i i CHAPTER 5 Complex Numbers Complex numbers are usually introduced by considering a quadratic equation of the type x? — x +1 = 0, where the quacratic formula gives where i = /=Tis the imaginary unit. A number of the form a + ib, where @ and are real numbers, is called a complex number. Ifa = 0, then x = ib is called an imaginary number. The message here is that we must introduce imaginary numbers in order to be able to solve quadratic equations in general. It shouldn't be surprising that initially there was a great resistance to the introduction of complex numbers it took many years for them to be accepted as legitimate members of our jinary number” seems to convey a certain and tha ‘number system, The very na numbers. ee of mysticism to 1 If complex numbers had arisen only with quadratic equations, then it might have been easy to reject them by asserting that the equation x? — x + 1 = 0 has no solutions. After all, we're probably comfortable saying that sin x = 2 has no solution for real values of x. Historically, imaginary numbers were most puzzling in the study of the solutions to cubic equations, Consider the cubic equation x? + 2x! x2 = 0. You can verify by inspection that this equation has three real roots, 1 and —2. Yet when you solve this equation using the standard (fairly messy) formula for calculating the three Toots, square roots of negative numbers occur at several intermediate steps. The final results are the three real roots, so itis apparent that the occurrence of imaginary numbers doesn’t invalidate any of the formulas. Eventually, mathematicians came not only Yo tolerate innaginary wmlbers WAG cembrace them fully.You might wonder if more complicated polynomial equations (such as 17th e equations) require the introduction of types of numbers “beyond” complex jed nothing less than the fundamental theorem of algebra, which says that ever degree polynomial equation, ayx" + ay-ix"-! +--+ ax + ay 0, Complex Numbers and the Complex Plane said in the introduction, a number ofthe form a +ib, where a and b are real and i? = —1, is called a complex number. Usually, we write a complex x +iy 6.) is the real part of z and y isthe imaginary part, which we express as x = Re(e) y = Im(z) (5.2) add or subtract complex numbers by adding or subtracting their real and parts separately. For example, if z) = 2+ 3i and 2» = 1 — 4i, then 2-1) +(3-(-4li +n 3i) +30 ~ 41) = 4 4 6143 — 120 = 7-61 @ multiply complex numbers together, we simply multiply the two quantities ls and use the fact that i? = —1, For example, (2-3 +21) = 6 431-441 — 27? =-44+71 ide complex numbers, it is convenient to introduce the complex con 2, which we denote by :* and form by replacing / by ~i. For example, + iy, then z* =x ~ iy. Note that a complex number multiplied by its B conjugate is a real quantity (r+ iy) = pei oot of z2* is called the magnitude or the absolute value of |e}. Consider now the quotient of two complex numbers:chapter 5: Complex Numbers, “This ratio can be written in the form x +iy if we multiply both the numerator and the denominator by 1 — 2i, the complex conjugate of the denominator: 241 ( =) 4-31 43 142i \T=2 3 EXAMPLE 5-1 ‘Show that SOLUTION: (2) -558 x+iy \x-ty, w+y | } Because complex numbers consist of two pars, areal part and an imaginary part, we ean representa complex number bya pointin two-dimensional coordinate {stem where the real partis plotted along the horizontal (x) axisand the imaginary partis plotted along the vertical (») axis, as shown in Figure 51. The pane of such a figure is called the complex plane, If we draw a vector from the origin of this Figure 5.1. Representation of figure tothe point: = (x.y), then the length of the vector, = («7 + 917i companies = IVS eager able ale of: The angle a eves maker wih the x axis is the argument of z. ‘The plane of this figure is called the complex plane EXAMPLE 5-2 Determine the curve in the complex plane that is described by [=~ 1 SOLUTION Je Male D+ il alee IP +? and so [z~ I| = 2 corresponds to (-1pty=4 which is a crete of radius 2 centered at x = 1, y = 0 Figure 5.2), : — | “The addition of two numbers in the complex plane has a nice geometrical in- terprettion. Figure 5.3 illustrates the addition ofz) = x1 +iy1 and zn =a +32 fees, Te peetn hae Dana tn anlar peda ees and 22, We say (en ip +9? = 4hinthe complex plane. that the addition of z) and zp satisfies the, parallelogram law.to Figure 5.1, we see that we can represent a complex number < is eos sin? 64) cos +ir sind (55) ye 1 from the origin to the point (x, y) and tnd = 3.7) id above, the angle 6 is called the argument of z and r is its magnitude, denote these two quantities by @ = argz and r = ||. Equation 5.5 is the polar form of | +4 in polar form, ESSOLUTION: ‘The magnitude of z is V2 and tané = tre 5.4 shows, the angle 6 lies in ‘Thus, the polar form of < is As Fig- second quadrant, so 9 = 37/4. VA (eos +isin®) The Example above illustrates the fact that you must be aware in which quadrant Bie angle lies. Ifyou use ahand calculator to evaluate tan~(—1), you'll get —7/4 Phe reason for ths is that tan~! 6 is a multivalued function (Problem S-3) “Another way to express z = x +iy in terms of rand 0 is by using Euler’ formula, elf = 050 +i sind 68 which is derived in Problem 5-14, Using Equation 5.8, we can express 2 as r(cosd + i sin8) = re” 69) complex numbers, 2) and Figure 5.4 Figure 5.3. A geometrical interpretation ofthe addition of two ‘The complex number in polar form.Chapter 5: Complex Numbers EXAMPLE 5-4 Show that e°* = cos# — i sin@ and use this result and the polar repre- sentation of z to show that |e!| = 1 SOLUTION: To prove that e°! = cos ~ i sind, we use Equation 5.8 and the fact that cos is an even function of 6 [cos(—#) = cos] and that sin is an odd function of @ (sin(~#) = — sin 6]. Therefore, e-"9 = cos(—6) + i sin(—#) = cos 6 — i sind E Furthermore, (cos @ +1 sin8\(cos ~ i siné)) (cos? 8 + sin* 8)! EXAMPLE 5-5 bes Bypess y= 1-0 and zy = 1 ~1 in terms of Euler formula ES Ss SOLUTION: In both cases, r = v2. The point z = I + / lies in the first ee tan'(L n/4,and 3 a= vier" : have the same value of y/x. Once again, we see that you must be aware in which quadrant the angle 6 lies. Multiplying and dividing complex numbers is easy in polar form: nize = (rie! yrne For example, the product of z) and z2 in Example 5-5 is ziz2 = 2e%* 2¢'/2 = —2i and their ratio is 21/22 ‘We can use the polar form of complex numbers to derive many trigonometric identities, For example, start with eaeb = gitar‘Unapter 5: Complex Numbers and write (cose + i sina) (cos B +i sin) = cos(a +A) +isin(a + 6) Expand the left side and equate the real and imaginary parts of both sides to get cos. cos B — sina sin = cos(a +B) sina cos B + cosa sin = sin(a +A) ‘The expression e!® occurs frequently in physical applications. Because = cos wt +i sinat, this expression has the physical interpretation of a unit vector (a vector whose length is one) that rotates about the origin in the complex plane in @ counterclockwise direction with a frequency of w radians per second (Figure 5.5). Given this interpretation, e~' canbe viewed asa unit vector rotating ina clockwise direction. ‘We can also use Euler's formula to derive the formulas (Problem 5-10) (5.10) oaee sind = SF and co ? ‘These two formulas have anice geometrical interpretation. Consider cos ot = (€% + e-lst)/2, As we said above, 0/2 may be viewed as a vector rotating in the complex plane in a counterclockwise direction and e~'™'/2 may be viewed as one rotating in a clockwise direction, as shown in Figure 5.6. At ¢ = 0, the sum of the two vectors points @ unit length along the positive real axis. AS f evolves, the two vectors rotate in opposite directions in such @ way that their ‘vertical components cancel and the sum of their horizontal components oscillates back and forth between +1 and —1 with a frequency of w radians per second, according to cost We can use Equations 5.10 to derive trigonometric identities. For example, sina cos 8 = 1 1 5 sind +B) + 5 singe — B) ‘We can also use Equations 5.10 to evaluate integrals involving sin.x or cos x i EXAMPLE 5-6 Evaluate tm [Cetsnea e>o by using Equation 5.10. 589 Figure 5.5, The expression e* has the physical interpretation of a unit veetor that is rotating about the origin in a counterclockwise direction at a frequency of w radians per second, Figure 6.6. Geometrical {interpretation ofthe expression concor = (et 4 2/2,Chapter 5: Complex Numbers SOLUTION: I= ~4(4--4)-2 i ati) ~ date = ‘We can evaluate / in Example $6 another way. Because e!" econo [Ce sneas=im [eng = cost +i sint, =im(—) This procedure gives us as a by-product. “oosrdt = Re [ ee—ay =Re( EXAMPLE 5-7 Summations such as 50) = cosnd ‘occur in group theory, crystallography, and optics. Derive a closed ex- pression for S() SOLUTION: We express cos nd as (e+ e~!)/2 and use Equation 3.2 with x =e, Therefore, we have 2( — cos) where in getting to the last line we combined the two terms and used Equation 5.10 several times (see Problem 5-24), " I‘Chapter 5: Complex Numbers 4 Problems. 5-1, Find the real and imaginary parts of the following qua A-P Her Ere — g) (VI+AEM? $2, rmx + Diy, then find (@) Re(et) (6) Re(e!)—() Im?) (A) Re(ez*)_—_(@) Imbez*) 5-3. Determine the value of tan“! @ for te folowing complex numbers: @-1-i W-14#i WI-i =i ‘5-4. Express the following numbers in the form re 6 )4- VBI 1-2 AHF 5-5, Express the following complex numbers inthe form x + iy Gee) GED Ge) eH (4) eit 4 nl 5-6, Discuss the statement that multiplying @ complex number by has a geometric inuerpretation of rotating the number by 90° counterclockwise inthe complex plane, 5-7. Prove that 5-8. Show that Re 5-9, Determine the region inthe complex plane described by |< 5-10. Show that cos = (e!¥ + e~!#)/2 and that sind = (e” ~ e°i8)/2i —1. Comment on the nature ofthe numbers in tis relation. (e+ 2")/2 and that km (2) = +13 5-11, Use Equation 5.8 1 derive the formula of de Moivre, cosnd +i sind = (cos0 + i sind Use the formula of de Moivee to derive the trigonometric identities £0828 = cos? @ ~ sin’ @ sin26 = 2sind cose £0830 = cos! — 3c0s0 sin? A = 40s! — 30s sin30 = 3cos?@ sing — sin'@ = 3sine — 4sin’ 5-12, Evaluate (a) (1-47)! and (b) (1 =". 5-13, Consider the set of functions 1 (6) = i v2; First show that ~ for all values of m #0 [voun{ go ea Now show that O30)8(0)d6 ieee62 ‘Chapter 5: Complex Numbers 5-14. This problem offers a derivation of Bulers formula. Start with 110) = In(cos0 + isiné) Oy Show that af : ei 2 fa @ [Now integrate both sides of equation 2 to obtain {(@) =In(e0s0 + isin®) = 18 +6 @ ‘where ¢ i a constant of integration, Show that ¢ = 0 and then exponentate equation 3 to obtain Euler's formula 5-15. Wecan use Euler’ formula and the formulas of de Moivre (Problem 5-11) to evaluate @ host of integrals, First show that [eedeno nasa, Use this result to show that [Now use the same method to show that [ coseae = [ satoao= (See the following problem.) 5-16. Here is another way to evaluate cos d9 and sin #d@ (ae the previous oblem). First write cos@ as "Now use the binomial theorem inthe form 2 en)! nee : Ct aaa to show that ee ent cos" 40 = 7 OO [ Bae Use a similar approach to show that : ae en! sin 69 m= 0,1,2, i mF O14 S17. Use Euler's formula to show that cosix = coshx and sinix =/sinhx "Now show that sinhix = isinx and coshix = cosplex Numbers. Buler’s formula to show that cosacos 8 = B) L sinarsinl = 5 cos(a ~ 9) ~ 5 costar 6) 1. The equation x" = 1 has is problem shows how to find the Wedistnct roots, called the N roots of unity, EN roots of unity. We shall see that some of the roots turn out to be complex, so Tets write the equation as 2" = 1. Now let z = e and obtain e' = lor cos NO +i sin NO = 1 [Now argue that N@ = 2m, where m has the W distinct values D,1,2..... N= 1 or thatthe N roots of unity ate given by a Neat ‘Show that we obtain z = J and z= 1 for N= and N= 2, respectively, Now show that - and = 3 279 for N = 3. Show that each of these roots is of unit magnitude, Plot these three ‘roots inthe complex plane. Now show that z = 1, i, ~1,and ~i for N = 4 and that for N = 6, Plot the four roots for N= 4 and the six roots for N= 6 in the complex plane. Compare the plots for WV = 3, N = 4, and W’ = 6, Do you seea pattern? 5-21. Using the results ofthe previous problem, ind the 2 distinct roots of 5-22, The Schwarz inequality says that if) = x, + iy, and zy = #2 + iy then |. To prove tis inequality, start with its square aunt yin S lel Le (mst yo? < + yDad +9) Now use the fact that (x;y aay)? > Oto prove 5-23, Starting with O° e-#* dx = J ‘nto real and imaginary parts to show that creer: (1 = fy-VZand separate the result 5-24. Show that