INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PRECISION ENGINEERING AND MANUFACTURING Vol. 14, No. 7, pp.

1271-1283 JULY 2013 / 1271

DOI: 10.1007/s12541-013-0174-z

Hardfacing Technologies for Improvement of Wear

Characteristics of Hot Working Tools: A Review

Dong-Gyu Ahn1,#
1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Chosun University, 309 Pilmundaero, Dong-gu, Gwang-ju, South Korea, 501-759
# Corresponding Author / E-mail: smart@chosun.ac..kr, TEL: +82-62-230-7043, FAX: +82-62-230-7234

KEYWORDS: Hardfacing technology, Wear characteristics, Hot working tools, Hardfacing materials, Service life, Key technology, Application of hardfacing, Future research issues

The severe operation conditions of the hot working process lead to premature failure of the hot working tools. The dominant
failure of hot working tools is wear of the tool surfaces induced by the thermal softening phenomenon. Several researchers
related to the service life extension technology of hot working tools paid attention to the protective overlay coating technology,
so called hardfacing, for preventing premature wear of the hot working tool. This paper reviewed recent research on the
application of hardfacing technology to hot working tools. In addition, the key technology and the state-of-the art of the hardfacing
technology related to improvement of the wear characteristics of hot working tools were discussed. Finally, future research issues
of the hardfacing technology to enhance the service life and wear characteristics of the hot working tools were described.

Manuscript received: May 15, 2013 / Accepted: June 17, 2013

operation temperature (≥ 500oC), (b) large forming load, (c) high

NOMENCLATURE
velocity impact, (d) repeated sliding of the hot workpiece, and (e)
V = wear volume repeated thermal and mechanical loads.10-12 These severe operation
k = wear coefficient conditions lead to premature failure of the dies.12-14 Hence, the service
L = sliding distance life of hot-working tools is shorter than that of cold-working tools.
P = applied normal force Typical failures of the hot forming tools are wear, mechanical
H = hardness fatigue, plastic deformation, and thermal fatigue, as shown in Fig.
T = temperature 1.8,9,11,12,15-17 Lange et al. reported that the cause of the dominant failure
of hot forging dies is wear of the tool surfaces.8,9 In addition, they also
reported that the frequency of the wear failure forms nearly 70 % of the
typical failure.8,9,11,16,17 Representative failures of the die-casting tools
1. Introduction are erosion wear and thermal cracking as well as soldering and

Hot working processes, such as hot forging, hot rolling, hot extrusion,
hot stamping, die-casting, etc., were widely used to mass-produce
metallic and non-metallic parts.1-4 The quality of hot working tools
affects the dimensional accuracy and properties of the final products.5,6
Tooling costs of the tools consists of 5-30% of the total manufacturing
cost.7,8 In the mass-production, the maintenance cost of the tools
occupies a dominant tooling cost.8,9 The maintenance cost can be
curtailed by an increase in the service life of the tools.8,9 In addition, the
material and energy used in the fabrication and reworking of the tool
elements can be reduced by improvement of the service life of the tools.8 Fig. 1 Typical failures of warm and hot forming tools and its
Hot working tools must endure severe operation conditions: (a) high frequency8,9,11

© KSPE and Springer 2013

 1272 / JULY 2013
corrosion.10,18,19 Venkatesan et al. reported that the major failure pattern
of die-casting tools is the wear of the tool surfaces.10,19 Several research
papers described that the wear of hot working tools is induced by
thermal softening of the tools as well as local bonding between the die
and the workpieces.8,9,20-22
Wear volume is highly dependent on the wear coefficient, the
hardness, the applied normal force, and the sliding distance, as shown
in Eq. (1).20,21,23-25 The hardness decreases when the temperature of the
material increases.20,21,23,24 This is due to the fact that the decomposition
ratio of martensites in the tool steel to ferrites and carbides increases
when the temperature of the tool steel augments. The hardness of hot
working tool steel rapidly decreases when the temperature of the tool
steel is larger than A1 ( ≅ 723oC). This is because martensites in the tool
steel are fully transferred to ferrites and carbides. Fig. 2 shows the
Vicker’s hardness of SKD61 tool steel for different temperatures.23,24
k ( T )LP
V ( T) = ------------------ (1)
H(T)
One of the representative methodology to improve the hardness and
the service life of hot working tools is heat treatment technology.21,22,26
Although the heat treatment is applied to the hot working tools,
annealing of the tool surfaces takes place through the repeated hot
working process.21-24 As a result, the hardness of the tool surfaces
decreases during the hot working process. Because the heat treatment
is generally applied to the entire tool, the heat treatment can give rise
to the undesired deformation of the tools.27,28 Another way of
increasing the hardness of the hot working tool is to use the surface
coating technology.8,11,19,29-31 Various wear protective coating technologies,
such as gas nitriding, plasma nitriding, plasma vapor deposition,
chemical vapor deposition, etc., were applied to the hot working tool
for the improvement of the wear resistance. The thickness of the coated
layer is less than 100 mm. The coating technologies create a brittle
layer on the tool. Several research papers reported that the wear
protective coating may not resist the applied large forming load and
high velocity impact during the repeated hot working process due to the
delamination failure of the coated layer.12,30,32 In addition, the crack is
rapidly propagated into the protective coating, when a crack is initiated
in the coated layer.
Several researchers related to the life extension technology of the
hot working tools paid attention to the protective overlay coating
technology, so called hardfacing, to overcome the disadvantages of heat
and surface coating technologies for hot working tools.12,32-35 The
hardfacing technology utilizes the concept of the functionally graded
Fig. 2 Influence of the temperature on the Vickers hardness of SKD61
tool steel23,24
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PRECISION ENGINEERING AND MANUFACTURING Vol. 14, No. 7
material and product (FGM & FGP), which can be used to fabricate
heterogeneous materials with selectively different properties, to obtain
the desired properties and characteristics of the coated layer.36,37
Because the hardfacing technology can create a strong metallurgical
bond between the coated material and the tool steel, it is possible to
prevent spalling and delamination of the hardfaced layer.12 The
hardfacing technology can use a wide range of deposition material to
achieve the desired performance and characteristics of the coated
layer.34,35 The thickness of the hardfaced layer can be controlled
according to the designed dimension. The thickness of the hardfaced
layer is generally greater than 1 mm. With the advent of a high density
energy source, a rapid tooling process and a flexible manufacturing
system, the applicability and productivity of the hardfacing technology
were noticeably improved.34,36
This paper reviews recent research works related to the application
of the hardfacing technology to the hot working tools. In addition, the
key technology and state-of-the art of the hardfacing technology related
to the improvement of wear characteristics of hot working tools are
discussed. Finally, future research issues of the hardfacing technology
to enhance the service life of hot working tools are described.
2. Principle and Methodology of Hardfacing Technology
Fig. 3 illustrates the principle of hardfacing technology. In
hardfacing technology, tougher and harder materials are deposited on
the base part.8,38 Hardfacing technology is generally used to improve
the wear and corrosion resistances of a new part as well as to restore
worn-down and damaged surfaces.12,33,35,36,38,39
In order to apply hardfacing technology to a part, the part is
decomposed into the hardfaced layer and the base part, as shown in
Fig. 4. The dimensions and the application region of the hardfaced
layer are determined by the physical intuition, the engineering analysis
and the experiment. Thus, the decomposition surfaces are estimated to
divide the hardfaced layer from the base part. Because of the size and
shrinkage of the deposited bead as well as stair steps on the side
surfaces, the hardfacing technology is difficult to create an accurate
shape of the hardfaced layer.36 Hence, tool path data for the post-
processing of the hardfaced layer, such as grinding, polishing, etc., are
Fig. 3 Principle of hardfacing technology
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PRECISION ENGINEERING AND MANUFACTURING Vol. 14, No. 7 JULY 2013 / 1273

needed to improve dimensional accuracy of the hardfaced part. In order
to consider the depth of the post-processing in the design status, the
offset design of the part geometry is needed, as shown in Fig. 4.36
The characteristics and performance of the hardfaced layer are
highly dependent on the hardfacing material and the thickness of the
hardfaced layer as well as the types and process parameters of the
deposition process.39-43 Cobalt-base alloys, nickel-base alloys and iron-
base alloys were widely used to hardface tool surfaces.12,40,41,43-45
Hardfacing technology can be classified into welding, laser cladding,
and direct metal rapid tooling types according to the deposition
process.12,13,34,36,39-43
3. Hardfacing materials
3.1. Cobalt-base superalloys
Cobalt-base superalloys were conventionally used to hardface tool
steel surfaces due to their excellent wear, corrosion and heat
resistances.13,44-48 In addition, the cobalt-base superalloys have better
thermal fatigue resistance and weldability than nickel-base
superalloys.44,47 Table 1 shows the nominal compositions of cobalt-base
superalloys. The main compositions of the cobalt-base superalloys are
cobalt (Co) and chromium (Cr).43,44,52 Higher chromium composition
improves the corrosion resistance at high temperature regions.43,44 The
nickel constituent increases ductility.43,43 Tungsten (W), molybdenum
(Mo) and carbon (C) components improve wear characteristics.44
Chromium, tungsten molybdenum, and carbon carbides in the cobalt
matrix strengthen the cobalt-base superalloys.43,44,51,52 Cobalt-base
superalloys have a superior weldability and thermal fatigue resistance
to nickel-base superalloys.44 Unlike the nickel-base and iron-base
superalloys, the cobalt-base superalloy can be melted in air and argon
environments.44,53
The Stellite family is the most popular co-base supperalloys to
hardface the tool steel.13,40-44,49-55 Fig. 5 shows the variation in the
hardness of hardfacing materials according to temperature.56-59 The
Stellites have a superb resistance to corrosive, erosive, abrasive, and
metal-on-metal wear conditions up to nearly 90 % of their incipient
metal temperature.43,44 Nickel, iron (Fe), carbon, silicon (Si), and boron
(B) constituents increase impact wear resistance and working
temperature of the Stellites. Stellite 6 and Stellite 21 were widely used
to hardface the tool steel.52 The incipient melting temperatures of
cobalt, Stellite 6 and Stellite 21 are nearly 1,495oC, 1,350oC and
1,280oC, respectively.44 Several researchers reported that Stellite 6 is
inadequate for impact loading conditions.12
3.2. Nickel-base superalloys
Because cobalt is a scarce material, the powder of cobalt-base
superalloys is more expensive than that of nickel-base superalloys.44,60
The maximum working temperature of the iron-base superalloys is
lower than that of the nickel-base superalloys.61 The nickel-base
superalloys were applied to load-bearing parts operated at a
temperature in excess of 80% of its incipient melting temperature.44
The incipient melting temperature of the nickel-base superalloy

Fig. 5 Variation of hot hardness of hardfacing materials according to

Fig. 4 Design and manufacturing procedures for the fabrication of the temperature56-59
hardfaced tools and parts
Table 2 Nominal compositions of nickel-base superalloys (wt.%)
Table 1 Nominal compositions of cobalt-base superalloys (wt.%)12,40- 12,40,43,44,49,58,60
44,49-52
Deloro Inconel Colmonoy
Alloys
Stellite Haynes O.K. 25 40 50 625 4 5 88
Alloys
6 21 156 25 36 93,06 Ni Balance
Co Balance Cr - ≈ 10 ≈ 13 ≈ 21.5 ≈ 10 ≈ 11.5 ≈ 15.7
Cr ≈ 27-33 26-29 ≈ 28 ≈ 20 ≈ 18.5 ≈ 29 Fe ≈ 0.3 ≈ 2.5 ≈4 ≈ 2.5 ≈ 2.5 ≈ 2.5 ≈ 3.8
Ni <3 ≤ 2.8 ≈3 ≈ 10 ≈ 10 - C ≈ 0.04 ≈ 0.45 ≈ 0.6 ≈ 0.05 ≈ 0.4 ≈ 0.45 ≈ 0.76
Fe <3 <3 ≈ 0.75 ≈3 ≈2 - Si ≈ 2.4 ≈ 2-3 ≈4 ≈ 0.2 ≈ 2.4 ≈ 3.3 ≈ 4.12
C ≈ 1.1 ≈ 0.25 - ≈ 0.07 ≈ 0.4 ≈1 Mo ≈ 20 - - ≈ 90 - -
W ≈ 4-6 - ≈ 4.6 ≈ 15 ≈ 15 ≈ 4.5 Al ≈ 0.2
Mo - ≈5 ≈1 - - - W - - - - - - ≈ 16.2
Mn ≈ 1-2 ≈1 ≈1 ≈ 1.5 - - B ≈ 1.3 ≈ 2.5 ≈3 - ≈ 2.1 ≈ 2.1 ≈ 3.1
Si ≈ 1-2 ≤2 ≈ 1.2 ≈1 - - 3.49
Others - - - - -
Others - - - - 0.03B - (Nb + Ta)
 1274 / JULY 2013 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PRECISION ENGINEERING AND MANUFACTURING Vol. 14, No. 7

ranges from 1,200 to 1,400oC.44 Table 2 shows nominal compositions
of representative nickel-based superalloys. The borides and carbides in
the nickel-base superalloy provide improved hardness and wear
resistance. The chromium and aluminum (Al) compositions of the
nickel-base superalloy are used to create oxides for the improvement of
the surface stability.44 Several researchers reported that the wear
volume and friction coefficient of the nickel-base superalloy noticeably
decrease when the temperature is greater than 300oC.44,60,62-64 Stott et al.
reported that the creation and retention of oxide and partially oxidized
debris particles are facilitated when the temperature increases, and
compacted oxide particles lead to a protective glaze surface.63,64 Due to
these reasons, the nickel-base superalloy was widely used to hardface
steels.12,60-62,65 In previous research works, the temperature of the wear
experiment of the nickel-base superalloy was limited to 800oC.61-64 A
vacuum environment is needed to melt nickel-base superalloys,
because the nickel-base superalloy have reactive metal compositions.44
Several researchers reported that the nickel-base superalloy have poor
machinability.61,66,67 Hence, a proper post-processing technology is
investigated to obtain the desired final shape of the nickel-base
superalloy hardfaced part.61,66,67 Deloro, Inconel and Colmonoy
families are typical trade names of nickel-base superalloys to hardface
the product.12,43,49,58
3.3. Iron-base superalloys
The iron-base superalloy was used as an alternative hardfacing
material of the cobalt-base superalloy.59,61 The iron-base superalloy is
strengthened by solid-solution hardening and precipitated-forming
elements.44,68 Molybdenum (Mo) and chromium elements create M6C
and M23C6 types of carbides, respectively.44,68 The carbides improve the
wear characteristics of the hardfaced surface.43,44 The iron-base super
alloy is less weldable than the cobalt-base superalloy.46,68 The
maximum working temperature and allowable thermal penetration
depth of the iron-base superalloy are limited to nearly 550oC and 1 mm,
respectively.61
Incoloy and NOREM families are a popular trade name of iron-base
superalloy.40,44,49,59 Table 3 shows the nominal compositions of
NOREM family.40,49,59 Ocken, Persson, and Kim reported that NOREM
02 has the desired galling wear resistance comparable to the Stellite
family when the experimental temperature is less than 190oC. 40,46,69
Suh et al. reported that the wear characteristics of the hardfaced surface
by NOREM02 is superior to those of the hardfaced surface by
Deloro50 when the experimental temperature is lower than 300oC.49
They showed that NOREM 02 has a good weldability for steels.49
4. Hardfacing Technology
4.1 Welding Assisted Hardfacing Technology
The characteristics of the hardfaced layer for welding assisted
hardfacing technology are influenced by welding type, welding current,
welding voltage, pulse frequency, welding speed, feeding speed,
welding energy, preheating temperature, overlap ratio, total thickness of
the layer and welding path, as shown in Table 4.12,17,33,35,40-43,45-47,51-53,
59,61,62,70-74
Welding assisted hardfacing technology has utilized Shielded
Metal Arc Welding (SMAW), Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW), Gas
Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW), Submerged Arc Welding (SAW), and
Plasma Transferred Arc Welding (PTAW) as deposition processes, as
shown in Table 4. The layer thickness and the dilution rate of the
welding type assisted hardfacing technology are nearly 0.5-10.0 mm
and approximately 10-50%, respectively.42,43,71 Researches on the
welding assisted hardfacing technology were mainly focused on the
investigation of the influence of hardfacing materials on the wear
characteristics and hardness to choose a proper hardfacing material.
Kohopää et al. researched the influence of the hardfacing material
on the wear characteristics of the overlay welded specimen via a pin-
on-disk experiment.51 The specimens of the experiments were
fabricated from the manual metal arc welding of cobalt-base and
nickel-base superalloys on H13 and DIN X40 CrMoV51 hot working
tool steels.51 They revealed that the wear volume of the hardfaced
specimen by nickel and cobalt-base superalloys is remarkably reduced
as compared to that of H13 tool steel in elevated temperatures, as
shown in Fig. 6.51 Liu et al. applied SMAW to the creation of cobalt-
base hardfacing layer on hot working tool steel plate.74 They
investigated the effects of carbon content on the shock hardening and
hardness of the hardfacing layers.74 Although the SAW process is a
typical overlay welding technology, it is difficult to find the application
of the SAW process to hardfacing of hot working tool steel in previous
research works. The layer thickness and the dilution rate of the GMAW,
GTAW and PTAW processes is thinner than those of the SMAW and
SAW processes.43 In addition, deviations of the thickness and dilution
rate of the GMAW, GTAW and PTAW processes are smaller than those
of the SMAW and SAW processes.43 Hence, most recent research on
the welding assisted hardfacing technology were employed for GMAW,
GTAW and PTAW processes as the overlay welding technology.
Fouilland et al. deposited the Stellite21 superalloy on 55NiCrMoV7
hot working tool steel block using the GMAW process to investigate
the influence of welding conditions on the formation of microstructures
of each hardfaced layer. They utilized the overlap of nearly 50%.70

Table 3 Nominal compositions of NOREM family (wt.%)40,49,59

NOREM
Alloys
01 02 04 M2
Fe Balance
Cr ≈ 25 ≈ 25 ≈ 25 ≈ 24.6
Ni ≈ 4.4 ≈ 4.0 ≈ 8.1 ≈ 3.0
Mn ≈ 9.9 ≈ 4.5 ≈ 10.9 ≈ 5.0
Si ≈ 3.6 ≈ 3.3 ≈ 4.6 ≈ 3.0
Mo ≈ 1.6 ≈ 2.0 ≈ 2.0 ≈ 2.1
C ≈ 1.0 ≈ 1.2 ≈ 1.1 ≈ 1.2 Fig. 6 Relative wear volume for hardfacing materials in the elevated
N ≈ 0.1 ≈ 0.2 ≈ 0.2 ≈ 0.1 temperature51 (Adapted from reference 51)
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PRECISION ENGINEERING AND MANUFACTURING Vol. 14, No. 7 JULY 2013 / 1275

Fouilland et al. also created the cobalt-base hardfacing layer on
55NiCrMoV7 hot working tool steel to examine the friction-induced
work hardening characteristics of the hardfacing layer.71 They
manufactured hardfaced specimens from semi-automatic and automatic
welding sequences. In addition, they investigated the effects of the
welding sequence and program on the dilution rate, friction induced
work hardening rate, friction coefficient, track width, and
microstructures via pin-on-disk experiments.71
Ocken applied GTAW and PTAW processes to the deposition of
cobalt-base, nickel-base and iron-base superalloys on a steel plate.40 He
investigated the galling wear resistance of the hardfaced layer through
pin-on-plate wear experiments.40,59 He also showed that the hardfaced
layer by iron and cobalt-base superalloys has a superb galling wear
resistance in air and water environments as compared to that by the
nickel-base superalloy.40 Kim et al. examined the wear resistance of the
hardfaced layers for different environment temperatures via block-on-
block sliding wear experiments.46 They used the GTAW process to
deposit NOREM02 and Stellite6 on the SUS304 plate.46 In addition,
they reported that the wear loss of NOREM02 abruptly increases when
the temperature is larger than 180oC.46 Farhani et al. deposited
Stellite21 on H11 hot working tool steel using the GTAW process to
fabricate pins for pin-on-disk wear experiments in the temperature of
25, 400 and 550oC.17 Disks were made from T2 tool steels. They
reported that the hardfaced specimen by Stellite21 is superior in wear
resistance to the H11 specimen.17 They ascribed the improved wear
resistance of the hardfaced specimen to the fact that a surface layer
with a high hardness of nearly 600 Hv at 550oC is formed by the work
hardening of the hardfaced layer.17 Kashani et al. deposited Stellite6,
Stellite21 and Inconel 625 on H11 tool steel plates using the GTAW
process to investigate the wear characteristics of the hardfaced layer at
the room temperature and 550oC.73 Sliding wear experiments were
performed by a pin-on-disk tribometer. Disks were made from T2 tool
steels. They revealed that the wear volume of Inconel625, Stellite21
and Stellite6 hardfaced specimens is much smaller than that of the H11
tool specimen at a temperature of 550oC.73 They reported that the
reduction of the wear volume of the hardfaced specimens is induced by

Table 4 Classification of hardfacing technology according to the deposition process

Deposition Process Thickness of Dilution Process
Advantages Disadvantages
Principle Type a Layer (mm) Rate (%) Parameters
- Difficult to apply the hard-facing
process to a part with three-
- Type of welding
dimensional arbitrary shape
- Welding current
Shielded Metal Arc - Large heat affected zone
- Welding
Welding (SMAW), - Need of preheating to prevent
voltage
Gas Metal Arc shrinkage, distortion and welding
- Pulse frequency
Welding (GMAW), cracks
Welding12,17, - Welding speed - Cheap process
33,35,39-43,45- Gas Tungsten Arc - Imperfection of the hard-faced
- Feeding speed - Density of hardfaced layer ≥
47,51-53, 59, Welding (GTAW), ≈ 0.5-10.0 ≈ 10-50 layer
- Welding energy 99 %
61,62,70-74 Submerged Arc - Large residual stress and distortion
- Preheating - Available localized deposition
Welding (SAW), (Need of post heating for stress
temperature
Plasma Transferred relief)
- Overlap ratio
Arc Welding - Large bead width and thickness
- Total thickness
(PTAW) (Difficult to deposit thin and fine
of layer
hardfacing layer )
…
- Need a post-processing (Grinding,
Polishing, etc.)
- Type of laser - Small bead width and thickness
- Type of wave - Heat flux with high energy - Expensive process
Laser - Power of laser density - Need of five axes CNC and
Cladding8, - Travel speed - Available localized deposition multi-freedom robot systems to
34-36,39,43,48- CO2 Laser,
≈ 0.2~3.0 ≈ 1-10 - Powder feeding - Density of hardfaced layer ≥ hardface a part with an arbitrary
50,52-56,60,65, Nd:YAG Laser
speed 99 % shape
69,75-82
- Overlap ratio - Small heat affected zone - Need a post-processing (Grinding,
- Total thickness - Switching of feeding material Polishing, etc.)
of layer - Almost automated process
- Controllable bead width and
- Deposition
thickness
direction
Laser Engineered - Small heat affected zone
- Power of laser
Net Shaping - Fully automated process in-
- Travel speed
Direct Metal (LENS), tegrated by CAD/CAM system
- Powder feeding - Expensive process
Rapid Direct Metal (Applicable to arbitrary shape)
≈ 0.13~0.38 ≈ 1-10 speed - Need a post-processing (Grinding,
Tooling36,49, Deposition(DMD), - Available localized deposition
85-98 - Overlap ratio Polishing, etc.)
Laser-aided Direct - Density of hardfaced layer ≥
- Total thickness
Metal Tooling 99 %
of layer
(DMT) - Switching of feeding material
- Geometry
- Material deposition along an
complexity
arbitrary trajectory
 1276 / JULY 2013
an increase in the solidly compacted oxide layer and work hardening of
the hardfaced layer at a high temperature.73
Nicholosn patented percentages of compositions for the welded
overlay coating using the PTAW process to improve wear resistance of
hot working tools.33 Levin et al. researched the weld overlay coatings
for erosion control. They fabricated 11 types of specimens with cobalt-
base, nickel-base and iron-base superalloys using the PTAW process.41
They reported that the PTAW process can be applied a variety of
overlay alloys.41,47 They also reported that the PTAW process can
precisely control the dilution rate of the hardfaced layer.41,47 Aoh and
Chen investigated the wear characteristics of Stellit6 hardfaced layer
after thermal fatigue and oxidation through pin-on-disk experiments at
a temperature of 450oC.47 The pin was made from SKD11 tool steels.
Disks were manufactured from the deposition of Stellite6 and Stellite6
with 30 wt.% Cr3C2 on S45C tool steel using the PTAW process. They
reported that the formation of oxides increases when the percentage of
Cr3C2 in the hardfaced layer and the augmented surface oxides
improves wear resistance.47 Gurumoorthy et al. researched the variation
of microstructures and wear characteristics of the AWS NiCr-B
hardfaced layer on 316 LN stainless steels using the PTAW process.
They revealed that the wear volume of the hardface layer at
temperature of 300 and 550oC is less than 5 % of the wear volume at
room temperature.62 They reported that the friction coefficient of the
worn surface decreases when the experimental temperature increases
from room temperature to 550oC.62 They attributed those phenomena to
the fact that the rapid formation of the glazed oxide layer at an elevated
temperature prevents direct interactions between the pin and disk and
wear loss consequently decreases.62
Several researchers reported that the dilution rate determines the
hardness and quality of the hardfaced layer.42,70,71 Kim reported that the
dilution rate of the bead should be reduced to create a proper
hardfacing layer with the desired hardness.42 He also reported that the
dilution rate of the bead can be reduced through an increase in the
overlap ratio.42 Kim revealed that the appropriate dilution rate of the
welding assisted hardfacing technology is nearly 10-15%.42 In addition,
he indicated that a reliability problem of the joined region can occur
when the dilution rate is less than 10%.42 Fouilland et al. revealed that
the dilution rate decreases when the number of deposited layers
increases.70,71 They showed that friction induced work hardening
(FIWH) in the worn surface decreases when dilution rate increases.70,71
In addition, they demonstrated that the dilution rate is highly dependent
on the combination of welding condition and sequence.70,71
Welding assisted hardfacing technology has several conspicuous
drawbacks, as shown in Table 4. The width and thickness of the bead
are too large to create thin and fine hardfacing layers. It is difficult to
apply the welding assisted hardfacing technology to a part with a three-
dimensional arbitrary shape.43 In addition, preheating and post heating
are needed to prevent shrinkage, distortion and cracks in the hardfaced
layer.39
4.2 Laser Cladding Assisted Hardfacing Technology
In principle, laser cladding assisted hardfacing technology is based
on the laser cladding process to create a hardfacing layer.34,43,75 In the
laser cladding process, a thin surface layer of the substrate is melted
through heating of the substrate using a laser beam.36,43,75 The feeding
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PRECISION ENGINEERING AND MANUFACTURING Vol. 14, No. 7
materials with types of powder and wire are deposited on the thin
melted layer of the substrate and the feeding materials are
simultaneously melted by the laser beam.43,75-79 The dilution rate can be
kept to a minimum when the laser cladding process is employed.43,75
Hence, the functional layer, which is chemically different from the
substrate, can be created from the laser cladding process 34,75,76,80
Laser cladding assisted hardfacing technology generally used CO2
and Nd:YAG lasers as heat sources, as shown in Table 4.36,43,78,80 The
dilution rate and the layer thickness of the laser cladding assisted
hardfacing technology are 1-10% and 0.2-3.0 mm, respectively.43,75,81
Laser cladding assisted hardfacing technology is influence by the type
of laser, type of wave, power of the laser, feeding speed of the material,
overlap ratio, and total thickness of the layer, as shown in Table 4.34,43,79
The laser cladding assisted hardfacing technology has various
advantages, such as the small size of bead, heat flux with high energy
density, available localized deposition, small heat affected zone,
switching of feeding material, and almost automated process, as shown
in Table 4.34,43,79 However, the laser cladding assisted hardfacing
technology needs five axes CNC (Computerized Numerical Control)
and a multi-freedom robot system to hardface the part surface with an
arbitrary shape. In addition, the set-up and manufacturing costs of the
laser cladding assisted hardfacing technology is more expensive than
the welding assisted hardfacing technology.
Frenk et al. reported that the hardfaced layer by laser cladding
process outperforms that by the conventional welding process from the
viewpoints of adhesion, homogeneity, stability, and hardness of the
hardfaced layer.52,81 Ming et al. deposited the nickel-based superalloy,
including Colmonoy 6, Colmonoy 88 and AI-1236, on the AISI 1020
steel to fabricate the wear block for a block-on-ring wear test. They
researched the influence of the deposited material and process
parameters on the dilution rate, the bead dimension, the microstructure,
the hardness, the friction coefficient, and the wear rate of the hardfaced
layer.60 D’Oliveira et al. compared the characteristics of the cobalt
based alloy hardfaced layer by the PTAW process to those by the laser
cladding at an environmental temperature of 1,050oC.81 They reported
that the microstructure of the hardfaced layer by PTAW is more stable
than that by laser cladding in the high temperature, while the hardness
and the microstructure of the hardfaced layer by laser cladding are
superior to that by PTAW when the hardfacing layer is deposited.81
Persson et al. investigated the effects of temperature on friction and
galling of the hardfaced layer by the laser cladding process. The
experimental temperature ranged from room temperature to 250oC.54,69
NOREM 02 and Stellite 21were deposited on the 316L austenitic
stainless steel substrate using a CO2 laser.54,69
Mingxi et al. examined the influence of the thickness of the
hardfacing layer on the microstructure, the hardness and the wear
resistance of the hardfaced layer by laser cladding.83 They deposited
HMSP 2537 on a Ni-based superalloy plate using a CO2 laser. The
thickness of a layer was nearly 1.5 mm. They performed a block-on-
ring type of wear test. They reported that the weight loss of the
specimen decreases when the thickness of the hardfacing layer
decreases.83 In addition, they revealed that the wear resistance of the
hardfaced layer is slightly improved when the thickness of the
hardfacing layer is reduced.83 They attributed those phenomena to the
fact that the microstructure of the hardfaced layer become coarser when
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PRECISION ENGINEERING AND MANUFACTURING Vol. 14, No. 7
the thickness of the hardfaced layer augments. Navas et al. investigated
the tribological properties of laser clad Stellite 6 coatings on steel
substrates.50 They reported that the hardness and wear characteristics of
the hardfaced layer by laser cladding is superior to those of AISI 1045
steel. Suh et al. compared the wear characteristics of the hardfaced
layer by laser cladding with those by TIG welding at a temperature of
300oC.49 They reported that the volume loss and the friction coefficient
are remarkably reduced when NORM 02 and Armacor M are deposited
on 316 stainless steel using laser cladding.
Köhler et al. investigated the variation of residual stress and
morphology of the hardfaced layer by laser cladding according to the
substrate.84 They deposited Stellite 21 on 42CrMo4 and X5CrNi18-10.
They reported that compressive residual stress in the hardfaced layer is
formed when 42CrMo4 tool steel is used as the substrate material.
They also revealed that tensile residual stress in the hardfaced layer is
created when X5CrNi18-10 tool steel is adopted for the substrate
material.84 They showed that the cracks are initiated in the top surface
of the hardfaced layer when 42CrMo4 tool steel is used as the substrate
material, while the cracks are initiated in the vicinity of the joining
region of Stellite 21 and the substrate when X5CrNi18-10 tool steel is
used as the substrate material.84
4.3 Direct Metal Rapid Tooling Assisted Hardfacing Technology
The principle of the direct metal rapid tooling assisted hardfacing
technology is almost the same as the laser cladding assisted hardfacing
technology except for material deposition along the arbitrary trajectory
through the layer-by-layer deposition in a CAD/CAM environ-
ment.36,85-87 Among previously developed direct metal rapid tooling
processes, laser engineered net shaping (LENS), direct metal
deposition (DMD) and laser-aided direct metal tooling (DMT)
processes were typically used to hardface wear resistance materials on
tool steel, as shown in Table 4.36,85,88-93 The dilution rate of the direct
metal rapid tooling assisted hardfacing technology is identical to the
laser cladding assisted hardfacing technology. The thickness of a layer
for the direct metal rapid tooling assisted hardfacing technology ranges
from 0.13 mm to 0.38 mm.36 The quality of the hardfaced layer by the
direct metal rapid tooling process is dependent on the deposition
direction, the laser power, the travel speed, the material feeding speed,
the overlap ratio, the total layer thickness, the geometrical complexity,
etc.49,78,94-96 The direct metal rapid tooling assisted hardfacing
technology can control the bead width and thickness through
optimization of the process parameters. The direct metal rapid tooling
assisted hardfacing technology utilizes the fully automated layer-by-
layer deposition process integrating CAM/CAM system.36,92,95 Hence,
direct metal rapid tooling assisted hardfacing technology can
selectively deposit the material with the desired properties on a
substrate with an arbitrary shape.36,89-93
Suh et al. examined the influence of the hardfacing material on the
wear characteristics of the hardfaced layer at a temperature of 300oC to
determine appropriate Co-free hardfacing material.49 They utilized the
DMT process to hardface the wear resistance material on the steel
plate. Ahn et al. investigated the effects of the hardfacing material on
wear characteristics of the hardfaced layer in the high temperature
region. They employed the DMT process to deposit Stellite 21, Stellite
6 and NOREM 02 on the STD61 tool steel.92,93 They chose a proper
JULY 2013 / 1277
hardfacing material for hot working tools through pin-on-disk wear
experiments in the operational temperature of the hot working
process.93
Thivillon et al. compared the characteristics of the hardfaced layer
by the DMD process to those by the GTAW process.94 They reported
that the properties and performance of the hardfaced layer are highly
improved when the DMD process is applied.94 Smurov et al. proposed
two types of novel hardfacing technologies to improve wear resistance
of the hardfaced layer using the concept of FGM, as shown in Figs. 7
and 8.97,99 In the first type of hardfacing technology, the percentage of
hardfacing material was linearly augmented from the substrate to the
top layer, as shown in Fig. 7.97,98 In the second type of hardfacing
technology, the concept of the engineered layer with multi-material
structure was adopted, as shown in Fig. 8.97,98 They employed the
DMD process for deposition of the hardfacing material on the
substrate.97,98 Stellite 6 and Stellite 12 were used as hardfacing
material.97,98
5. Application of the hardfacing technology to hot working
tools
Kohopää et al. hardfaced cobalt-based superalloys (OK 93,06 and
606), a nickel-based superalloy (OK 92,35) and steel (OK 85,58) on the
hot piercing tools using the manual arc welding process to investigate
the influence of the hardfacing material on wear and fatigue
characteristics of the hardfaced tools in operational hot piercing
conditions.51 The plate of the hot piercing process was heated to
1,100oC. After piercing 2,450 holes, the wear and fatigue
characteristics of the hot piercing punch were investigated. They
reported that the hardfaced piercing punch with the 606 alloy has
excellent wear and fatigue resistances.51 They also reported that the
hardfaced piercing punch with the OK 93,06 alloy has insufficient
Fig. 7 Hardfacing technology using the concept of linearly gradient
layer97,98
Fig. 8 Hardfacing technology using the concept of the engineered layer
with multi-material structure97,98 (Adapted from reference 98)
 1278 / JULY 2013 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PRECISION ENGINEERING AND MANUFACTURING Vol. 14, No. 7

impact and thermal shock resistances, while the hardfaced piercing InssTek Inc. applied the DMT process to hardfacing of warm and
punch with OK 93,06 alloy has a good wear resistance to the abrasive hot forging dies, as shown in Fig. 12.36,90 InssTek Inc. reported that the
wear.51 They revealed that deformation of the hardfaced piercing punch service life of the hardfaced dies is significantly increased in
with the OK 92,35 alloy occurred, while the hardfaced piercing punch comparison with that of conventional dies without hardfacing layers.36
with the OK 92,35 alloy has acceptable wear, impact and thermal shock Weib et al. applied the DMD process to hardfacing of the hot stamping
resistances.51 They considered that wear characteristics of the hot die.101 The Stellite 21 superalloy was deposited on the mild steel that
piercing punch can be remarkably improved via hardfacing of the 606 is coated with a copper-based alloy with 85% Cu.101 They reported that
alloy on the punch surface. hardfacing layer improves the wear resistance of the hot stamping die
Kashani et al. hardfaced Inconel 625 and Stellite 21 on a hot forging at an elevated temperature.101 The DMD process was applied to several
die with EN3C tool steels using the GTAW process, as shown in Fig. types of hot forging tools, such as the die of connection rod, the die of
9(a).12,17,72 They investigated the variation of wear characteristics of hot upsetting, the punch of a CV joint reverse, and the die of a gear, for the
forging die according to the hardfacing material of the die via the hot improvement of the service life of the hot forging tools, as shown in
forging experiments.12,17,72 The temperature of the hot forging material
was 1,050oC. After forging nearly 16,000 parts, the wear characteristics
of the die were examined. They compared the dimensional loss of the
hardfaced die to that of the H11 die, as shown in Fig. 9(b).72 They
showed that the wear characteristics of the hot forging die is
remarkably enhanced when hardfacing is applied to the die
surface.12,17,72 They revealed that the service life and the wear resistance
of the hardfaced die with Stellite 21 are improved as compared to those
of the hardfaced die with Inconel 625.12,72 They attributed the Fig. 10 Schematic illustration of a novel laser cladding assisted
phenomenon to the fact that work hardening of the hardfaced die with hardfacing technology with transition layers99,100 (Adapted from
Stellite 21 is larger than that of the hardfaced die with Inconel 625.12,72 references 99 and 100)
Kelbassa et al. developed a novel laser cladding assisted hardfacing
technology using the concept of FGM to improve wear and thermal
fatigue resistances of die-casting dies, as shown in Fig. 10.99,100 They
contrived the concept of transition layers to smoothly transit material
composition, hardness and wear properties from the substrate to the
hardfacing layer, as shown in Fig. 10. They employed 5 axes laser
cladding system with a 1 kW fiber-coupled diode laser for the
deposition of functionally graded layers on AISI H11 tool steel.
Marlok, which is material A in Fig. 10, was used as the material of the Fig. 11 Example of the hardfaced hot forging die90 (Adapted from the
buffer layers.99,100 AISI 10, Stellite 31 and Dievar were used as reference 90 with permission of InssTek Inc.)
materials of the hardfacing layers.99,100

Fig. 12 Future research issues of hardfacing technology for hot

working tools

Table 5 Examples of the application of DMD process to hardfacing of

hot working tools89,91,102
Material Tool life (shot)
Improve-
Before After
Dies Process Subst- ment of life
Hardfacing hardfaci- hardfac-
Fig. 9 Example of the hardfaced forging die using GTAW rate (%)
ng ing
process:12,17,72 (a) Schematic illustration12 (Adapted from reference 12), Connecti-
Hot S7 Stellite6 5,000 19,000 380
(b) Dimensional loss of dies for different hardfacing materials72 ng rod
forging
(Reprinted from the reference 72 with permission from Elsevier) Upsetting H13 Stellite21/6 2,750 8,000 291
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PRECISION ENGINEERING AND MANUFACTURING Vol. 14, No. 7
Table 5.36,89,91,102 Stellite 21 and 6 were deposited on the hot working
tool steels.89,91,102 POM Group Inc. reported that the service life of the
hardfaced tool is remarkably improved, as shown in Table 5.91,102
6. Summary and Future Issues
This paper reviewed the state of the art of hardfacing technologies
for the improvement of wear characteristics of hot working tools. The
design and manufacturing methodologies for the fabrication of the
hardfaced hot working tools were described. In addition, the
characteristics of hardfacing materials and hardfacing technologies
were discussed.
Various researchers were investigated the welding assisted
hardfacing technology to improve wear characteristics of hot working
tool steels. However, the welding assisted hardfacing technology had
several conspicuous drawbacks, such as large bead size, high dilution
rate, geometry limitation, and the defect initiation, as compared to laser
cladding assisted hardfacing technology and direct metal rapid tooling
assisted hardfacing technology. Recently, researches on laser cladding
and direct metal rapid tooling assisted hardfacing technology were
steadily increased. Laser cladding assisted hardfacing technology kept
the minimum dilution rate. Therefore, the laser cladding assisted
hardfacing technology could create a functional layer with desired
properties on hot working tool surfaces. The direct metal rapid tooling
assisted hardfacing technology deposited the hardfacing material on the
tool surface through the fully automated layer-by-layer deposition
process integrating CAM/CAM system. Hence, direct metal rapid
tooling assisted hardfacing technology could selectively deposit the
material with the desired properties on tool surfaces with an arbitrary
shape. The inherent characteristics of the direct metal rapid tooling
assisted hardfacing technology could extend the application area of the
hardfacing technology. Various application cases of the hardfacing
technologies for hot working tools and tool steels were investigated.
From the results of investigation of the application cases, it was
revealed that the hardfacing technology can remarkably improve wear
characteristics and the service life of hot working tools. In addition, it
was considered that the hardfacing technology is an important
technology to improve the service life and the efficiency of the hot
working tool.
Through this critical review of the state of the art for hardfacing
technologies related to the improvement of the wear characteristics of
hot working tools, several future research issues were identified, as
shown in Fig. 12. The research on the laser cladding assisted
hardfacing technology for the hot working die and punch will be
focused on three major issues as followings: (a) investigation of
appropriate hardfacing materials for different substrates, (b)
examination of proper hardfacing thickness and deposition
methodology and (c) development of apppropriate surface finishing
technology to improve fatigue resistance, as shown in Fig. 12. In direct
metal rapid tooling assisted hardfacing technology, three issues,
including the development of novel hardfacing technologies using the
concept of FGM, development of selectively localized hardfacing
technology and three-dimensional surface finishing technology, will
provide the research motivation to improve the service life and the
JULY 2013 / 1279
wear characteristics of the hot working tools.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This research was supported by Basic Science Research Program
through the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) funded by
the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (NRF-
2012R1A1A4A01013986).
REFERENCES
1. Alimirzaloo, V., Sadeghi, M. H., and Biglari, F. R., “Optimization of
the Forging of Aerofoil Blade Using the Finite Element Method and
Fuzzy-Pareto Based Genetic Algorithm,” J. Mech. Sci. Tech., Vol.
26, No. 6, pp. 1801-1810, 2012.
2. Ko, D. H., Kang, B. H., Ko, D. C., and Kim, B. M., “Improvement
of Mechanical Properties of Al6061 Extrudate by Die Cooling with
N2 Gas During Hot Extrusion,” J. Mech. Sci. Tech., Vol. 27, No. 1,
pp. 153-161, 2013.
3. Liu, H. S., Xing, Z. W., Bao, J., and Song, B. Y., “Investigation of
the Hot-Stamping Process for Advanced High-Strength Steel Sheet
by Numerical Simulation,” J. Mater. Eng. Perform., Vol. 19, No. 3,
pp. 325-334, 2010.
4. Hu, B. H., Tong, K. K., Niu, X. P., and Pinwill, I., “Design and
Optimisation of Runner and Gating Systems for the Die Casting of
Thin-walled Magnesium Telecommunication Parts through
Numerical Simulation,” J. Mater. Process. Technol., Vol. 105, No. 1-
2, pp. 128-133, 2000.
5. Tomov, B., “Hot Closed Die Forging - State-of-Art and Future
Development,” J. of Achievements in Materials and Manufacturing
Engineering, Vol. 24, No. 1, pp. 443-449, 2007.
6. Krimpenis, A., Benardos, P. G., Vosniakos, G. C., and Koukouvitaki,
A., “Simulation-based Selection of Optimum Pressure Die-casting
Process Parameters Using Neural Nets and Genetic Algorithms,”
Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol., Vol. 27, No. 5-6, pp. 509-517, 2006.
7. Lange, K., “Cost Minimization in Small Quantity Production of
Stepped Shafts by Combined NC-Radial Forging and NC-Turning -
A New Approach to Flexible Manufacturing Systems,” Annals of
CIRP-Manuf. Technol., Vol. 34, No. 2, pp. 549-555, 1985.
8. Lange, K., Cser, L., Geiger, M., and Kals, J. A. S., “Tool Life and
Tool Quality in Bulk Metal Forming,” Annals of CIRP-Manuf.
Technol., Vol. 41, No. 2, pp. 667-675, 1992.
9. Cser, L., Geiger, M., Lange, K., Kals, J. A. S., and Hänesl, M.,
“Tool Life and Tool Quality in Bulk Metal Forming,” Proc. IMechE
Part B: J. Engng. Manuf., Vol. 207, No. 4, pp. 223-239, 1993.
10. Venkatesan, K. and Shivpuri, R., “Experimental and Numerical
Investigation of the Effect of Process Parameters on the Erosive
Wear of Die Casting Dies,” J. Mater. Eng. Perform., Vol. 4, No. 2,
 1280 / JULY 2013 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PRECISION ENGINEERING AND MANUFACTURING Vol. 14, No. 7
pp. 166-1744, 1995.
11. Terèelj. M., Panjan, P., Fajfar, P., and Turk, R., “A Newly Designed
Laboratory Hot Forging Test for Evaluation of Coated Tool Wear
Resistance,” Surf. Coat. Technol., Vol. 200, No. 11, pp. 3594-3604,
2006.
12. Kashani, H., Amadeh, A., and Vatanara, M. R., “Improvement of
Wear Resistance of Hot Working Tool Steel by Hardfacing Part 2 –
Case Study,” Mater. Sci. Technol., Vol. 24, No. 3, pp. 356-360,
2008.
13. Venkatesan, K., Subramanian, C., and Summerville, E., “Three-body
Abrasion of Surface Engineered Die Steel at Elevated Temperature,”
Wear, Vol. 203-204, No. 3, pp. 129-138, 1997.
14. Torkar, M., Godec, M., and Lamut, M., “Investigation of Die for
Pressure Die-casting of Mg-alloy,” Engineering Failure Analysis,
Vol. 16, No. 1, pp. 176-181, 2009.
15. Summerville, E., Venkatesan, K., and Subramanian, C., “Wear
Processes in Hot Forging Press Tools,” Mater. Des., Vol. 16, No. 5,
pp. 289-294, 1995.
16. Terèelj. M., Perus, I., and Turk, R., “Suitability of CAE Neural
Networks and FEM for Prediction of Wear on Die Radii in Hot
Forging,” Tribol. Int., Vol. 36, No. 8, pp. 573-583, 2003.
17. Farhani, M., Amadeh, A., Kashani, H., and Saeed-Akbari, A., “The
Study of Wear Resistance of a Hot Forging Die, Hardfaced by a
Cobalt-base Superalloy,” Mater. Sci. Forum, Vol. 30, pp. 212-218,
2006.
18. Miller, A. E. and Maijer, D. M., “Investigation of Erosive-corrosive
Wear in the Low Pressure Die Casting of Aluminum A356,” Mater.
Sci. Eng. A, Vol. 435-436, pp. 100-111, 2006.
19. Shivpuri, R., Chu, Y. L., Venkatesan, K., Conrad, J. R., Sridharan,
K., Shamim, M., and Fetherston, R. P., “An Evaluation of Metallic
Coatings for Erosive Wear Resistance in Die Casting Applications,”
Wear, Vol. 192, No. 1-2, pp. 49-55, 1996.
20. Kang, J. H., Park, I. W., Jae, J. S., and Kang, S. S., “A Study on a
Die Wear Model Considering Thermal Softening: (I) Construction
of the Wear Model,” J. Mater. Process. Technol., Vol. 94, No. 2-3,
pp. 183-188, 1999.
21. Kang, J. H., Park, I. W., Jae, J. S., and Kang, S. S., “A Study on a
Die Wear Model Considering Thermal Softening: (II) Application of
the Suggested Wear Model,” J. Mater. Process. Technol., Vol. 96,
No. 1-3, pp. 53-58, 1999.
22. Doege, E., Groche, P., and Bobke, T., “Application of Adhesion
Theory to Friction and Wear Processes in Hot Die Forging,”
Advanced Technology of Plasticity, Vol. 1, pp. 27-32, 1990.
23. Lee, R. S. and Jou, J. L., “Application of Numerical Simulation for
Wear Analysis of Warm Forging Die,” J. Mater. Process. Technol.,
Vol. 140, No. 1-3, pp. 43-48, 2003.
24. Kim, Y. J. and Choi, C. H., “A Study on Life Estimation of Hot
Forging Die,” Int. J. Precis. Eng. Manuf., Vol. 10, No. 3, pp. 105-
113, 2009.
25. Kim, H. J., Yoo, S. S., and Kim, D. E., “Nano-scale Wear: A
Review,” Int. J. Precis. Eng. Manuf., Vol. 13, No. 9, pp. 1709-1718,
2012.
26. Sjöström J. and Bergström, J., “Thermal Fatigue in Hot-working
Tools,” Scandinavian Journal of Metallurgy, Vol. 34, No. 4, pp. 221-
231, 2005.
27. Rohde, J. and Jeppsson, A., “Literature Review of Heat Treatment
Simulations with Respect to Phase Transformation, Residual
Stresses and Distortion,” Scandinavian Journal of Metallurgy, Vol.
29, No. 2, pp. 47-62, 2000.
28. Cho, J. R., Kang, W. J., Kim, M. G., Lee, J. H., Lee, Y. S., and Bae,
W. B., “Distortions Induced by Heat Treatment of Automotive Bevel
Gears,” J. Mater. Process. Technol., Vol. 140, No. 1-3, pp. 43-48,
2003.
29. Mitterer, C., Holler, F., Üstel, F., and Heim, D., “Application of
Hard Coatings in Aluminium Die Casting – Soldering, Erosion and
Thermal Fatigue Behaviour,” Surf. Coat. Technol., Vol. 125, No. 1-
3, pp. 233-239, 2000.
30. Navinšek, B., Panjan, P., Urankar, I., Cvahte, P., and Gorenjak, F.,
“Improvement of Hot-working Processes with PVD Coating and
Duplex Treatment,” Surf. Coat. Technol., Vol. 142-144, pp. 1148-
1154, 2001.
31. Panjan, P., Urankar, I., Navinšek, B., Terèelj. M., Turk, R., Cekada,
M., and Leskovšek, V., “Improvement of Hot Forging Tools with
Duplex Treatment,” Surf. Coat. Technol., Vol. 151-152, pp. 505-509,
2002.
32. Khan, T. I., Rizvi, S. A., and Matsuura, K., “The Effect on Wear
Behaviour of H13 Tool Steel Surfaces Modified Using a Tungsten
Arc Heat Source,” Wear, Vol. 244, No. 1-2, pp. 154-164, 2000.
33. Nicholson, F., “Weld Metal Deposit Coated Tool Steel,” US Patent
4110514, 1978.
34. Pawlowski, L., “Thick Laser Coatings: A Review,” Journal of
Thermal Spray Technology, Vol. 8, No. 2, pp. 279-295, 1999.
35. Kim, H. I., Park, H. S., Koo, J. M., Seok, C. S., Yang, S. H., and
Kim, M. Y., “Evaluation of Welding Characteristics for Manual
Overlay and Laser Cladding Materials in Gas Turbine Blade,” J.
Mech. Sci. Tech., Vol. 26, No. 7, pp. 2015-2018, 2012.
36. Ahn, D. G., “Application of Laser Assisted Metal Rapid Tooling
Process to Manufacture of Molding & Forming Tools – State of the
Art,” Int. J. Precis. Eng. Manuf., Vol. 12, No. 5, pp. 925-938, 2011.
37. Shin, K. H., Natu, H., Dutta, D., and Mazumder, J., “A Method for
the Design and Fabrication of Heterogeneous Objects,” Mater. Des.,
Vol. 24, No. 5, pp. 339-353, 2003.
38. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardfacing
39. Wang, J., Prakash, S., Joshi, Y., and Liou, F., “Laser Aided Part
Repair - A Review,” http://edge.rit.edu/edge/P10551/public/SFF/SFF%
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PRECISION ENGINEERING AND MANUFACTURING Vol. 14, No. 7
202002%20Proceedings/2002%20SFF%20Papers/07-Wang.pdf
40. Ocken, H., “The Galling Wear Resistance of New Iron-Base
Hardfacing Alloy: a Comparison with Established Cobalt-and
Nickel-base Alloys,” Surf. Coat. Technol., Vol. 76-77, No. 2, pp.
456-461, 1995.
41. Levin, B. F., DuPont, J. N., and Marder, A. R., “Weld Overlay
Coatings for Erosion Control,” Wear, Vol. 181-183, No. 2, pp. 810-
820, 1999.
42. Kim, G. S., “Weld Hardfacing Technology,” Journal of KWS, Vol.
17, No. 5, pp. 36-39, 1999.
43. Ion, J. C., “Laser Processing of Engineering Materials,” ELSEVIER,
pp. 298-326, 2005.
44. ASM International Handbook Committee, “ASM Handbook-Tenth
Edition, Volume 1, Properties and Selection: Irons, Steels and High-
Performance Alloys,” ASM International, pp. 950-980, 1990.
45. Silence, W. L., “Effect of Structure on Wear Resistance of Co-, Fe-
and Ni-Base Alloys,” J. Lubr. Technol., Vol. 100, No. 3, pp. 428-
435, 1978.
46. Kim, J. K. and Kim, S. J., “The Temperature Dependence of the
Wear Resistance of Iron-Base NOREM 02 Hardfacing Alloy,” Wear,
Vol. 237, No. 2, pp. 217-222, 2000.
47. Aoh, J. N. and Chen, J. C., “On the Wear Characteristics of Cobalt-
based Hardfacing Layer after Thermal Fatigue and Oxidation,”
Wear, Vol. 250, No. 1-12, pp. 611-620, 2001.
48. Cui, C., Guo, Z., Liu, Y., Xie, Q., Wang, Z., Hu, J., and Yao, Y.,
“Characteristics of Cobalt-based Alloy Coating on Tool Steel
Prepared by Powder Feeding Laser Cladding,” Optics & Laser
Technology, Vol. 39, No. 8, pp. 1544-1550, 2007.
49. Suh, J. H., Kim, J. S., Han, J. H., Lee, D. H., and Hwang, S. S.,
“Development of a Technology for Amorphous Material (Co-free)
Hardfacing on Primary Side Component Materials Using Laser
Beam to Improve Their Wear, Erosion, Corrosion Resistance,”
KAERI, 2000.
50. Navas, C., Conde, A., Cadenas, M., and de Damborenea, J.,
“Tribological Properties of Laser Clad Stellite 6 Coatings on Steel
Substrates,” Surface Engineering, Vol. 22, No. 1, pp. 26-34, 2006.
51. Kohopää, J., Hakonen, H., and Kivivuori, S., “Wear Resistance of
Hot Forging Tools Surfaced by Welding,” Wear, Vol. 130, No. 1, pp.
103-112, 1989.
52. Persson, D. H. E., “On the Mechanisms behind the Tribological
Performance of Stellites,” Ph.D. Thesis, Science and Technology,
Uppsala University, 2005.
53. d’Oliveira, A. S. C. M., Vilar, R., and Feder, C. G., “High
Temperature Behaviour of Plasma Transferred Arc and Laser Co-
based Alloy Coatings,” Appl. Surf. Sci., Vol. 201, No. 1-4, pp. 154-
160, 2002.
54. Persson, D. H. E., Jacobson, S., and Hogmark, S., “Antigalling and
JULY 2013 / 1281
Low Friction Properties of a Laser Processed Co-based Material,” J.
Laser Appl., Vol. 15, No. 2, pp. 115-119, 2003.
55. Radu, I. and Li, D. Y., “Investigation of the Role of Oxide Scale on
Stellite 21 Modified with Yttrium in Resisting Wear at Elevated
Temperatures,” Wear, Vol. 259, No. 1-6, pp. 453-458, 2005.
56. Deloro Stellite, “STELLITE 6 ALLOY,” http://stellite.co.uk/ Portals/
0/Stellite%206%20Final.pdf
57. Deloro Stellite, “STELLITE 21 ALLOY,” http://www. stellite.co.uk/
Portals/0/Completed%20Data%20Sheets/Stellite%2021%20DS01-
22208%20(S%20R0808).pdf
58. Deloro Stellite, “Deloro 50 EXV,” http://stellite.com/Portals/ 0/pdf/
Datasheets/Deloro%2050%20EXV%20DS05-23108%20
(S%20R0808).pdf
59. Ocken, H., “Performance of NOREMTM Hardfacing Alloys,”
Electric Power Research Institute Inc.(EPRI), TR-112993, 1999.
60. Ming, Q., Lim, L. C., and Chen, Z. D., “Laser Cladding of Nickel-
based Hardfacing Alloys,” Surf. Coat. Technol., Vol. 106, No. 2-3,
pp. 174-182, 1998.
61. Mansori, M. EL. and Nouari, M., “Dry Machinability of Nickel-
based Weld-hardfacing Layers for Hot Tooling,” Int. J. Mach. Tools
Manuf., Vol. 47, No. 11, pp. 1715-1727, 2007.
62. Gurumoorthy, K., Kamaraj, M., Rao, K. P., Rao, A. S., and
Venugopal, S., “Microstructural Aspects of Plasmas Transferred Arc
Surfaced Ni-based Hardfacing Alloy,” Mater. Sci. Eng. A, Vol. 456,
No. 1-2, pp. 11-19, 2007.
63. Stott, F. H., Lin, D. S., and Wood, G. C., “The Structure and
Mechanism of Formation of the ‘Glaze’ Oxide Layers Produced on
Nickel-based Alloys During Wear at High Temperatures,” Corros.
Sci., Vol. 13, No. 6, pp. 449-453, 1973.
64. Stott, F. H., “High-temperature Sliding Wear of Metals,” Tribol. Int.,
Vol. 35, No. 8, pp. 489-495, 2002.
65. Qian, M., Lim, L. C., Chen, Z. D., and Chen, W. L., “Parametric
Studies of Laser Cladding Processes,” J. Mater. Process. Technol.,
Vol. 63, No. 1-3, pp. 590-593, 1997.
66. Kitagawa, A., Kubo, K., and Maekawa, K., “Temperature and Wear
of Cutting Tools in High Speed Machining of Inconel 718 and Ti-
6Al-6V-2Sn,” Wear, Vol. 202, No. 2, pp. 142-148, 1997.
67. Ezugwu, E. O., Wang, Z. M., and Machado, A. R., “The
Machinability of Nickel-based Alloys: A Review,” J. Mater. Process.
Technol., Vol. 86, No. 1-3, pp. 1-16, 1999.
68. Lehockey, E. M., Palumbo, G., and Lin, P., “Improving the
Weldability and Service Performance of Nickel- and Iron-Based
Superalloys by Grain Boundary Engineering,” Metallurgical and
Materials Transaction A, Vol. 29, No. 12, pp. 3069-3079, 1998.
69. Persson, D. H. E., Jacobson, S., and Hogmark, S., “Effect of
Temperature on Friction and Galling of Laser Processed NOREM
02 and Stellite 21,” Wear, Vol. 255, No. 1-6, pp. 498-503, 2003.
 1282 / JULY 2013
70. Fouilland, L., El Mansori, M., and Gerland, M., “Role of Welding
Process Energy on the Microstructural Variations in a Cobalt Base
Superalloy Hardfacing,” Surf. Coat. Technol., Vol. 201, No. 14, pp.
6445-6451, 2007.
71. Fouilland, L., El Mansori, M., and Massaq, A., “Friction-induced
Work Hardening of Cobalt-base Hardfacing Deposits for Hot
Forging Tools,” J. Mater. Process. Technol., Vol. 209, No. 7, pp.
3366-3373, 2009.
72. Kashani, H., Amadeh, A., and Ghasemi, H. M., “Room and High
Temperature Wear Behaviors of Nickel and Cobalt Base Weld
Overlay Coatings on Hot Forging Dies,” Wear, Vol. 262, No. 7-8,
pp. 800-806, 2007.
73. Pradeep, G. R. C., Ramesh, A., and Durga Prasad, B., “A Review
Paper on Hardfacing Processes and Materials,” International Journal
of Engineering Science and Technology, Vol. 2, No. 11, pp. 6507-
6510, 2010.
74. Liu, D., Liu, R., Wei, Y., and Pan, P., “Influence of Carbon Content
on Shock Hardening Behavior of Cobalt-base Hardfacing Deposits,”
Materials and Manufacturing Processes, DOI: 10.1080/10426914.
2012.727117, 2012.
75. Stern, K. H., “Metallurgical and Ceramic Protective Coatings,”
Chapman & Hall, pp. 74-111, 1996.
76. Jiang. W. H. and Kovacevic, R., “Laser Deposited TiC/H13 Tool
Steel Composite Coatings and Their Erosion Resistance,” J. Mater.
Process. Technol., Vol. 186, No. 1-3, pp. 331-338, 2007.
77. Tobar, M. J., Amado, J. M., Álvarez, C., García, A., Varela, A., and
Yáñez, A., “Characteristics of Tribaloy T-800 and T-900 Coatings
on Steel Substrates by Laser Cladding,” Surf. Coat. Technol., Vol.
202, No. 11, pp. 2297-2301, 2008.
78. Kaiele, S., Barroi, A., Noelke, C., Hermsdorf, J., Overmeyer, L., and
Haferkamp, H., “Review on Laser Deposition Welding: From Micro
to Macro,” Physics Procedia, Vol. 39, pp. 336-345, 2012.
79. Klocke, F., Brecher, C., Wegener, M., Heinen, D., Fisher, B., and
Do-Khac, D., “Scanner-based Laser Cladding,” Physics Procedia,
Vol. 39, pp. 346-353, 2012.
80. Arnold, J. and Volz, R., “Laser Powder Technology for Cladding
and Welding,” Journal of Thermal Spray Technology, Vol. 8, No. 2,
pp. 243-248, 1999.
81. D’Oliveira, A. S. C. M., Vilar, R., and Feder, C. G., “High
Temperature Behaviour of Plasma Transferred Arc and Laser Co-
based Alloy Coatings,” Appl. Surf. Sci., Vol. 201, No. 1-4, pp. 154-
160, 2002.
82. Frenk, A. and Kurz, W., “Microstructural Effects on the Sliding
Wear Resistance of a Cobalt-based Alloy,” Wear, Vol. 174, No. 1-2,
pp. 81-91, 1994.
83. Mingxi, L., Yizhu, H., and Guoxiong, S., “Microstructure and Wear
Resistance of Laser Clad Cobalt-based Alloy Multi-layer Coatings,”
Appl. Surf. Sci., Vol. 230, No. 1-4, pp. 201-206, 2004.
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PRECISION ENGINEERING AND MANUFACTURING Vol. 14, No. 7
84. Köhler, H., Partes, K., Kornmeier, J. R., and Vollertsen, F., “Residual
Stresses in Steel Specimens Induced by Laser Cladding and Their
Effect on Fatigue Strength,” Physics Procedia, Vol. 39, pp. 354-361,
2012.
85. Jiang, W. and Molian, P., “Laser Based Flexible Fabrication of
Functionally Graded Mould Inserts,” Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol.,
Vol. 19, No. 9, pp. 646-654, 2002.
86. Jianli, S., Yongtang, L., Qilin, D., and Dejin, H., “Experimental
Study of Laser Cladding Forming Iron-based Alloy,” Proc. of
Technology and Innovation Conference, pp. 1463-1467, 2006.
87. Khalid Imran, M., Masood, S. H., Brandt, M., Bhattacharya, S., and
Mazumder, J., “Direct Metal Deposition (DMD) of H13 Tool Steel
on Copper Alloy Substrate: Evaluation of Mechanical Properties,”
Mater. Sci. Eng. A, Vol. 528, No. 9, pp. 3342-3349, 2011.
88. Mudge, R. P. and Wald, N. R., “Laser Engineered Net Shaping
Advances Additive Manufacturing and Repair,” Welding Journal,
Vol. 86, No. 1, pp. 44-48, 2007.
89. DM3D Technology, “Hardfacing or Protective Coatings,” http://
www.pomgroup.com/index.php/products-services/productandservices-
productionservicesandcomponents/productioservices-hardfacing
90. InssTek Inc., http://www.insstek.com/service/index03.htm
91. Dutta, B., “Die Hardfacing and Remanufacturing Using Direct
Metal Deposition (DMD),” http://d12d0wzn4zozj6.cloudfront.net/
pdf/LAM2012%20Presentation%2015.pdf
92. Ahn, D. G., Kim, S. H., Lee, S. Y., and Lee, C. H., “Wear
Characteristics of Hardfaced Surface via Rapid Tooling Process,”
Proc. of ASME, pp. 116-117, 2010.
93. Ahn, D. G., “Annual Report on Basic Science Research Program of
the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF)
(2012R1A1A4A01013986),” National Research Foundation of
Korea, Annual Project Report, 2013.
94. Thivillon, L., Bertrand, P., Laget, B., and Smurov, I., “Potential of
Direct Metal Deposition Technology for Manufacturing Thick
Functionally Graded Coatings and Parts for Reactors Components,”
J. Nucl. Mater., Vol. 385, No. 2, pp. 236-241, 2009.
95. Majumdar, J. D., “Laser Assisted Composite Surfacing of Materials
for Improved Wear Resistance,” Physics Procedia, Vol. 5, Part A,
pp. 425-430, 2010.
96. Paul, C. P., Mishra, S. K., Premsingh, C. H., Bhargava, P., Tiwari, P.,
and Kukreja, L. M., “Studies on Laser Rapid Manufacturing of
Cross-thin-walled Porous Structures of Inconel 625,” Int. J. Adv.
Manuf. Technol., Vol. 61, No. 5-8, pp. 757-770, 2012.
97. Yadroitsev, I., Shishkovsky, I., Bertrand, P., and Smurov, I.,
“Synthesis of Functionally Graded Materials by Direct Metal
Deposition,” Proc. of the Fourth International WLT-Conference on
Lasers in Manufacturing, pp. 117-181, 2007.
98. Smurov, I., “Laser Cladding and Laser Assisted Direct
Manufacturing,” Surf. Coat. Technol., Vol. 202, No. 18, pp. 4496-
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PRECISION ENGINEERING AND MANUFACTURING Vol. 14, No. 7 JULY 2013 / 1283

4502, 2008.

99. Ocylok, S., Weisheit, A., and Kelbassa, I., “Functionally Graded
Multi-layers by Laser Cladding for Increased Wear and Corrosion
Protection,” Physics Procedia, Vol. 5, Part A, pp. 359-367, 2010.

100. Müller, S., Pries, H., Dilger, K., Ocylok, S., Weisheit, A., and
Kelbassa, I., “Applying Functionally Graded Materials by Laser
Cladding: a Cost-effective Way to Improve the Lifetime of Die-
casting Dies,” Glocalized Solutions for Sustainability in
Manufacturing: Proc. of the 18th CIRP International conference on
Life Cycle Engineering, pp. 235-239, 2011.

101. Weiβ, W., Vollmer, R., and Kolleck, R., “Application of Laser
Cladding in Forming Processes-Functionally Graded Coatings,”
Proc. of AIP Conference, Vol. 1315, pp. 1151-1156, 2010.

102. Mazumder, J. and Lurie, R. H., “Repair, Reconfiguration and

Reconstruction of Tools by Direct Metal Deposition,” http://
www.mpif.org/ncrf_11/041311%20repair,%20reconfguration%20
and%20reconstruction%20of%20tools%20by%20direct%20metal
%20deposition.pdf