Houses in Libya 511–520

Mariam M. T. Shibub

Interpreting John Fowles’ the Collector: A Case Study in Predatory Stalking 521–534
Afra Alshiban

Are Customers Willing to Act Beyond Positive Word-of-Mouth After Service Recovery? A PLS-SEM 535–548
Approach in the Restaurant Industry
Muhammad Hafiz Abd Rashid, Rahayu Hasanordin and Fauziah Sh. Ahmad

Cross-Generational Transgressions of Work Attitudes 549–558

Wieslaw T. Watroba

Making Good(S): Exploring the Ideas and Practices of Social Entrepreneurship 559–570
Ipshita Ghosh

Architect and Society: Ways of Interaction Within the End of 19th Century and at the Beginning of 571–580
20th
Oleksandra Naryzhna and Inna Akmen

A Comprehensive Investigation into the Gold Rush Phenomenon of the Thai Gold Trading 581–588
Structure
Ergun Gide and Kanokrat Manochantavanich

Extent of Utilization of Information and Communication Technology Tools by English Language 589–596
Teachers in Ijebu-Ode and Odogbolu Local Government Areas of Ogun State,
Nigeria
Stephen Olufemi Idowu and Adegbuyi David Gbadebo

Exploring the Possibility of Using both Direct and Indirect Corrective Feedback as Strategy to 597–604
Improve Students’ Writing Skill in Indonesian Secondary School
Rina Febrina Sarie

William Shaler’s Sketches of Algiers, or Orientalism and the Monroe Doctrine as Strange Bed 605–636
Fellows
Bouteldja Riche and Mohand Akli Rezzik

Communicative Semiotics in Everyday Life 637–646

Dalel Fidouh
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Contents v

The Sociocultural Sources of Our Dreams 647–654

Adrian Medina Liberty

The Process of Stakeholder Engagement: The Case of Establishing Advisory Councils at a School 655–668
of Business
David Felsen and Michael Nastanski

Utilizing Field Trips in Aviation Business Education to Improve Student Learning 669–678
Outcomes
Michael D. Santonino III

The Story of a Woman Trapped Between the Imaginary and Symbolic Orders in Kate Chopin’s 679–682
The Awakening
Burcu Tercan

Author index 683–684

Conference of the International Journal of Arts & Sciences is not responsible for the content of the individual manuscripts.

All correspondence should be mailed to the Associate Editor: Dr. Joseph Bonnici, Vance Hall, 4th Floor, Central Connecticut State
University, 1615 Stanley Street, PO Box 4010, New Britain, CT 06050-4010, USA.

The manuscripts contained in this volume were double blind refereed.

c 2017 UniversityPublications.net
Vol. 09, 04.
LEADERSHIP AND MOSQUE PERFORMANCE IN RURAL AND URBAN
AREAS OF PENINSULAR MALAYSIA

Mahazan Abdul Mutalib, Wan Mohd. Fazrul Azdi Wan Razali, Muhammad Hashim,
Nisar Mohammad Ahmad, Zaharuddin Zakaria and Azman Abdul Rahman

Universiti Sains Islam Malaysia, Malaysia

Abdullah Abdul Ghani

Universiti Utara Malaysia, Malaysia

This study investigated the association of imams’ religiosity behavior, leadership behavior, motivation
to lead, and mosque performance of both rural and urban mosques in three states of Peninsular Malaysia
or Federal Territory of Kuala Lumpur, Selangor, and Negeri Sembilan. 250 randomly selected mosques
around the three states were visited in this study. All selected mosques were distributed with a self-
administered questionnaire to be filled by the mosque leader or imam. The questionnaires returned to
the researcher are 58 and this has made the respond rate for this research is 23.2 percent. Mosque
performance was measured by using three variables or mosque attendance, the amount of fund raised by
the mosque, and mosque assets. Imams’ religiosity behavior was measured through the imams’ routine
religious activities and their leadership behavior was measured through three dimensions or task-
oriented, relation-oriented, and religious leadership oriented behavior. Motivation to lead was measured
by using three dimensions or affective identity, non-calculative, and social normative motivation to
lead. Based on the test of normality, the distribution of data for leadership behavior and motivation to
lead was found normal suggesting the results could be generalized to the whole population of imams in
the three investigated states. Based on hierarchical regression analysis, this research first found that
amount of fund raised by mosques have a significant positive association with mosque attendance but
not mosque assets. Secondly, imams’ individual religiosity behavior has no significant association with
their leadership and motivation to lead. Thirdly, imams’ religious leadership behavior has significant
influence over mosque performance as compared to conventional task and relation leadership behaviors.
Fourth, same with imams’ leadership, their motivation to lead also significantly influenced mosque
performance. Finally, imams’ leadership behavior partially mediated the association of imams’
motivation to lead and mosque performance suggesting imams’ leadership as a significant variable to
determine mosque performance. The results, in general, are important to be used by authorities and
associated bodies to design suitable development model for imams and mosque performance in
Malaysia.

Keywords: Mosque performance, Islamic leadership, Motivation to lead, Leadership behavior,

Religiosity.
Introduction

Mosque attendance has always been associated with the state of religiosity in many Muslims’
communities. This argument could be found investigated by some researchers for examples Smits and
Ultee (2013) on Muslims in the Netherlands, Smits, Ruiter, and Van Tubergen (2010) in Belgium, Diehl
and Koening (2009) in Germany. In Malaysia specifically, the growing number of research on the
functions and related variables of mosques signify that the institution is always perceived as important to
the community. In addition to mosque attendance as a valid measure of mosque performance in Malaysia,
researchers have also stressed on other significant related variables to mosque, for example, value-based
education approach (Kawangit, 2014),
In the aspect of the roles of the mosque, researchers have consistently found that attachment to the
mosque has caused a positive effect to the well-being of individuals and community (Eryilmaz, 2015; lee,
2010; Anderson, 2011). Nevertheless, Kawangit (2014) in his research on new converts in Malaysia argue
that the concern over well-being of individuals and community as preached in mosques should not only
lays on the issue of religious strength and understanding but also other related knowledge to well-being
for examples the discussions of environmental preservation, healthy economic activities, just and balance
politics, and others. The argument seems to be relevant in answering the needs of new converts. However,
the issue needs to be further investigated to identify the most suitable way of how mosque could function
as a center of multiple knowledge dissemination to answer the basic function of the mosque as an Islamic
religious center. A good writing that elaborates the necessity of mosques to incorporate both religious
ritual knowledge (ibadah) and social transaction knowledge (muamalat) could be found in Anderson
(2011) who discusses the state of piety, well-being, and sociality of Muslims through the functions of
mosques in the Egyptian context. The above discussions in some extent could show that mosque has
multiple functions to Muslim society around the globe this warrants continuous observation to be made
on the functions or roles of mosque and its influence on the people. In addition to the mosque in general,
specific area of mosques, for example, its leadership and physical aspects need also be continuously
investigated to support the general overview or understanding of mosque and its functions as discussed
above.
In general, based on the above discussions, we could understand that mosque is considered as the
most important socio-religious center for Muslims around the world. (Abdullah, 2009; Mohamad
Tajuddin, 1998). Even though, there are some worrying scenario on mosques and religious places to be
associated in a negative way with issues of racism, nationalism, and nation’s cultural identity in the west
for example in Australia (Dunn, 2005) and in America (Lee Jia, Karpen, and Hirt, 2011), the importance
of mosque as a centre for nation building and development has never been underestimated in most
researches conducted in Muslim context. Thus, it should not be an exaggeration for this article to propose
that an important indicator to assess the improvement of a Muslim’s society is through the effectiveness
of mosque institution which could be seen from various variables for instance level of mosque
participation, activities organized by the institution and so forth. (Mahazan & Abdullah, 2013) In other
words, based on the focus of Islam on the mosque as a spiritual and religious training center for Muslims,
the performance of the institution should be continuously investigated. Nonetheless, beside than so many
variables that could be used to assess mosque performance, the issue of mosque participation and
attendance has always been brought forward by the researchers. (Brenner, 2011; Eryilmaz, 2013; Najafi
& Mustafa Kamal, 2012) This might be based on the factor that research on institution participation
should be conducted first before researchers are able to assess other variables related to mosque
performance.
This article will present data collected from randomly selected mosques in three states of Peninsular
Malaysia or Federal Territory Kuala Lumpur, Selangor, and Negeri Sembilan. The three states were
selected based on the factor that this research aims to identify the different patterns of mosque
performance in both rural and urban areas of Malaysia. The three states could be considered suitable for
this research based on several reasons. First, all mosques in the state of Kuala Lumpur could be
considered as urban mosques. Secondly, mosques in the state of Selangor could be divided into urban and
rural mosques, same with Negeri Sembilan. Third, the issue urbanization has always been argued as one
of the factors that contributes to the low attendance of rural mosques, thus by comparing mosque
performance of urban and rural areas of the three states is useful to investigate the issue further. Fourth,
based on the first study conducted in 2009 to 2012, this research found that imams or mosques leaders in
Kuala Lumpur are mostly graduated from university and hold permanent Islamic affairs officers from the
government. Data collected from them is useful to be compared with other imams with different level of
education in Selangor and Negeri Sembilan. The findings could help us discover whether the level of
education is significant for religious leaders like imams.

Literature Review

Mosque and Community Development

The institution of mosque plays an important role to enable Muslims’ society to develop in accordance
with the principles or concepts of Islamic civilization. Therefore, the concept of community development
in Islam should first be elaborated in order to provide clear understandings on how mosque institution
should operate. The discussion is also significant to identify important variables related to mosque
performance that should be investigated.
Based on the review of the literature, this article found that many of the scholars from various
education, socio-politics, geography, and religious backgrounds have discussed the association of religion
and community development. For instance, Herodotus disclosed the association of religion and society in
several early civilizations. (Rawlinson, 1862) The work of Herodotus was further continued by some
sociologists and anthropologists of religions until today. (Coleman, 2007, 297-304; Lidz, 2010, 76-102;
Davie, 2007, 98-109; Eller, 2007, 134-159)
Other examples that could be put forward here are, according to Roland Robertson, Max Weber’s
(1864-1920) thesis on the association of Protestantism with ethical work conducts in capitalism society
could be considered as a major reference of religion and community study. (1997, 313-314; 1958)
In Al-Quran Al-Karim and Al-Sunnah Al-Nabawiyyah Al-Mutahharah, descriptions on the Islamic
concept of community development could clearly be found. The religion of Islam views that community
development is significant to ensure the collective good of all people, not just in this world but also in the
hereafter. (Al-Quran Al-Karim, Al-Baqarah 2, ayat 201; Al-Quran Al-Karim, Al-A'raf 7, ayat 156 dan
Al-Quran Al-Karim, Al-Nahl 16, ayat 30) Islam also sees that community development means the
cooperation of people (the servants of Allah swt) on the basis of goodness, kindness, and mercy.
(Al-Quran Al-Karim, Al-Maidah 5, ayat 2) In addition to the principles, community development in Islam
also stands on the concept of ‘Islah’ which means collective kindness of all community members that
need to be practiced every day consistently. (Al-Quran Al-Karim, Hud 11, ayat 88; Al-Quran Al-Karim,
Al-Hujurat 49, ayat 9-10) Furthermore, the main principles of community development from the
Al-Sunnah Al-Nabawiyyah could be discovered from the discussions of Book of Al-Adab in Sahih
Al-Bukhari (1998, Hadith no. 5970-6226, 1158-1198) and Kitab Al-Birr Wa Al-Silah Wa Al-Adab in
Sahih Muslim (1998, Hadith no. 2548-2642,1029-1059).
In sum, the understanding of development in Islam, particularly when we are talking about
community development in Islam, touches on the issue of community values as well as principles and not
just the physical being of the community. The principles and values for examples justice and balance in
society are very important to promote continuous stability, and collective good and happiness among the
society members. This could promote unity and understanding which are so important to enable positive
development of community intellectually, spiritually, and physically. (Al-Attas, 2001, 88-92) Measuring
development merely from physical perspectives is dangerous because the scenario hides the true nature of
the community. (Al-Attas, 1995, 94-98; Al-Attas, 2007, 12)
The scholars of Islam has identified several principles of community development based on the
Al-Quran Al-Karim and Al-Sunnah Al-Nabawiyyah.For example, Ibn Ashur (1879-1972) identified four
general concepts of higher objectives of al-shariah to underpin human nature, or Al-Fitrah (Nature),
Al-Samahah (Goodness), Al-Hurriyyah (Freedom) dan Al-Haqq (Truth). (Ibn Ashur, 2001, 113-138)
Based on the four principles of human nature above, scholars have elaborate the concept of development
that has the element of guide (islah) on the community. Specifically, the concept of providing guidance to
the community or Islah could be viewed from the following characteristics: Good manner, protecting
justice and dignity, self-repentance, unity and solidarity of society, thankfulness, equality, freedom,
justice, and providing tolerance. (1985, 123-226) The basic principles of community development in
Islam should be the focus of Muslims’ major institutions, for example, the mosques and its officers. In the
next discussion, this article will further elaborate the nature of mosque leadership in Islamic society and
how leaders of mosques are so important to enable the community to fulfill the principles of community
in Islam as discussed before.

Imams and Leadership in Muslims’ Society

In discussing the roles of imams and mosque institutions in Malaysia or elsewhere, scholars have argued
at least two points. First, previous research have found that imams have always been associated with
religious leadership responsibility in Muslims’ community. Secondly, the institution where the imams
officially operating or mosques are understood in Islam as a religious center. Hence all activities
organized at the mosque, either spiritual, social, economical, or others, must strictly adhere to the overall
understandings and rules of the mosque as a religious center in Islam. In this regard, imams of mosque
and his mosque members, both organizational and social members, must observe the suitability of
activities organized at mosques in order to preserve its religious sensitivity. Only through this discipline,
an imam could be considered as effective function as religious leaders in any Muslims’ community. Thus,
it is very much foundational for everybody to perceive that imams can only hold leadership responsibility
when the criteria of religious leadership could be clearly seen in his activities or behaviors. In managerial
leadership behavior perspective, one question that ought to be investigated is how far religious criteria for
examples religious behavior and individual’s religiosity could be associated with effective managerial and
leadership behavior. This article will try to explore this question further by reviewing some of the
research conducted before that investigating the association of religiosity and leadership behavior.
Imams are normally highly-respected persons among the Muslims (Rogers, 1975; Wall & Callister,
1999) and functioning in the institution of the mosque (Mokhtar, 2003; Muhammad, 2008). The status of
imams in Malaysia is closely related to the traditions of the Islamic community in the country itself
(Abdullah, 2009; Rogers, 1975; Wall & Callister, 1999). In some studies conducted in specific Malaysian
states, imams are considered as a group of leaders that play important roles in the village community,
similar with the village headman, or Ketua Kampung (Abdul Wahab, 1993; Rogers, 1975; Wall &
Callister, 1999). In general, the researchers concluded that the imams could be considered as Malay
community religious leaders (Rogers, 1975; Wall & Callister, 1999). All of the points above stressed on
the issue that imams have leadership responsibilities in the Malaysian Muslim communities, particularly
in religious aspects. In order to understand the association of imams and leadership in the Muslim
community, we need to refer to the main sources of Islamic tradition, i.e., The Qur’an and The Sunnah
(The words and traditions of Prophet Muhammad SAW). We will discuss the association of imams and
leadership further according to Islamic tradition in the next paragraphs.
The holy book of Qur’an mentions the word imam twelve times, and the words indicate that the
meaning of imam is the leader of people (Ahmad Zaki, 2007). According to Ahmad Zaki (2007) in his
perspectives of Islamic administration, there are two major roles of the imam in Islam. The roles are
located both in the aspects of managing human life (hirasah ad-dunya) and also managing Islamic religion
(hirasah ad-din) (Ahmad Zaki, 2007). In addition, Ahmad Zaki (2007) also stressed that the word imam in
Islamic literature means a person that is responsible for leading others in both physical and religious
aspects. This shows that in Islamic civilization, the imam is the highest position that could be awarded to
a person in an Islamic country. The word imam in Islamic literature contains the same meaning as
khalifah, malik, or sultan, and all of the terms carry the definition of the highest leader in an Islamic
civilization (Ahmad Zaki, 2007). Thus, based on the discussions, we could see that the term imam has
already been discussed in the Qur’an and it refers to the duty of leadership of Islamic countries.
However, this conventional definition of the imam is not applicable in the context of Malaysia. This
is because the term imam in Malaysia only refers to mosque leaders or officers. In other words, the term
imam in Malaysia refers only to a position held by a person in a mosque institution (Ahmad Zaki, 2007).
Even though imams in Peninsular Malaysia were found to be carrying out some roles of leadership, and
thus could be considered as Muslim community religious leaders (Rogers, 1975; Wall & Callister, 1999),
their official job scope and functions with regard to the mosque institution and the Muslim community in
the country is limited (Ahmad Zaki, 2007; Mokhtar, 2003). In other words, imams in Malaysia do not
possess the legal authority and power to function in the local community as other government officers, for
example, the district officers (Mokhtar, 2003). The functions of imams are only limited to the activities of
mosques (Mokhtar, 2003). Mokhtar (2003) added that some of the responsibilities of imams in Malaysia
today are only to lead the five times daily prayers, delivering sermons during the Jumaah prayer, reciting
the dua’ (prayers), administering funeral processes, managing the process of nikah (marriage), leading the
activity of Quranic recitation (i.e. the recitation of Yassin and Tahlil at every Friday night conducted at
the mosque) and to conduct fard ul-ain (compulsory Islamic subjects) classes. This situation is
inconsistent with the traditions of the Islamic community, and many people have voiced their concern on
this issue.
In order to respond to the above argument, Wall and Callister (1999) further argued that imams in
Malaysia could be perceived as leaders only in community and family organizations. The argument is
consistent with Rogers (1975) that has conducted an early observation on Malay community leadership
which include the Village Headmen and imams. Nonetheless, some scholars in Malaysia urged that the
functions and job scope of imams in the country should be increased in order to enable them to function
effectively (Ahmad Kamil, 1991; Mokhtar, 2003). The leadership responsibilities include administering
education for the Muslim community, administering the development of Muslim youth, administering
charity and the needs of people who live in poverty, combating social illnesses in the Muslim community,
strengthening the economic condition of the Muslim community, increasing the quality of life of the local
people, disseminating information to the Muslim community, and many others. The suggestions have
been voiced out by scholars to relocate the position of imams as how it should be practiced in Islam. This
is based on the understanding that imams need to be respected as leaders because of their attachment to
the mosque. In addition, based on the job scope of mosques that should be expanded to community and
state level and not just organizational, imams as the religious figures of the institution should also be
given with greater responsibility as leaders at least in the aspect of administering the organizations and its
affairs.
In relation to this argument, this article founds that the element of religiosity and leadership of
imams should not be separated. Previous research have found the association between religiosity and
leadership in multiple contexts. For examples, religiosity has been found as a significance predictor of
leadership behavior in Christian religious organizations (Shee, Ji, & Boyatt, 2002; Bird, Ji, & Boyatt,
2004; Miles & Naumann, 2007). In addition to the research, Jouili and Amir-Moazami (2006) found that
religious educational practices have caused Muslim women in France and Germany to be empowered
with religious leadership responsibility. Thus, based on these arguments, this research sees that an
investigation to explore the scenario of imams and mosques performance in Malaysia needs to be
conducted. In order to do this, this research investigated several important variables related to mosque
performance and imams’ leadership. Mosque performance is viewed from three dimensions or first level
of attendance, the fund raised by the institution, and assets of the institution. Among the three dimensions,
this research uses mosque regular attendance as the basic variable measuring mosque performance than
the other two variables. In the aspect of imams’ leadership, three main variables that were investigated in
this research are imams’ religious values, imams’ motivation to lead, and imams’ leadership behavior.
Religious behavior was measured by using two dimensions or frequency of imams teaching and learning
Islamic subjects. Motivation to lead was measured through three dimensions or affective identity, non-
calculative, and social normative (Chan, 1999; Chan & Drasgow, 2002). Finally, imams’ leadership was
measured by using three dimensions or task-oriented, relation-oriented, and religious oriented. The
dimensions were adapted from Yukl (1999) and some modifications were made to incorporate religious
leadership behavior to suit the nature of imams as religious leaders. Based on Zaccaro, Kemp, and Bader
(2004), this research hypothesized that mosque performance could be attained through the functions of
distal and proximal leadership traits and leadership behavior. Distal traits investigated in this research is
religious values and the proximal trait is imams’ motivation to lead. Finally, Imams’ leadership behavior
was hypothesized could mediate the functions of distal and proximal trait to influence mosque
performance. Detail information on the research model could be viewed in figure 1 below:

Religios Motivation to
Values Lead Leadership
a. Religious a. Affective Behavior
Teaching Identity Mosque
a. Task Performance
b. Religious b. Non- b. Relation
Learning Calculative a. Attendance
c. Religious b. Fund
c. Religious c. Social-
Routines Normative c. Assets

Figure 1. Research Theoretical Model

Research Methodology

This section discusses the research design, sampling procedures and also the instruments used in this
research.

Research Design and Approach

This research adopted the survey research approach to explore the association of four main variables or
religious values, religious motivation, effective leadership behavior, and mosque performance. Based on
the nature of the survey approach (Kerlinger & Lee, 2000), this research applied quantitative techniques
in collecting and analyzing the data. Specifically, the data for this research were collected by using
measures and scales. Data for this research were collected from the population of imams in three states of
Peninsular Malaysia or Federal Territory Kuala Lumpur, Negeri Sembilan, and Selangor. In addition, this
research focuses on two categories of the mosque in the three states or the rural and urban mosque.
Referring to the objectives of this research, this research approached imams as the mosque leaders to
obtain responses on the four variables investigated. Further discussions on the instruments used for this
research will be discussed below.

Sampling and Data Collection Procedure

Based on the table of sample sizes prepared by Krejcie and Morgan (1970), the survey questionnaires
were a total of 111 survey items and 35 demographic questions were distributed to 250 imams around
urban and rural mosques at the three states in Peninsular Malaysia. Amongst the imams selected, 58 of
them returned the survey to be analyzed and the respond rate is 23.2 percent. This research adopted the
probability sampling technique or the simple random sampling technique in order to allow for data
generalisability (Osman, 2004; Hair et al., 2010). This means, this research considered the population of
imams in three states Peninsular Malaysia has equal chances to be selected as respondents for this study.
Specifically, information concerning population of imams in Malaysia was obtained from Sistem
Maklumat Imam dan Masjid or SISMIM 2010, Jabatan Kemajuan Islam Malaysia. SISMIM 2010 lists
only name of mosques and number of imams in Malaysia without specifying details of the imams in
Malaysia. Thus, by randomly selected the samples from the list of mosques as consist in SISMIM 2010,
this research expects that the sampling procedure is free from social desirability and biases. This is
because the researchers have no prior information concerning the imams that had been selected as
samples for this study.

Research Instruments

The demographic data collected for this research was divided into two sections, or respondents’
background section and mosque background section. Items in respondents’ background section are age,
position, experience, education, hours spent to teach and learn Islam, hours spend to read Quran,
frequency in performing supererogatory prayer, the frequency of contributing alms and sadaqah (charity),
and yearly income. Meanwhile, items in the category of mosque background are number of officers
(Chairman, Imam, Bilal, Siak, and Mosque Committee), number of residents under the monitoring of
mosque, average number of attendees in mosque congregational prayers daily, mosque weekly and daily
collection (money donation), and mosque assets (business premise, waqaf, land, others). All demographic
items are in open-ended form or the respondents are free to insert any information in the questionnaire
booklets. The researchers coded all the data given by the respondents. In general, this research obtained
both continuous and categorical data. Questions such as highest level of education and are re-coded as
categorical data. Meanwhile, questions such as the number of population, average number of congregants,
years working as imams, and others are coded as parametric data. Details elaboration on the data collected
for this research are explained in the next section.
In addition to the demographic data, this research used several instruments to measure the four
variables mentioned above. The dependent variable or mosque performance was measured by using three
items of demographic data or first mosque attendance, second mosque financial collection, and third
mosque assets. The independent variables for this research are imams’ religious values, imams’
motivation to lead, and imams’ leadership behavior. Religious values are measured by using several items
or hours spend by imams to teach Islam, learn Islam, and read Quran weekly, the frequency of imams
performing supererogatory prayers weekly, and the amount of money spent by imams to donate to Islam
in the form of alms and sadaqah. Motivation to lead in this research was measured by using three
dimensions or affective-identity, social-normative, and non-calculative motivation to lead adopted from
Chan and Drasgow (2001) and Chan (1999; 2007). Finally, leadership behavior of imams was measured
by using three dimensions or task-oriented, relation-oriented, and religious-oriented leadership behavior.
The measure was adapted from Yukl, Gordon, and Taber (2002) especially in measuring task and relation
oriented leadership behavior. Religious oriented behavior items were developed specifically for this
research by the researchers.

Assessment of Research Instruments

In this initial step of data analysis, data collected from the 58 samples was first examined to obtain a
statistically clean data (Hair et al., 2010). This section is divided into two subsections. First, the reliability
and validity of measures were used to collect the data for this study. Second is the analysis of normality.

1. Reliability and Validity of the Instruments

Analysis of reliability was only conducted on motivation to lead and leadership behavior measures. This
research measured the reliability of its scales by using Cronbach’s coefficient alpha test (Sekaran, 2003;
H. Osman, 2004; Pallant, 2001). This is because the two measures used the multipoint-scaled items
(Sekaran, 2003). The procedure of coefficient alpha checks for internal consistency of scale assesses
whether the items in the scale is measuring the same underlying constructs and whether the scales are free
from measurement error (Pallant, 2001; Sekaran, 2003; Thorndike, 2005). This research assumes the
scales used in this research are reliable if the Cronbach’s coefficient alpha scores of each tool exceed the
minimum scores highlighted by scholars which are 0.60 to 0.70 (Hair et al., 2010; Nunally, 1978).
Furthermore, for scales that have less than 10 items, this research assumes the scales are reliable if it
reached a minimum of 0.3 alpha values (Pallant, 2001).
Based on the data collected from the 58 samples, Cronbach’s alphas reported for the two measures
and its dimensions are presented in table 1 below. It is important to note that 2 other instruments used in
this research to measure religious values and mosque performance did not include in the Cronbach’s
alpha reliability analysis. This is because the tools contain mathematics and demographic questions.

Table 1. Cronbach’s alpha scores for the measures

Measures Cronbach’s Measures Cronbach’s
alpha alpha
1 Islamic Leadership 0.892 4 Religiosity Nil (Ratio
a. Task 0.636 Behavior Data)
b. Relation 0.723
c. Religious 0.789

2 Motivation to Lead 0.708 5 Mosque Nil (Ratio

a. Affective- 0.701 perfromance Data)
Identity 0.747
b. Non-Calculative 0.720
c. Social-
Normative

Based on table 1, the scales that were used to measure motivation to lead and leadership behavior in
this research have an average to high internal consistency with Cronbach’s alpha coefficient values
between 0.636 and 0.892 for all measurement scales and its dimensions. In the next few paragraphs, this
research presents some information concerning the procedures that were taken to establish the above
results of Cronbach’s alpha reliability analysis.
Cronbach’s alpha reliability score could also be used to support the validity of the instruments. In
addition, the validity of the instruments used in this research could be justified based on the fact that the
items and measurements used have its theoretical support. The analysis of mosque performance could be
measured by using record of the mosque or religious places attendance and activities (Fuga, 2006;
Eryilmaz, 2003; Brenner, 2011). Furthermore, according to literature, religiosity could also be measured
by using religious behaviors (Brenner, 2011; Eryilmaz, 2003). The other two measures or motivation to
lead and leadership behavior has its own theoretical supports (Chan & Drasgow, 2002; Yukl, Gordon, &
Taber, 2002). Based on the theoretical supports that the measures have as elaborated in the literature, this
research considers the variables and measures assessed in this research are valid and has theoretical roots.

2. Assessment of Normality

This research also assesses “the shape of the data distribution for an individual metric variable and its
correspondence to the normal distribution” (Hair et al., 2010). In order to assess the normality of metric
variables involved in this study, this study first assessed impacts due to sample size for this research (Hair
et al., 2010). This research gained data from 58 samples. According to Hair et al. (2010), for sample sizes
of 200 or more, the detrimental effects of departure from normality may be negligible. Therefore, based
on the 58 samples obtained from this research, we could assume that the effect of non-normality to this
research is significant. Furthermore, the Central Limit Theorem (CLT) states that as sample size
increases, the distribution of the means of random samples approaches a normal distribution (H. Osman,
2004, Zikmund, 1984). With regard to this research, based on the principle of CLT, this research argues
that the distribution of data collected from the 58 samples should be used cautiously to detect any
departure from the normal distribution. This research applied the test of Kolmogorov-Smirnov for the
Analysis of Normality. According to the theory, if the p-value is greater than 0.05, researchers would
accept the normally-distribution of data collected from the samples (Pallant, 2013). Results of
Kolmogorov Smirnov test in assessing normality could be viewed in table 2 below.

Table 2. Test of Kolmogorov-Smirnov for the Analysis of Normality

Measures Komlogorov-Smirnov Shapiro-Wilk
Statistic Df Sig. Statistic df Sig.
1 Islamic Leadership 0.077 58 0.200 0.990 58 0.907
2 Motivation to Lead 0.114 57 0.062 0.970 57 0.166
3 Religiosity Behavior 0.168 57 0.000 0.788 57 0.000
4 Mosque Attendance 0.224 58 0.000 0.764 58 0.000
5 Fund Raising 0.295 58 0.000 0.469 58 0.000
6 Assets 0.328 57 0.000 0.451 57 0.000

Based on table 2 above, the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test for assessing normality displays Significant
value greater than 0.05 for both multi-items measurements used in this research or first motivation to lead
(Sig. 0.166) and leadership behavior (0.907). The result signifies normal distribution for the two
continuous variables. Nonetheless, Sig. value for other variables and dimensions are less than 0.05
suggesting the normality distribution has not been answered. Thus, based on the results, this research
assumes that the generalizability issue for this research could only be met for two variables or motivation
to lead and leadership behavior. This is sufficient for this research because only leadership behavior and
motivation to lead were assessed by using multipoint-scaled items. Other variables were measured by
using ratio data (frequency). Thus, based on the fact that leadership behavior could be considered as
dependent variable for motivation to lead and religious values in predicting mosque performance as
display in figure 1, this research considers that the overall findings for this research could be generalized
to the population of imams in the three states of Peninsular Malaysia or Negeri Sembilan, Selangor and
Federal Territory of Kuala Lumpur.

Results and Discussion

This section discusses the data collected for this research. The discussions will be based on theoretical
framework of research as displays in figure 1.

Analysis of Background Data Imams and Mosques

Demographic data is essential to enable researchers to describe the sample characteristics (Sekaran,
2003). In this research, several demographic information questions were forwarded to the samples. This
research found 60.3 percent of the respondents are more than 60 years old and 39.7 percent less than 60
years old. This means the response collected are mostly from the elderlies. In relation to the position of
respondents in the mosque, 15.5 percent of the respondents are Nazir, 3.4 percent is Chairman of the
mosque, 46 percent is imams, and 1.7 percent is committee members. Imams dominated the list of
respondents and this signifies the data could be considered representing mosque leaders’ perspectives.
Moreover, Nazir and Chairman of the mosque are considered as also mosque leaders from mosque legal
perspectives in addition to imams. Mean of age found in this study is 55 years old. Furthermore, most
imams in Peninsular Malaysia have been appointed as imams between 1 to 10 years. Mean score found
for years the respondents serve as imams are 10.55 years. In the aspect of educational background, this
research found most of the imams completed either tertiary or secondary education. This research found a
high number of imams have a Bachelor Degree (25.9 percent) or Malaysia Certificate of Education (SPM)
(24.1 percent. At the tertiary level, in addition to a Bachelor Degree, the respondents have either a Ph.D.,
Master Degree, or a Diploma (1.7 percent, 3.4 percent, and 12.1 percent consecutively). At the secondary
level, in addition to Malaysia Certificate of Education (SPM), the respondents have either Malaysia
Higher Certificate of Education (STPM), Malaysia Higher Certificate of Religious Education
(STAM/STU), 4 Thanawi, Malaysia Certificate of Lower Religious Education (SMRA/SMU), and
Malaysia Lower Secondary Assessment (PMR) (1.7 percent, 1.7 percent, 8.6 percent, 5.2 percent, 1.7
percent consecutively). In sum, 43.9 percent of respondents completed tertiary education and 43 percent
of respondents completed secondary education. This signifies a balanced pattern of education of the
respondents between the two categories.
In addition to the career and education background, this research found 55.2 percent of data collected
are from respondents in Selangor, 10.3 percent from Kuala Lumpur, and 34.5 percent from Negeri
Sembilan. 31 percent of the mosque is considered rural mosques and 69 percent urban mosques. The
categorization of the urban and rural mosque is based on the geographical location of the mosques. If the
mosque is located in Kuala Lumpur or in the capital and other significant cities or towns in Selangor and
Negeri Sembilan, the mosques are considered to be urban mosques. Furthermore, this research found that
mean of residents around the mosque is 2,483 people. Data concerning the number of population could be
used to signify that imams in Peninsular Malaysia have a big responsibility if we measure it based on the
number of residents under their leadership as mosque leaders. Ironically, despite the large number of
residents, this research also found mean of Muslim residents whom regularly attend mosques for
congregational prayers as reported by the imams are low or 63.91 residents for Subuh prayer, 47.36 for
Zuhur prayer, 42.24 residents for Asar prayer, 86.64 residents for Maghrib prayer, and 80.29 residents for
Isya’ prayer. One aspect that this research did not specifically investigate is the composition of residents
based on gender. The information is quite important based on the fact that in Islam only males are
encouraged to perform congregational compulsory prayers at mosques. Females are encouraged to come
in other occasions for examples to participate in socio-education activities organized by mosques and
during religious festivals for examples the Eid ul-Fitr and Eid ul-Adha (Al-Jaziri, 2003). Nevertheless,
based on the fact that overall sex ratio in Malaysia is 105 males for every 100 females (Department of
Statistics Malaysia, 2010a, 2010b), the number of male congregants regularly attend mosques for
compulsory congregational prayers as found in this research could be considered as very low and
worrying. Furthermore, Malaysia is encompassed by the majority of people between the age of 15 to 64
years old or 68.1% of the total population of the country (Department of Statistics Malaysia, 2010c). This
data should also be concerned because it signifies most Muslim youths and adults in Peninsular Malaysia
did not attend mosques to perform compulsory congregational prayers regularly. Even though there
should be other important factors that contribute to the problem (e.g. the probability of Muslims perform
congregational prayers at home with their family or at Musallas, nature of employment that does not
permit the individuals to attend mosques regularly, sickness, location of mosques, or others) the fact
clearly shows us the attendance of Muslims in the major activity organized by mosques or congregational
prayers is very minimal and worrying. In general, the findings of this research is consistent with Hasni
and Abdullah (2004) on mosques at Perak, Idris et al. (1997), and Abdul Aziz et al. (2002) on mosques at
Perlis. Abdullah (2009) stressed this issue could be generalized to other states in Malaysia. Table 3 below
summarizes the background information of respondents for this research and Table 4 presents data of
population and mosque attendance in the three states.

Table 3. Descriptive Statistics for Demographic Variables

Characteristics N Percentage
1 Age Above 60 years old 35 60.3

Below 60 years old 23 39.7

2 Position Nazir 19 15.5

Chairman 2 3.4
Imam 46 79.3
Committee 1 1.7
Tertiary Level
4 Education PhD 1 1.7
Master Degree 2 3.4
Bachelor Degree 15 25.9
Diploma 7 12.1

Secondary School
STPM 1 1.7
SPM 14 24.1
STAM / STU 1 1.7
4 Thanawi 5 8.6
SMRA / SMU 3 5.2
PMR 1 1.7

Primary School 7 12.1

5 States Selangor 32 55.2
Kuala Lumpur 6 10.3
Negeri Sembilan 20 34.5
6 Mosque Categories Rural 18 31
Urban 40 69

The Association of Imams’ Religious Values, Motivation to Lead, Leadership Behavior, and
Mosque Performance.

As displays in figure 1, this study investigated the association of imams’ religious values, motivation to
lead, leadership behavior, and mosque performance. The overall premise of this research is mosque
performance is determined through the functions of religious behavior, motivation to lead and Islamic
leadership behavior of imams. Furthermore, based on the focus of this study, this research expects to
investigate the difference between urban and rural mosques in relation to Population, Mosque Attendance,
and Categories of Mosque.
 Table 4 presents descriptive data on population and mosque attendance for this research. The data is
significant because the comparisons between mosque attendance and population is considered as the focal
factor to identify the level of mosque performance. Mean of the population recorded for this research is
2,483.56 population. If we compare the number of mosque attendance in congregational prayers, the
percentage will be 2.57 percent for Subuh, 1.9 percent for Zohor, 1.7 percent for Asar, 3.48 percent for
Maghrib, and 3.23 percent for I’sya. The data should also be analyzed based on the number of males in
one area who is responsible for attending prayers or at least put efforts to ensure mosques are always
visited and active.

Table 4. Descriptive Statistics for Population and Mosque Attendance

Categories Mean Mode Medium

1 Population 2,483.56 1000 500

Mosque Attendance
1 Subuh 63.91 30 30
2 Zuhur 47.36 30 20
3 Asar 42.24 22.5 10
4 Maghrib 86.44 50 50
5 Isya’ 80.29 45 20

In addition to the descriptive analysis, the correlation results for all investigated variables are
presented in table 5 and 6.

Table 5. Correlation Matrix of Religiosity Behavior, Motivation to Lead, Islamic

Leadership, and Mosque Performance
Variable/Dimension M SD 1 2 3
1 Mosque Performance 64.05 68.22 1
2 Islamic Leadership 3.999 0.435 0.02*
3 Motivation to Lead 3.366 0.372 0.28 0.001**
4 Religiosity Behavior 8.912 8.23 0.101 0.03* 0.001**
*p < .05 (one-tailed) **p < .01 (one-tailed)

This research applied the one-tailed test for the correlation analysis because of two reasons. First, the
overall understanding of the research model is in a positive direction or in other words, the model does
not expect any negative significant association of the variables. Second, Mosque performance and
religious values are measured by using frequency or ratio data. Thus, this research expects that any values
inserted by the respondents as positive which mean the respondents have some practice on the two
variables. Therefore, based on table 5 mosque performance is found to have a significant association with
Islamic leadership (r = 0.02, p 0.05).Motivation to lead is also significantly associated with Islamic
leadership (r = 0.001, p. 0.01), and finally religious behaviors is significantly associated with Islamic
leadership and motivation to lead (r = 0.03, p 0.05; r = 0.001, 0.01 respectively). Moreover, table 6
presents correlation results of all dimensions. Mosque attendance is found to be significantly correlated
with mosque fund, the population, and religious-oriented leadership behaviour (r = 0.647, p 0.01;
 Table 6. Correlation matrix between dimensions (for multidimensional variables) and variables (one-dimensional variable)
Variable/Dimension M SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Mosque Performance
1 Attendance 64.08 68.22 1
2 Fund Raised 4566.01 8448.57 0.647** 1
3 Assets 449.15 1008.08 0.109 0.131 1

4 Population 2483.56 4902.41 0.555** 0.483** 0.299* 1

Leadership Behavior :
5 Task – Oriented 3.87 0.43 0.168 0.228* 0.070 0.062 1
6 Relation – Oriented 3.82 0.50 0.209 0.232* - 0.162 0.106 0.755** 1
7 Religious – Oriented 4.14 0.45 0.272* 0.291* -0.083 0.101 0.694** 0.728** 1

Motivation to Lead:
8 Affective-Identity 2.69 0.63 0.000 0.010 - 0.001 - 0.161 - 0.093 - 0.061 0.069 1
9 Non-Calculative 3.94 0.61 0.155 0.019 - 0.132 0.021 0.321* 0.329** 0.281* 0.281* 1
10 Social-Normative 3.35 0.52 0.004 0.008 - 0.061 -0.339** 0.387** 0.390** 0.385** 0.371** 0.043 1

11 Religious Behavior 8.91 8.23 0.171 0.063 0.135 0.004 0.304* 0.150 0.179 0.147 0.142 0.282* 1

*p < .05 (one-tailed) **p < .01 (one-tailed)

r = 0.555, p 0.01; r = 0.272, p 0.05 respectively). Mosque fund is significantly associated with the
population, task-oriented, relation-oriented, and religious-oriented leadership behaviour (r = 0.483,
p 0.01; r = 0.228, p 0.05; r = 0.232, p 0.05; r = 0.291, p 0.05 respectively). Mosque assets has only
significant correlation with the population (r = 0.299, p 0.05). Furthermore, task-oriented Islamic
leadership is significantly correlated with relation and religious oriented leadership, non-calculative and
social-normative motivation, and religious behaviour (r = 0.755, p 0.01; r = 0.694, p p 0.01; r = 0.321, p
0.05; r = 0.387, p 0.01; r = 0.304, p 0.05 respectively). Relation-oriented leadership is significantly
associated with religious-oriented leadership, and non-calculative as well as social-normative motivation
(r = 0.728, p 0.01; r = 0.329, p 0.01; r = 0.390, p 0.01 respectively). Motivational dimensions, or
affective-identity motivation has significant correlation with non-calculative and social-normative
motivation (r = 0.281, p 0.05; 0.371, p 0.01 respectively). Finally, social-normative motivation has
significant correlation with religious behaviour (r = 0.282, p 0.05). In sum, this research found a
significant positive association between mosque attendance, fund, and population. Furthermore, religious-
oriented leadership behavior has significant positive association with mosque attendance, mosque fund,
and two other leadership behaviors which show that all three dimensions of leadership are correlated
between each other significantly. Two motivational constructs that associated significantly with other
variables are non-calculative and social-normative motivation. This means that mosque leadership is
closed to social norms and social sacrifice rather than personal gain. Finally, religious behaviors are only
associated with task-oriented behavior and social-normative motivation. This shows that distal religiosity
trait when measured by using frequency of religious activities, is hard to be associated with other
variables. Nevertheless, religiosity values could be interpreted as significant when the values are
integrated with leadership dimensions. In other words, religious values should be embed in leadership
activities in order to increase the leadership effectiveness particularly in the aspect of religious leadership
phenomenon.
Furthermore, table 7 to 10 present results of hierarchical regression data analysis for the testing of
the research model. Based on table 7, this research found that the three variables or religious behavior,
motivation to lead, and Islamic leadership, when measured as a whole have not significant influenced
over mosque performance (attendance). Nevertheless, when we look into the dimensions of both Islamic
leadership and motivation to lead as presented in table 8, this research found that religious-oriented
leadership has significantly influenced over mosque performance (β 42.881, p 0.049). This means that,
when investigating mosque performance through the number of attendance of congregants as reported by
the imams, the religious-oriented behavior is the most influential behavior as compared to task and
relation oriented behavior.

Table 7. Results of Hierarchical Multiple Regression for the Testing of Religious Behavior, Motivation to Lead,
Islamic Leadership, and Mosque Performance
Mosque Performance (Attendance)
Model Summary Coefficients
R² / ∆R² F change B Stand. Sig.
Error
Step 1 0.029/ 0.011 1.636 0.206
Religious Behavior 1.420 1.110

Step2 0.050/ - 0.024 0.373 0.773

Motivation to Lead
 a. Affective Identity 4.362 16.621 0.794
b. Non-Calculative 16.151 16.164 0.322
c. Social-Normative - 8.223 19.748 0.679

Step 3 0.116/ - 0.013 1.190 0.273

Islamic Leadership
a. Task-Oriented -5.151 36.245 0,888
b. Relation-Oriented 8.999 32.014 0.780
c. Religious-Oriented 39.215 31.817 0.224

*p < .05 (two-tailed) **p < .01 (two-tailed)

Table 8. Results of Hierarchical Multiple Regression for the Testing of Motivation to Lead,
Islamic Leadership (Religious Oriented), and Mosque Performance

Mosque Performance (Attendance)

Model Summary Coefficients
R² / ∆R² F change B Stand. Sig.
Error

Step1 0.06/ - 0.012 0.482 14.292 24.634 0.564

Motivation to Lead

Step 2
0.76/ 0.041 4.060 0.049*

Islamic Leadership
a. Religious-Oriented 42.881 21.281 0.049*

*p < .05 (two-tailed) **p < .01 (two-tailed)

Moreover, based on table 9, this research also conducted a hierarchical regression analysis to the
influence of religious behavior and motivation to lead toward Islamic leadership behavior. Based on the
table, motivation to lead has influence over Islamic leadership at 0.01 level of significance. Specifically,
out of the three dimensions of motivation, social-normative motivation to lead has significant influence
over Islamic leadership (β 0.356, p 0.01). This means that social-normative motivation as more
influential over Islamic leadership of imams. The results are significant to signify that social-normative
motivation to lead as influential to Islamic leadership. Moreover, when investigating only the influence of
the dimensions of motivation toward Islamic leadership, this research found that non-calculative and
social-normative have a significant influence on Islamic leadership (β - 0.294, p < 0.00). Thus, H4 in this
research is accepted. Moreover, in the same table, this research also found the imams’ motivation to lead
or MTL (H7) also influenced their leadership behavior significantly (β 0.434, p < 0.00). This means H7 is
also accepted.
Specifically, according to table 9, this research found only one dimension of MTL or social-
normative MTL (H7c) influenced the imams’ leadership behavior significantly (β 0.183, p 0.05; β 0.376,
p. 0.01). Nonetheless, when investigating mosque attendance as the parameter for mosque performance,
only religious-oriented leadership has influence over the variable and not motivation or religious
behaviors. This signifies that leadership behavior is important to determine mosque attendance in rural
and urban mosques around the three investigated states.

Table 9. Results of Hierarchical Multiple Regression for the Testing of Religious Behavior,
Motivation to Lead, and Islamic Leadership

Islamic Leadership
Model Summary Coefficients
R² / ∆R² F change B Stand. Sig.
Error

Step1 0.058/ 0.041 3.329 0.013 0.007 0.074

Religious Behavior

Step 2

Motivation to Lead 0.285 / 0.229 0.227 0.003**

a. Affective Identity -0.066 0.092 0.474

b. Non-Calculative 0.172 0.090 0.061
c. Social-Normative 0.356 0.109 0.002**
*p < .05 (two-tailed) **p < .01 (two-tailed)

Moreover, this research conducted mean comparisons applied Independent Sample T-Test to
investigate the difference between imams in rural and urban mosques in relation to the four variables
investigated. Results for the analysis is presented in table 10. According to Pallant (2001) and Hair et al.
(2010), if the level of significant is less than 0.05, this research interpreted the results of Levene’s Test for
Equality of Variances by using equal variances are not assumed. Based on table 10, all variables will be
based on equal variances assumed data and only mosque performance will be based on equal variances
not assumed data. In relation to mosque performance, this research found that there is a significant
difference in mosque performance (mosque attendance) between mosques in rural and urban areas of the
three investigated states (t 6.154, p 0.000). Nonetheless, the situation is different for the other three
variables. The results indicate that imams in both rural and urban areas have no difference in religious
behaviors, motivation to lead, and Islamic leadership. The difference is only detected for the mosque
performance (mosque attendance) variable. One scenario that could be used to interpret this result is, the
difference of mean between population and mosque attendance for both rural and urban mosques is high
(see table 11). Mean of the population for urban mosques is 5980 and attendance are 82.57. Meanwhile,
mean of the population for the rural mosque is 2483.56 and attendance are 64.05. In sum, by comparing
the mean of attendance and population of the two categories of the mosque, this research found that
percentage of mosque attendance for urban mosque is 2.14 percent and the rural mosque is 2.57 percent.
Even though the difference of percentage is slim, the pattern of attendance of the two categories of
mosques is different. Nonetheless, based on the fact that the attendance of mosque in congregation
prayers as reported by the imams for both categories of mosques is less than 3 percent, this research
considers this issue to be very worrying and warrants further investigation..

Table 10. Independent Sample T-Test for the Testing of Religious Behavior, Motivation to
Lead, Leadership Behaviour, Mosque Performance and category of mosque (Urban and Rural Mosque)
Levene’s Test for T-Test for Equality of Means
Equality of
Variances
Mean Mosque Sig. (2- Mean Std. Error
Performance f Sig. t. df. tailed) Difference Difference
Equal Variances 19.848 0.000 6.154 56 0.000 92.853 15.088
Assumed
Equal Variances 4.609 19.480 0.000 92.853 20.143
Not Assumed
Mean Sig. (2- Mean Std. Error
Motivation to f Sig. t. df. tailed) Difference Difference
Lead
Equal Variances 0.016 0.901 0.327 55 0.745 0.03498 0.106
Assumed
Equal Variances 0.311 29.431 0.758 0.03498 0.112
Not Assumed
Mean Sig. (2- Mean Std. Error
Religious f Sig. t. df. tailed) Difference Difference
Behavior
Equal Variances 2.492 0.120 1.056 55 0.296 2.516 2.383
Assumed
Equal Variances 0.882 21.610 0.387 2.516 2.851
Not Assumed
Mean Islamic Sig. (2- Mean Std. Error
Leadership f Sig. t. df. tailed) Difference Difference
Equal Variances 1.898 0.174 0.685 56 0.496 0.085 0.124
Assumed
Equal Variances 0.793 47.256 0.432 0.085 0.107
Not Assumed

Table 11. Mean Comparison between Population, Mosque Attendance, and Categories of Mosque
Mosque Categories Mean Mean
Population Attendance
Urban Mosque N 15 18
Std. deviation 8447.16 82.57
Mean 5980 128.08

Rural Mosque N 40 40
Std. Deviation 1094.4 32.94
Mean 2483.56 64.05

Total N 55 58
Std Deviation 4902.41 68.22
Conclusion

In this research, based on the descriptive data presented, we have achieved several conclusions. First, we
have found that the level of participation of Muslims in congregational prayers at mosques is very
worrying with only between 2 percent to 4 percent across the four regions in Peninsular Malaysia.
Second, even though mosques in middle regions recorded to organize more activities as compared to
other regions in Peninsular Malaysia and recorded to have a higher number of financial donation, the
results do not reflect the number of participation in congregational prayers at mosques in the middle
region. This is because the middle region mosques found to receive the lowest percentage of participation
based on the number of Muslims’ residents around the mosques. Third, the individual donation is still to
be the most primal source of financial strength of mosques in the four regions of Peninsular Malaysia.
The finding indicates that the issue of low mosque participation must be resolved since it could effect the
financial stability of the institution. Fourth, only mosques in middle regions have more imams with first
degree level of education, while the other three regions have only imams with primary, secondary, and
diploma education. Fifth, majority of the imams in Peninsular Malaysia is either working or have
experienced working as school educators, lectures, and government servants. Sixth, based on the overall
background data found in this research, we found inconclusive answers to the phenomenon of low
participation of mosques in Peninsular Malaysia. This means that the phenomenon of low participation of
mosques in Peninsular Malaysia should be investigated further by incorporating more situational variables
and not just mosques and imams.

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