History II. From Interwar To Modern World PDF

IES COMPLUTENSE DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY
Jorge-Elías de la Peña y Montes de Oca
History 4th CSE

1
Block II: Units 7-13

From the Interwar
period to modern world
1st CSE YEAR UNIT 1. PREHISTORY
History 4th CSE
UNIT 7:
The Interwar Period
UNIT 7: THE INTERWAR PERIOD

1. THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION
1.1. Causes of the revolution
 The Russian Revolution was the result of several elements that characterised the early-
1
20th century Russia:
 Political causes.
o The tsar Nicholas II (1896-1917) held an autocratic regime where he had all the
power and government.
o There was a revolution in 1905 after the Russian defeat in the Russo-Japanese
War that made the Tsar summon a Parliament (Duma), which was not really
respected by the sovereign.
o The participation of Russia in the First World War, which was quite unpopular
and left many casualties.
 Economic causes.
o The rural areas were completely backward.
 Most of the peasants (80%) were serfs until 1865.
 90% of the lands belonged to the Russian noblemen (Boyars).
o Industry grew in Russia in the main cities, but it was mostly funded with foreign
investments, which made Russia have many debts.
o The Soviets were created after the Revolution of 1905, where the workers had
representatives in the factories.
 Ideological causes.
o New social movements grew to criticise the political situation in Russia.
 The Constitutional Democratic Party (Kadets) was founded in 1905
after the revolution:
 It was a liberal party that meant to establish a parliamentary
monarchy in Russia.
 It was mostly composed of middle-class people.
 The Russian Social Labour Democratic Party was born in 1883
following Marxist ideas:
 It just had followers in the industrial cities.
4th CSE YEAR UNIT 7. THE INTERWAR PERIOD

 It was divided into two major branches that finally split up in

1912:
o Mensheviks.
 They wanted to create a liberal regime that would
be the transition to socialism.
 Their main leaders were Martov and Bernstein.
 They were expelled from the Russian Social
Labour Democratic Party in 1912. 2
o Bolsheviks.
 They were more radical and wanted to dictatorship
of the proletariat.
 They wanted an immediate revolution.
 Their main leader was Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov,
Lenin.
 They promised to quit WWI.
 Anarchism spread through the use of violence and terrorism against main
people of the regime (such as the tsar Alexander II in 1881).
1.2. Revolutions of 1917 and Civil War
 Russia’s participation in WWI was quite anti-popular; hence the opposition against that
war grew among population, which caused two major revolutions in 1917.
1.2.1. February Revolution

 A general strike took place in Russia between 23 and 27 February 1917 (8-12 March in
western calendar).
o Peasants, army and bourgeoisie joined to create the Petrograd Soviet of
Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies to fight against the tsarist power.
 Nicholas II abdicated on 2 March in favour of his brother Michael, who subsequently
abdicated on 3 March.
 The Russian Republic was thus established and the Duma took the political control in
Russia.
o Prince Lvov led the provisional government, who was substituted in July by
Kerensky.
o Freedom of speech was allowed.
o Russian went on fighting in WWI.
o The redistribution of land was promised.
 Lenin’s supporters understood that this revolution was a step towards the final
revolution and prepared for a further uprising.
1.2.2. October Revolution. The Bolshevik Revolution

 Once Lenin came back from his exile in Switzerland, Trotsky created the
Revolutionary Military Council of the Republic to prepare the definitive revolution.
 The 2nd Conference of the Soviets was held in October and the Bolsheviks promised
some actions:
o Withdrawal from WWI.
o Nationalisation of the lands.
 The Bolsheviks received many supports and the president Kerensky could not face a
possible revolution.
 On 25 October (7 November) the Soviets controlled St. Petersburg, Moscow, and Kiev:

o The Bolsheviks stormed the Winter Palace of St. Petersburg, which was
guarded by the Cossacks, Women’s battalion, and cadets. It is considered the
outbreak of the October Revolution.
 A new Revolutionary government was formed by the Bolshevik leaders:

o Lenin, People’s Commissar (President).
o Stalin, People’s Commissar of Nationalities.
o Trotsky, People’s Commissar for Foreign Affairs and Head of the Army.
o Rikov, People’s Commissar for Internal Affairs.
o Lunacharsky, People’s Commissar for Enlightenment.
 The Duma was dissolved and the Red Army seized the control in Russia.
 All the newspapers were closed down but Pravda and Izvestia, which were the
supporters of the Bolsheviks.
 Many decrees were passed by the new revolutionary government in order to establish the
foundations of the new regime:
o Bolsheviks made Russia withdraw from WWI.
 In March 1918 they signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany,
where the new government acknowledged the independence of many

regions of the former Russian Empire, such as Finland, the Baltic

republics, Poland, Ukraine, and Transcaucasia.
o All the lands were nationalised and would be controlled by the Soviets of
Peasants.
o Banks were nationalised.
o Ecclesiastical schools were nationalised.
o Search and seizure was legalised.
o Right to strike was abolished. 4
o Decree of nationalities (July 1918):
 The former Russian Empire became a federal state.
 It involved the creation of the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet
Republic (RSFSR), whose name was changed in 1922 into Union of
Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR).
 The Bolshevik government also persecuted its opponents, such as the Romanov family
(the Imperial family), who were executed in July 1918 in Yekaterinburg.
1.2.3. Civil War (1918-1921)

 After this revolution a Civil War broke out between the Bolsheviks (Red Army) and the
Mensheviks (White Army).
o The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was understood as treason by a large group of
Russians.
o The white faction, or Mensheviks, had some support in the west of Russia and
by international powers.
 It was more moderate and it was represented by liberals, conservatives
and moderate socialists.
o The red faction, or Bolsheviks, had more discipline and the support of peasants.
 Lenin compelled to purge the soviets of possible Mensheviks.
 The Cheka was created in order to persecute dissidents.
 The war was not balanced and Lenin managed to control all Russia in 1921, so a new
type of government was established.
1.3. Lenin’s government (1917-1924)
 After the Civil War, Lenin began a new government which went bankrupt. Hence the
principles of War Communism were followed:

o All the industrial goods were nationalised so that the State were the only
producer.
o Everybody should work for the state.
o There would not be any international trade since they wanted to get autarchy.
 In 1922 the economic policy changed into the New Economic Policy (NEP), which was
in use until 1927.
o Some economic freedom was given to the peasants.
o Small companies could be private.
o Some foreign investments were allowed.
o They allowed some international exchanges.
o The nationalised companies would be self-managed by the workers.
 The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) was created in 1922 and it was
composed of some autonomous republics:
o Russia.
o Ukraine.
o Belarus.
o Transcaucasia (Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan).
o Uzbekistan (1924).
o Turkmenistan (1924).
o Tajikistan (1929).

 The Constitution of the USSR was passed on 6 June 1923:

o Only the Communist Party of the Soviet Union was legal.
o The legislative power was held by the Supreme Soviet.
o The executive power was held by the Presidium and Council of People’s
Commissars, who were in charge of controlling the Head of the State.
o The capital was fixed in Moscow.
o Each republic of the USSR would have some autonomy.
1.4. Stalin’s government (1924-1953)
 Once Lenin died in 1924, he was succeeded by Joseph Stalin, who had fought with
Trotsky to get the government.

 Stalin established a totalitarian regime until his death in 1953. It is the so-called
Stalinism.
o There was a total centralisation of the state.
o Russians suffered ideological manipulation by Stalin.
o All the enemies of Stalin were purged. Hence he created gulags (forced labour
camps) to confine and execute them.
 In economic terms he implemented the Five-year Plans:
o They favoured the heavy industry. 7
o They created the Kolkhoz (agrarian cooperatives) and the Sovkhoz (state-owned
farms) for peasants.
o Private property was completely prohibited.
o The State should own the wealth and would lead its redistribution.
o These plans made the USSR a very important economic and military power.
2. THE ROARING TWENTIES
 The Roaring Twenties is the way this decade is known since many economic and
political changes were accomplished.
 During this period the countries that took part in WWI developed in two ways:
o Democracies. France, Great Britain, and the USA continued their democratic
political systems. Germany proclaimed the so-called Weimar Republic which
was the first democratic experience in that country until the arrival of Hitler.
o Authoritarian regimes. Many countries established dictatorships where
everything was controlled by the State. It happened in the USSR with Stalin, in
Italy with Mussolini or in Spain by Miguel Primo de Rivera. Germany also
established a totalitarian regime after the victory of the Nazis in the elections of
1932.

 During the 1920s there was also economic prosperity which involved development of
industry and increase in consumption, which was eased by advertising and credit.
3. THE CRASH OF 1929 AND THE GREAT DEPRESSION
 After WWI the European economy collapsed and the USA became the main world’s
supplier.
o Many European states had many debts, which could just be paid for once the 8
German war reparations were received.

o The USA gave long-term loans so that Europe may recover.
o There was some recovery after 1922, which involved increase in consumption
and investment in stocks and shares.
 There are several causes that explain the Crash of 1929:
o Overproduction. The production increased a lot since Europe imported
American goods in WWI.
 However, after its end the demand decreased, although the production did
not.
 Prices and profits halted in 1926, but the production went on.
o Low prices of agricultural products. Many farmers went bankrupt and could
not buy anything.
o Speculation. Profits had been really high between 1921 and 1926.
 Many people bought shares since it could not be invested in industry
since there was overproduction.
 The quote of shares was did not match their actual worth.
 Loans were easy to get. Hence, more shares were bought.
 The Crash of 1929 came after the decrease of sales of shares in October 1929.
o People were panicked since they could not buy any share in the New York Stock
Exchange.
o On Black Thursday (24 October) shares were massively sold in that
marketplace.
o On Black Tuesday (29 October) the sale of shares was complete and economy
collapsed:
 More than 5,000 banks had to close due to those loans they had
previously granted and they could not get back. Moreover, many people
withdrew their savings from the banks.
 Industry was severely affected since demand decreased and they had lots
of stocks; hence prices decreased.
 Many people went unemployed and many farmers were completely
unable to pay back their loans.
 The most affected countries by the Crash were the USA, Germany, and
Japan.

Unemployment in the USA

14
12
10
Millions
8
6
4
2
0
1929 1930 1931 1932 1933
Unemployed
 There were different solutions in order to ease the crisis:

o Most of the states followed the economic theories by John Keynes, who
defended the state intervention to stimulate investment, employment, and
consumption.
o Deflation, it was tried by the president Herbert Hoover by lowering the prices
to stimulate consumption but it did not work out.
o Return of investments in Europe to bring money back to the USA. None the
less it made the crisis spread in Europe.

o New Deal. It was designed by the president Franklin Delano Roosevelt, who
implemented some measures to stimulate economy:
 The payment of debts was delayed.
 Development public works in order to reduce unemployment.
 Reduction of government expenses.
 Creation of the American Agricultural Agency (AAA). It limited
agricultural production so that prices may be higher and farmers could
have a better standard of living. 10
 Enacting of the National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA), which would
regulate production and prices of industrial goods.
 Enacting of humanitarian laws such as the Social Security, reduction of
working hours, minimum wage, unemployment benefit...
 The State would control savings in banks, whose interest rates would be
lower.
 This programme was quite beneficial and reduced unemployment in some
years.
4. TOTALITARIAN REGIMES: FASCISM AND NAZISM
4.1. Totalitarianism
 During the 1920s and 1930s many regimes were totalitarian.

 The most well-known totalitarian regimes were Italian Fascism, German Nazism, and
Soviet Stalinism, whose characteristics were quite similar:
o Authoritarian systems. The State shall be controlled by populist and
charismatic leaders, such as Mussolini, Hitler or Stalin.
 There is not any political pluralism or civil rights. The only official
political party eliminates opposition through violence and repression by
paramilitary forces or political police.
o Economic and social control. Everything is controlled by the State, which will
be anti-capitalist and anti-communist in Germany and Italy.
 Public-work programmes were used in order to reduce unemployment.
 Propaganda is essential to make the nationals believe in the political
system.
 Repressive measures were implemented to persecute all those who
opposed the regime.
o Ideological inequality and fanaticism. Some members of the society are
believed to be superior due to religious or racial reasons.
 Symbols, uniforms, slogans, and songs are used to unite all the supporters
of the regime.
o Hyper-nationalism and militarism. The nation is essential above all and that
explains why it has the right to military expansion, which can just be got through
weapons and wars.
 These countries needed to expand in order to access raw materials.
4.2. Italian Fascism
 Fascism was established in Italy between 1922 and 1943.

 The Italian fascist leader was Benito Mussolini (1870-1945):

o He joined the Italian Socialist Party in 1902 and led its newspaper, Avanti. None
the less, he was suspended in 1914 when he wanted to enter WWI.
11
o He founded a new political party in 1921, the Fascist National Party as well as
a new newspaper: Il Popolo di Italia, where he published his political theories.
 Italy suffered a major political crisis after WWI since they did not get as much as they
expected. Besides there was a social and economic crisis.
o The Fascists took advantage of this situation and controlled the rural areas.
o Bit by bit merchants and Catholics began to support Fascism.
 On 27 and 28 October 1922 Mussolini marched on Rome with his 30,000 Blackshirts
in order to seize the power.
o As a result, the king Victor Emmanuel III gave Mussolini the government on
30 October 1922.
o The Grand Council of Fascism was created as a new government in Italy.
o The King and the Parliament were respected, although Mussolini was appointed
as Duce and Dictator on 2 January 1925.

12
 Fascist economy:
o Mussolini promoted a capitalist economic model.
o Despite criticising industry, he promoted the heavy industrial sector.
o He sought self-sufficiency and imports were limited.
o Public works were developed under this regime.
o Fascist trade unions were created to represent the workers and the others were
banned.
 Fascist society:
o Fascism counted on the Catholic support. Hence Mussolini signed the Lateran
Treaty in 1929 with the Pope Pius XI:
 Italy acknowledged the independence of the Vatican as a sovereign state.
 Catholicism was the Italian official religion.
 Only religious marriages would be allowed.
o Mussolini became more racist with Jews after his approaching to Hitler.
o Everything was completely controlled by Mussolini and the Fascist National
Party, who imposed censorship and propaganda.
 International policy:
o Mussolini believed in Imperialism. Hence he meant to create an Italian empire:
 The rule over Libya was consolidated.
 Mussolini conquered and annexed Abyssinia (Ethiopia) in 1936.

 Albania and Somalia was occupied in 1939.
13
o Mussolini had very strong ties with Romania, Austria, Hungary, and Bulgaria.
o Due to international conflicts with France and Great Britain, Mussolini got
closer to Hitler’s Germany:
 The Rome-Berlin Axis was created on 1 November 1936.
 The Pact of Steel was signed between Hitler and Mussolini on 22 May
1939. Japan also joined this pact to fight against communism (Anti-
Comintern Pact).
4.3. German Nazism
 National Socialism or Nazism was the German totalitarian regime between 1933 and
1945.
 The origins of this political ideology can be found in the creation of the German
Socialist Workers’ Party by Anton Drexler in 1918, which meant to fight against
Marxism.
 Adolf Hitler joined that political party in 1919 and got its presidency in 1921, when he
changed its name into National Socialist German Workers’ Party (NSDAP), which he
identified with a new symbol: the swastika.

o His programme was hyper-nationalist (Pan-German), where Germans should get

their Lebensraum (Life-room). It was also racist (Anti-Semite), where Aryans
were superior.
o He promised the suppression of the Treaty of Versailles.
o He also created several paramilitary forces for the Nazi Party:
 SA (Sturmabteilung), which were the Assault Division, subsequently led
by Ernst Röhm.
 SS (Schutzstaffel), which were the Protection Corps or personal guard. 14
 Hitler met other leaders such as Luddendorf, Röhm, Göring, and Rudolf Hess, who
took part in an attempted coup d’état they staged in Munich in 1923, the so-called Beer-
Hall Putsch.
o Hitler was arrested and imprisoned in Landsberg:
 While he was in prison he wrote his political manifesto: Mein Kampf (My
Struggle).
 The Nazi Party had its first representatives in the German Parliament in 1930 and it won
the elections in 1932 with a massive popular support:
o On 30 January 1933 Hitler is appointed Chancellor by the President
Hindenburg.
 Once Hitler got the government he eliminated the rest of the political
parties.
 The Reichstag (German Parliament) was burnt by the Nazis in February
1933, although they blamed Anarchists and Socialists for that fire in order
to persecute them.

15
 Once Hindenburg died on 2 August 1934, Hitler was appointed as new German
president, and was self-called Führer:
o On 30 August 1934 Hitler proclaimed in Nuremberg the birth of the 3rd Reich,
the so-called Thousand-Year Reich.
o He created the Gestapo (contraction of GEheime STAatsPOlizei) as a secret
political police.
o He developed a programme to reindustrialise and to rearm Germany.
o The autonomy of the German Länder (autonomous states) was abolished.
 Hitler made a policy in order to eliminate all those possible enemies from his point of
view:
o Dissolution of the SA on the Night of the Long Knives (30 June 1934), when all
its leaders were captured and executed.
o Persecution of the Jews once the Nuremberg Acts were passed (1935).

 On 9 November 1938, the so-called Night of Broken Glass

(Krystallnacht), Jews were massacred across Germany.
 Concentration camps were created in order to confine and exterminate
Jews.
16
 Nazi economy. Hitler developed the Four-Year Plans in order to fight crisis and
unemployment:
o Salaries were regulated.
o Weapon industry was developed.
o Prices were controlled by the government.
o Control of external trade in order to get autarchy.
 Nazi society. Everything was to be controlled by the Nazi Party.
o Propaganda became an essential means of the Nazi ideology, which was
controlled by the Propaganda Ministry led by Joseph Goebbels.
 The German society should be Nazified.
 Only teachers with a Nazi licence could work.
 There would be Nazi subjects in the educational system.
o Right to strike was abolished but there were some benefits to workers.
o The Catholic Church was also persecuted.
 Nazi expansionism. Hitler wanted to concentrate all the Germans under his rule and he
began his Life-room programme:
o Changes within Germany. Some areas of Germany had been occupied or
controlled by foreign powers after the Treaty of Versailles. Hitler could not
tolerate this and began some campaigns to re-take over those German regions:

 Saarland was reincorporated in Germany in 1935 after a plebiscite

which was affirmative with a 91% of the votes.
 The region of Rhineland was remilitarised in 1936.
o Austria. He wanted Austria to be a part of his Reich and promoted the so-called
Anschluss.
 Hence, he ordered the assassination of its president Engelbert Dollfuss in
July 1934, but Mussolini did not let Hitler annex Austria.
 Western powers signed a treaty to protect Austria’s independence. 17
 An internal revolution sponsored by Hitler deposed the Austrian
government on 12 March 1938, which allowed Hitler to annex Austria.
o Czechoslovakia. In the Czech area of the Sudetes there were around 3.5 million
Germans, who should ruled by a German power basing on Hitler’s principles:
 On 29 September 1938 Germany, Italy, Great Britain, and France
reached the Munich Agreement, where Germany annexed the Sudetes
(Sudetenland).
 On 15 March 1939 Germany invaded Czechoslovakia and created the
Protectorate of Bohemia-Moravia, whilst Slovakia becomes a Pro-Nazi
independent nation.
o Poland. After the Treaty of Versailles, Poland divided Germany into two parts
and East Prussia remained isolated. Hence, Hitler wanted to control Danzig in
order to unite both parts of Germany.
 On 23 August 1939 the German Minister Von Ribbentrop and the Soviet
Minister Molotov signed the Treaty of Non-Aggression between
Germany and the USSR.
 Germany and the USSR agreed on sharing Poland and East
Europe in the event of a war.
 The USSR would not attack Germany if a war may break out.
 Hitler commanded the invasion of Poland on 1 September 1939, which

actually involved the outbreak of WWII.
 The Soviets invaded Poland on 17 September following the
principles of the treaty that had been previously signed with
Germany.

18

19

History 4th CSE 1
UNIT 8:
The Second World War and its
consequences
UNIT 8: THE SECOND WORLD WAR AND ITS

CONSEQUENCES
1. THE SECOND WORLD WAR
1.1. Causes of the war

1
 Germany needed revenge after their defeat in WWI and the humiliation of the Treaty of
Versailles.
 The Great Depression of the 1930s had made unemployment and poverty grow in the
USA and in Europe, especially in Germany, which had to pay war reparations until
1932.
 The growth of totalitarianism in Europe, such as Fascism in Italy and Nazism in
Germany.
 The annexations of the Axis Powers (Germany, Italy, and Japan) and their military
agreements:
o The Pact of Steel (1936) had involved an alliance between Germany, Italy, and
Japan for a possible conflict.
o Japan had also invaded Manchuria in 1932 and became a major power in the
Far East.
o Italy had occupied Abyssinia (1936) and Albania (1939).
o Germany had annexed Austria (1938), Sudetenland (1938), and most of
Czechoslovakia (1939).
 Germany was completely free in the east after the signing of the Treaty
of Non-Aggression with the USSR.
o These counties needed many raw materials for their industries, which made them
invade many countries.
 The League of Nations was completely unable to put a stop to these aggressive policies.
o Many of the former allies of WWI were afraid of the expansion of communism.
That is why they tolerated some Nazi annexations; it is the so-called
appeasement policy.
o The League of Nations could not prohibit its members from having economic or
diplomatic relations with those countries which acted aggressively.
o Some countries left the League of Nations since they wanted to pursue
expansionist policies, such as Japan (1933), Germany (1933), and Italy (1937).
o Others were expelled from the League of Nations when they attacked any
sovereign state, such as the USSR, once it invaded Finland in 1939.
 On 1 September 1939 Germany invaded Danzig and the rest of Poland.
o On 3 September, Great Britain and France declared war on Germany.
1.2. Combatants
 The nations that fought in the World War II were divided into two groups:
o Axis Powers. It was composed of Germany, Italy, and Japan, as well as some
satellite states that were created in the last 1930s and WWII.
 Germany was really ready for this war since they had prepared for three
years:
 The German Air Force (Luftwaffe) was essential in the
development of the war.
4th CSE YEAR UNIT 8. WWII AND ITS CONSEQUENCES

 Germany developed the Blitzkrieg (Lightning War) in order to

surprise the enemy.
 Japan had a very powerful army whose Air Force was also basic.
 Italy had a quite weak army that was usually assisted by the German.
o Allied powers. France and Great Britain led the allies, although many
countries joined them, such as the USSR, or the USA.
 France was quickly invaded by Hitler. Hence they had to develop the so-
called French Resistance to fight the Germans, whilst the other part of 2
the country had a puppet government.

 Great Britain suffered many air raids. They thus strengthened the Royal
Air Force (RAF) to fight them. It also included the Commonwealth
Realms such as Canada or Australia.
 Once the USSR and the USA joined the allies, they could resist better the
Axis attacks.
1.3. Characteristics of the war
 The front of the war was worldwide, since it can be found in Europe, Africa, and the
Pacific Ocean.
o Sixty countries were involved in this war.
o More than 100 million soldiers fought in WWII.
o Around 800 million civilians suffered occupations and bombardments.
 It was a quite long war, since Germany had managed to invade many areas at the
beginning of WWII which were quite difficult to re-conquer.
 WWII can be considered the cruellest war in the history since many atrocities were
carried out, such as genocide, deportation, systematic torture, and the creation of
concentration and extermination camps.
 New and destructive weapons were used in this war:
o Planes.
o Tanks.
o Aircraft carriers.
o Flying bombs (V-1, V-2).
o Missiles.
o Atomic bomb.

1.4. Development of the war
1.4.1. First stage (1939-1941)

 This part of the war had many victories for the Axis Powers.
 Germany launched the Blitzkrieg that managed to invade many areas in very short time,
which was also eased by the neutrality of the USSR.
o Poland was invaded and pacified in just one month (September 1939).
o In order to invade France, Germany needed the Swedish iron that was exported 3
through Norway.
 Denmark and Norway were thus invaded by Hitler in February 1940.
o France was strongly protected by the Maginot Line. That is why Hitler decided
to attack it by invading the Netherlands and Belgium.
 The German army entered France and occupied the Ardennes and Sedan,
which let them reach Paris on 10 May 1940.
 The north of France was thus occupied by Hitler, whilst in the south it
was created a collaborationist state, the French State, which was led by
Marshall Pétain from Vichy (that is why it was called Vichy France).
 France officially surrendered on 25 June 1940, so Great Britain was the
only country that fought against Germany.
o At the end of June 1940 the British and French armies were completely
surrounded by the Germans in Dunkirk.
 300,000 soldiers were taken by ship to Great Britain.
 The British Winston Churchill called up for a psychological war against
Germany, whilst the French Charles de Gaulle organised the French
Resistance.
 At that moment Italy joined Germany in WWII.
 Once Great Britain is the only important enemy that Hitler had, he began a campaign
to end with the British power:
o The front was taken to the Balkans and north of Africa.
o Great Britain was massively bombed from the summer of 1940 onwards, but it
was not actually effective.
o Italy and Germany were defeated by Great Britain in the Siege of Tobruk
(April-November 1941).

o Greece was invaded by the Axis Powers in April 1941 and they also occupied
Yugoslavia.
 Hitler began the Operation Barbarossa in June 1941 in order to invade the USSR
since he thought that Stalin wanted to break the Treaty of Non-Aggression.
o Stalin was not ready for the war but the USSR managed to resist the German
attack and the main industries were moved to the other side of the Ural
Mountains.
o At that moment the USSR joined the Allied Powers. 4
o Hitler invaded the USSR and occupied Leningrad (St. Petersburg) and Kiev in
September 1941 and reached Moscow.
 At this time Hitler controlled most of Europe:

o Great Germany (annexed areas): Germany, Austria, Sudetenland, Bohemia
and Moravia.
o Occupied areas: Eupen, Malmédy, Alsace, Lorraine, Luxembourg, Belgium,
the Netherlands, France, Denmark, and Norway.
o Protectorates: Poland, part of the USSR.
o Satellite states: Romania, Bulgaria, Greece, Albania (officially annexed by
Italy), Yugoslavia, Slovakia, and Finland.
o Allied countries: Italy and Japan.

1.4.2. Second stage (1941-1945)

 During this period the Axis Powers opened more fronts, where they progressively lost.
 Creation of the Pacific Ocean Front (1941).
o Japan occupied Indochina after defeating France.
o Due to Hitler’s attack of the USSR, Japan had also to invade Siberia.
o Japan extended the front once they attacked on Pearl Harbour, a major
American military base on Hawaii, on 7 December 1941.
o The USA entered WWII by declaring war on Japan. 5
o Japan seized the occasion to occupy Burma, the Philippines, Singapore, and
threatened India, and Australia.
 European and African fronts (1942-1945):
o The Axis Powers began to suffer major defeats:
 Hitler understood that he should extend the war to the colonies. Hence,
he sent Rommel to Egypt.
 Rommel fought against the British army led by Montgomery at the
battle of El Alamein (23 October-11 November 1942).
 The Germans were defeated by the British.
o The German defeat at El Alamein allowed the Allied Powers to cross the
Mediterranean Sea and occupy Sicily on 9-10 July 1943.
 Mussolini was overthrown from power and Hitler invaded Italy.
 The Italian Social Republic (Republic of Salò) was created by
Hitler for Mussolini.
 The Allied Powers disembarked at Anzio in January 1944 and eventually
entered Rome on 25 April 1945.
o In the USSR, the German defeat came once they attacked Stalingrad
(Volgograd) in spring of 1942.
 The Soviets practised the scorched-earth policy.
 After a long battle (until February 1943) it was the definitive Soviet
victory over the Germans, who had to retreat from the USSR.
o After the German defeat in Stalingrad (USSR) the front moved westwards and
Germany began to be massively bombed.
 Leningrad was liberated in January 1944.

Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, Greece, Albania, and Yugoslavia were

liberated between September and October 1944.
o The most important allied campaign was the Operation Overlord, widely
known as the Normandy Landings, which were prepared to be done on the D-
Day (6 June 1944).
 More than 160,000 allied troops landed Normandy on 6 June 1944 and at
the end of August they were more than 3 million.
 On 15 August there was another landing in Provence, which allowed the 6
final liberation of France.
 Paris was eventually occupied by the allies on 26 August 1944.

o After the liberation of France the front moved eastwards and crossed the Rhine
on 1 April 1945.
 Italy was eventually liberated from the Nazis and Mussolini was
executed on 28 April 1945.
 Hitler committed suicide on 30 April 1945.
 The Soviet army managed to control Berlin on 7 May 1945, on the same
day when General Jodl surrendered Germany.
 The Pacific Front (1942-1945):

o After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbour they controlled the Pacific Ocean.
o There was a Japanese operation to control New Guinea and the Solomon
Islands:
 The Australian and the American armies defended the area in the Battle
of the Coral Sea (May 1942) and the Battle of Midway (June 1942).
 The Americans decided to occupy Guadalcanal Island to prevent any
Japanese invasion, which involved a very cruel battle between August
1942 and February 1943.

o Japan began a defensive strategy after their defeat on Guadalcanal.

o The USA managed to occupy New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, and the
Philippines between September 1944 and January 1945.
o A very symbolic attack was launched on Okinawa and Iwo Jima (February-
March 1945), which were native Japanese lands.
o The Japanese reacted with kamikazes to destroy the American bases.

o The US President Truman allowed the use of the atomic bomb to end with the
Japanese resistance:
 The first atomic bomb was launched on Hiroshima on 6 August 1945,
but Japan did not surrender.
 A second atomic bomb was launched on Nagasaki on 8 August 1945.

o Japan finally surrendered on 15 August 1945.

 Peace was signed with the USA on 2 September 1945 on the USS
Missouri between the generals MacArthur and Umezu and the minister
Shigemitsu.
1.5. Consequences of the war
 WWII was the most destructive ever:

 Demographic consequences:
o Between 55 and 60 million people died during WWII, both civilians and soldiers.
 The most affected nations were the USSR, Poland, Germany and the
Jews, who suffered genocide in the Nazi concentration and death camps,
the so-called Holocaust.
 USSR: 24 million.
 China: 20 million.
 Poland: 5.5 million.
 Yugoslavia: 1.5 million.
 France: 600,000.
 Great Britain: 320,000.

 USA: 300,000.
 Germany: 8 million.
 Japan: 3 million.
 Italy: 600,000.
 Jews: 6 million.
o There were many forced migrations due to the occupations by foreign armies.
Many refugees went to South and North America to escape from the war.
10
o Birthrate decreased notably.
o Many people left the cities and moved to the countryside, where there were not
air raids.
Casualties in WWII USSR
30 China
25 Poland
Yugoslavia
20 France
Millions
15 Great Britain
USA
10 Germany
5 Japan
Italy
0 Jews
 Territorial consequences:
o There were very few changes in West Europe, but it did not happen the same in
the east:
 The USSR annexed some areas of Poland, some others of Finland, all
Estonia, all Latvia, all Lithuania, part of Czechoslovakia, Bessarabia,
and a part of Germany (some areas of East Prussia).
 Germany was divided into four sectors controlled by the four main allied
powers: USSR, USA, Great Britain, and France.
 Some German areas were ceded to Poland (Silesia, Pomerania,
and some parts of East Prussia) and the east boundaries were
fixed in the river Oder.
 Berlin was also divided into four areas controlled by the four
allies.
 Austria recovered its independence and was also occupied and divided
by the four main allied powers (Vienna too).
 Italy lost some territories:
 Istria in favour of Yugoslavia.
 The Dodecanese in favour of Greece.
 It also abandoned the African colonies.
 Japan was occupied by the USA and lost its empire.

11
 Political consequences:
o The political systems of the Axis Powers were dismantled.
o The new superpowers were the USA and the USSR, which led a new world order
with two spheres of influence:
 Western Bloc led by the USA.
 Eastern Bloc led by the USSR.
 Social consequences:
o Once some countries were invaded by the Axis Powers, two groups began to
exist:
 Resistance fighters. Many people organised themselves to attack the
Nazis, such as the French Resistance (led by Charles de Gaulle) or the
Yugoslav Partisans (led by Josif Broz, Tito).

Collaborators. Some others decided to cooperate with the Nazis to help

them carry out their plans.
o The people who had fought against Nazism became major leaders in their
countries.
 Economic consequences:
o Many crop fields were destroyed.
o Most of the infrastructures were bombed and destroyed.
o Economy had to be restructured from a warfare system into a peace economy. 12
o Europe got itself into debt and depended on the American or Soviet aid.
2. SEARCHING FOR PEACE
 There were some manifestos and conferences that were held in order to fix the principles
that should be followed after the end of WWII:
 The Atlantic Charter was signed in August 1941 between Churchill (Great Britain
Prime Minister) and Franklin D. Roosevelt (President of the USA), where they did not
acknowledge the German annexations in Europe.
o It also fixed some economic measures for the post-war period promoting global
cooperation.
 The Tehran Conference was held between 28 November and 1 December 1943
between Churchill, Roosevelt, and Stalin (USSR).
o They agreed on opening a new front in west Europe and plan the future
Normandy landings.
 The Yalta Conference was one of the most important meetings before the end of the
war (4-11 February 1945).
o Churchill, Roosevelt, and Stalin met in that Soviet city.
o They agreed on dividing Germany once the war finished and which the
boundaries of the new state of Poland should be whose eastern part would be
annexed by the USSR.
o The USSR decided to declare war on Japan.
o They also agreed on the creation of the United Nations.
 The last meeting took place in the Postdam Conference (28 July-1 August 1945).

o The leaders that met were Truman (USA), Churchill and Atlee (Great Britain),
and Stalin.
o They decided to establish the Nuremberg Tribunals in order to judge the Nazi
leaders for genocide.
o After this conference it was visible the creation of two main world blocs: the
western (led by the USA), and the eastern (led by the USSR).
13
3. THE UNITED NATIONS
 The United Nations (UN) is the most important international organisation and it was
founded in 1945 after the World War II and replaced the League of Nations (it had
existed since 1919).
 The Atlantic Charter (August 1941) discussed about its possible creation.
 The United Nations Charter was eventually signed on 26 June 1945, which can be
considered the Constitution of the UN.
o It was the result of the discussions which were held in San Francisco between 25
April and 26 June 1945.
o Delegates of 50 nations took part in the United Nations Conference on
International Organisation.
o Nowadays, most of the countries of the world belong to the UN (193 states in
2012).
o Its main headquarter is located in New York City, although there are other sees
for specialised bodies.

 Its main goals are listed in the Charter of the United Nations (26 June 1945):
o To maintain peace and collective security.
o Promotion of economic and social progress.
o Defence of human rights.
o Respect for the free determination of people.
14
 The UN has an internal organisation as follows:

o Secretariat. It is composed of one Secretary General, who is the international
spokesman of the UN, and other secretaries.
 The Secretary General is elected by the General Assembly every five
years.
 He coordinates all the functions of the UN.
o General Assembly. It is composed of all the member countries and debates
about peace and security as well as formulating recommendations.
 Each state has one vote and 5 representatives maximum.
o Security Council. It is the most important organ of the UN.
 It is composed of 15 countries, out of which 5 are permanent and can veto
their decisions (USA, UK, France, Russia, and China).
 The other 10 members are elected every two years in the General
Assembly.
 It investigates situations of conflict.
 It recommends measures to resolve international conflicts.
o International Court of Justice (different from the International Criminal
Court). It is composed of 15 magistrates chosen by the General Assembly and the
Security Council for 9 years.

 It decides on disputes between members.

 It is located in The Hague (The Netherlands).
o Economic and social Council. It is composed of 53 members chosen by the
General Assembly and it coordinates economic and social work to improve the
standard of living, cooperation for education, culture, development and respect of
human rights... It has specific agencies that are specialised in their areas:
 UNESCO is specialised in education, science, and culture.
 WHO is specialised in health. 15
 FAO is specialised in food and agriculture.
 UNICEF is specialised in children.
 ILO is about work in the world.
 UNHCR deals with refugees in the world.
o Other institutions are specialised organs of the UN, such as:
 International Monetary Fund (IMF). It is in charge of promoting
international trade.
 World Bank. It gives loans for development.
 General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). It means to reduce
customs duties in the world.
 The United Nations passed the Universal Declaration of Human Rights on 10
December 1948, whose main rights are:
o Right to life.
o Right of freedom of meeting, expression, association, thought, strike, press...
o Acknowledgment of self determination of colonised peoples.
o Condemnation of torture and slavery.
4. ART BETWEEN 1919 AND 1945
 During the first half of the 20th century there was a major revolution in art since many
movements spread worldwide, whose concepts were completely different from previous
styles:
 Architecture. It became much more functional and rational; hence it is called as
Functionalism or Rationalism.
o Form follows the function was the motto of these architects, who used minimal
decoration in geometrical styles, mostly vertical and horizontal lines.
o Reinforced concrete was used as a main building material for pillars and beams,
which would be in charge of withstanding the structure.
o It was very common the construction of skyscrapers, mostly in the USA.
o The main representatives of this type of architecture were:
 The German Bauhaus, which was composed of several German
architects such as Walter Gropius and Mies van der Rohe. They
combined architecture with decoration and furniture. Some examples are
the Fagus Factory or the Bauhaus Building.
 Le Corbusier was the father of rationalist architecture with very simple
buildings such as Ville Saboye or Unité d’habitation.
 Frank Lloyd Wright integrated buildings in nature and he followed
geometry in his buildings. His style is known as organic architecture,
whose main example is the Fallingwater.

16
 Sculpture. New materials were used for sculpture, such as iron and steel where they
simplified shapes of just designed mobile sculptures. Some of the best representatives
are Constantin Brancusi or Henry Moore.
 Painting. There were new movements that grew in this period:

o Surrealism. It found inspiration in dreams with absurd and irrational elements.
One of the best followers of this movement was Salvador Dali.
o Dadaism. This movement claimed for the destruction of art by using every-day
objects as art objects. Marcel Duchamp was its best representative.
o Abstract movement. The authors of this style do not represent anything that can
be identified since the essential elements in their paintings are colour and shape.
Vasili Kandinsky, Piet Mondrian, Paul Klee, and Jackson Pollock are some
of its main representatives.

17

History 4th CSE 1
UNIT 9:
Spain in the early 20th century

UNIT 9: SPAIN IN THE EARLY 20th CENTURY

1. THE REIGN OF ALPHONSO XIII (1902-1931)
1.1. The reign of Alphonso XIII until WWI
 Alphonso XIII was crowned in 1902 once he turns 16 years old.

1
o He was really marked by the Crisis of 1898 and he wanted to make very deep
reforms in Spain; it was the so-called Regenerationism.
o He intervened in politics directly.
 During the first part of his reign the peaceful alternation of political parties went on:
o Antonio Maura succeeded Cánovas del Castillo in the Conservative Party.
o José Canalejas became the leader of the Liberal Party after Sagasta.
o The change of government was due to internal political crises, not owing to
people’s will.
o The elections were manipulated so that these parties went one ruling. Hence, the
other political parties did not have any chance to govern.
 The conservative Antonio Maura led the government between 1905 and 1909:
4th CSE YEAR UNIT 9. SPAIN IN THE EARLY 20th CENTURY

o He promoted the naval industry as a consequence of the Crisis of 1898.

o Strike was also regulated.
o The Instituto Nacional de Previsión was created in 1908, which was an
antecedent of the Seguridad Social.
o A new Electoral Law was passed in order to end manipulation and caciquismo.
o The Tragic Week took place at the end of July 1909 in Barcelona as a protest
against the recruiting for the Moroccan War, which affected the Spanish
protectorate of the Rif and its local inhabitants. 2
 The Spanish army was clashed by the Moroccans at Barranco del Lobo
on 27 July 1909.
 The government wanted to raise 40,000 more soldiers for that war.
 A major revolt rose up in Barcelona to protest for that recruiting since it
just affected lower-class people.
 Many people took part in this revolt and the trade unions led it.
 Some churches were burnt and barricades were erected on the
streets.
 The government undertook a major repression of the revolt by sending
the army.
 The traditional pact of alternation between parties was broken.
 After these revolts and their repression, in 1910 Pablo Iglesias, the leader
of the PSOE became the first elected socialist deputy.
 The liberal José Canalejas got the government after the Tragic Week and led it
between 1909 and 1912:
o One of his most important acts was the Ley del Candado (December 1910),
which prohibited the arrival of new religious orders in Spain, which caused some
problems with the Vatican.
o Canalejas also drafted the Ley de Mancomunidades (although it was eventually
passed in 1913).
 It planned an autonomous government for Catalonia: Mancomunitat de
Catalunya, which should be governed by Prat de la Riba.
 This government was meant to be the solution for the peripheral
nationalism.
o Canalejas was assassinated by an Anarchist in 1912.

 After Canalejas’ assassination, the conservative Eduardo Dato governed until 1915,
whose government was marked by WWI:
o Spain was neutral during WWI, although there were several tendencies:
 Pro-Allies, they were mostly liberal.
 Pro-German, they were mostly conservative.
o There was economic prosperity associated to the Spanish neutrality, which
allowed a major industrial growth.
 Prices rose during WWI.
 Spanish industry did not restructure after the end of WWI and that caused
an important recession.
1.2. The Crisis of 1917 and its consequences
 The Crisis of 1917 was one of the main problems Spain suffered in the 1910s and
affected many areas:
o Juntas de Defensa. Some officers of the army showed their disagreement with
the government’s policy and demanded a renewal in Spanish politics. They
became a very influential institution in the Spanish political life.
 These officers also demanded a higher salary.
 The liberal government of García Prieto was immediately substituted by
the conservative Eduardo Dato.
o Assembly of representatives. It was held in Barcelona between July and
October.
 Francesc Cambó, leader of Lliga Regionalista de Catalunya, hosted a
meeting of parliamentarians to protest against the suspension of the
sessions at the Cortes.
 Those representatives belonged to the Catalanist parties and some
members of the opposition parties.
 They demanded some political reforms, such as the reform of the
Constitution of 1876 and the creation of actual autonomous governments.
 It was dissolved by the central government.
o General strikes. They took place between 13 and 18 August.
 Workers were mobilised by the Anarchist Trade Union (CNT) and the
Socialist Trade Union (UGT).

 They protested against how prices rose due to the industrial speculation
during WWI.
 The regions that struck more were Madrid, Barcelona, Basque Country,
and Asturias.
 The army stifled the revolts that were associated to the strikes
 The leaders were imprisoned, such as Andrés Saborit, Francisco Largo
Caballero, Julián Besteiro, and Daniel Anguiano.
 A government of national concentration was formed in order to face this 4
crisis.
 After these crises there were governments of national concentration until 1923.
 Once WWI ended the Spanish industry did not restructure, which caused a strong
recession as well as strikes.
o Social problems were aggravated due to the Russian Revolution in 1917, which
caused a split within the PSOE and founded the PCE (Partido Comunista de
España) in 1921.
o Employers and trade unions had continuous problems, especially caused by the
Anarchists.
 During the Moroccan War the Disaster of Annual (July 1921) shocked all Spain:
o General Silvestre led some troops that went from Melilla to Alhucemas.
o The Moroccan leader Abd el Krim ambushed the Spanish troops and killed
10,000 soldiers and captured other 4,000.
o That defeat involved that the fortress of Monte Arruit could be occupied by the
Moroccans, who killed 7,000 soldiers.
o After those two major defeats, Melilla was about to be taken over by the
Moroccans.
o Major protests rose in Spain to protest against the government, the army, and the
Crown.
o An official investigation was carried out and the final report was published in
1923. It is the so-called Picasso Report. Many military officers and the King
himself seemed to have some links with the disaster in Morocco.

1.3. Miguel Primo de Rivera’s dictatorship (1923-1930)
 Miguel Primo de Rivera staged a coup d’état in Barcelona on 13 September 1923 and
imposed a dictatorship:
o He decreed the suspension of the Constitution of 1876.
o Primo de Rivera had a very strong popular support.
o He was known as the Iron Surgeon the regenerationists proposed.
 The regime of Primo de Rivera can be divided into two periods:
o Military Directory (September 1923-December 1925):
 Primo de Rivera was assisted by other generals who tried to find the
solutions of Spain.
 The Moroccan War ended thanks to some military campaigns with
French assistance that followed the Alhucemas Landing (8 September
1925).
 They allowed the surrender and capture of Abd el Krim.
 A young officer stood out during this war, Franco.
 His government restored public order by persecuting terrorists.

 Political parties were banned and one official party was created in 1924:
Unión Patriótica.
 Trade unions were substituted by equal committees of employers and
employees.
 A sort of Parliament was created: Asamblea Nacional Consultiva.
 The Mancomunidad de Cataluña was suppressed.
 Censorship was imposed and freedom of press was abolished.
6
o Civil Directory (December 1925-January 1930):

 In December 1925 Primo de Rivera introduced some civil ministers in
his new government, such as José Calvo Sotelo or the Count of
Guadalhorce.
 Public works were promoted by the government:
 The Count of Guadalhorce implemented a hydraulic programme
which allowed the construction of reservoirs and the creation of
the Cuencas Hidrográficas.
 Many roads were also built in this period.
 The State intervened a lot in economic matters:
 There was an important industrial development.
 Some national monopolies were created, such as CAMPSA (for
petroleum), Telefónica (for telephone), or Tabacalera (for
tobacco).
 There were International Exhibitions in Spain in 1929:
 Barcelona held the International Exhibition in the area of
Ciudadela.
 Seville held the Ibero-American Exhibition, where the Latin
American nations met in the so-called Parque de María Luisa and
Plaza de España.
 Primo de Rivera suffered some military opposition:
 The first attack on his regime was visible in the coup d´état that
took place on 24 June 1926; hence it is called Sanjuanada.

 The Artillery Corps was dissolved in 1929 after showing their

disagreement with Primo de Rivera’s policies.
 Primo de Rivera resigned after the Crash of 1929 in January 1930.

o He exiled in Paris, where he died on 17 March 1930.
1.4. The end of the reign of Alphonso XIII
 Once Primo de Rivera resigned, Alphonso XIII formed a new government led by the
General Berenguer, the so-called Dictablanda:
o Berenguer governed as if nothing had happened in the last years and restored the
Constitution of 1876. That is the so-called Berenguer Mistake.
o Many parties signed the San Sebastián Pact in August 1930, where they were
committed to end with the monarchy:
 It was signed by socialists, republicans, and catalanists.
 Some intellectuals also joined this pact, such as Miguel de Unamuno,
José Ortega y Gasset, and Gregorio Marañón.
 They agreed on ending with the monarchy through elections or coups
d’état.
o There was an important attempted republican coup d’état in Jaca on 12 December
1930, which was led by the officers Galán and García Hernández, who were
executed on 14 December.
 Alphonso XIII formed a new government led by the Admiral Aznar in February 1931,
who called municipal elections for 12 April 1931 in order to get more support for the
king.
o There was a massive republican victory in the cities, whilst there was a victory of
the monarchist candidates in the countryside, where most of the elections were
manipulated.
o Alphonso XIII decided to abdicate to avoid a civil war and the Spanish 2nd
Republic was proclaimed on 14 April 1931.

2. THE SECOND REPUBLIC
2.1. Provisional government
 Once Alphonso XIII abdicated and the 2nd Republic was proclaimed a provisional
government was established to rule Spain, which was composed of several tendencies:
o Former monarchists:
 Niceto Alcalá-Zamora (Derecha Liberal Republicana).
 Miguel Maura (Derecha Liberal Republicana).
o Traditional republicans:
 Manuel Azaña (Acción Republicana).
 Alejandro Lerroux (Partido Reformista Radical).
 Diego Martínez Barrio (Partido Reformista Radical).
 Álvaro de Albornoz (Partido Republicano Radical Socialista).
 Marcelino Domingo (Partido Republicano Radical Socialista).
o Socialists:
 Francisco Largo Caballero (PSOE).
 Indalecio Prieto (PSOE).
 Fernando de los Ríos (PSOE).
o Regionalists:

 Nicolau D’Olwer (Acció Republicana de Catalunya).

 Santiago Casares Quiroga (Organización Republicana Gallega
Autónoma).
 This government was presided over by Niceto Alcalá-Zamora.

 During this period there were major problems in Spain:
o Religious problems:
 Many convents and churches were burnt by the masses.
 The Archbishop of Toledo, Cardinal Segura, and the bishop of Vitoria,
Múgica, were expelled from Spain due to their critics to the republic.
o Regionalist problems:
 Francesc Macià proclaimed the Estat Catalá on 14 April 1931, where
the Catalan autonomy was established until the approval of the Catalan
statute by the Cortes.
 New elections were called to elect a Constituent Parliament, where the left-wing parties
won and had many representatives thanks to the new electoral law. They were held in
June 1931.

2.2. The Constitution of 1931
 On 9 December 1931 the Constitution of the 2nd Republic was passed, which was very
advanced:
o It based on many ideas that had been drafted in the Constitution of the Weimar
Republic (Germany).
 It was pacifist and idealistic.
 It acknowledged individual rights as in Germany, such as equality before 10
the law.
o The Parliament just had one house.
o A Tribunal de Garantías Constitucionales was created in order to make the
Constitution be respected.
o The President of the Republic would be elected by the Cortes for 6 years, but his
competences were quite weak.
o Universal suffrage was acknowledged in this Constitution, female included.
o There was freedom of expression and association.
o It acknowledged the autonomy of some regions.
o It did not establish any official religion and recognised divorce.
o A new Spanish flag was adopted consisting on three coloured stripes: red, blue,
and purple, whose coat of arms substituted the royal crown by a walled crown.
2.3. Left-wing government or Reformist Biennium (1931-1933)
 The Reformist Biennium was governed by the left-parties, although the Parliament
elected Niceto Alcalá-Zamora as President of the Republic, who belonged to the
republican right-wing parties.
 The government was presided over by Manuel Azaña, who made a coalition with other
left-wing parties.

11
 Many reforms were promoted by the new government:

o Army.
 Those members of the army who did not swear allegiance to the Republic
could retire.
 The Military Academy of Zaragoza was closed down (it was led by
Franco at that time, who felt humiliated).

 The number of officers in the army was drastically reduced as well as

their political power.
o Church.
 The Jesuits were expelled from Spain.
 Cemeteries were secularised and controlled by the State.
 The Catholic Church would not be funded by the State.
 Religious orders could not teach any more.
 The Divorce Act was passed by the Cortes. 12
 Civil marriage was legalised.
o Agrarian reform:
 The salary of the farmers was increased.
 The Agrarian Reform Act (Ley de Reforma Agraria) was passed in
September 1932.
 The lands of the nobles were seized and controlled by the State.
 Those lands would be shared up among farmers.
 The Instituto de Reforma Agraria was created in order to
implement all the measures to accomplish the reform:
o It was quite slow to carry this out.
o Many protests arose among farmers, who were instigated
by the Trade Unions UGT and CNT.
o Education.
 10,000 National schools were created, which allowed spreading education
across the country.
 Thousands of teaching jobs were also promoted.
 Some campaigns to spread culture were promoted, such as the Misiones
Pedagógicas, which performed plays or showed films in rural areas.
Federico García Lorca’s La Barraca was really active in this
programme.
o Labour reforms.
 New laws were enacted so that employers should negotiate conditions
and wages with the Trade Unions.
 The working week was limited up to 40 hours.
o Regionalism. Some statutes of autonomy were passed or projected:
 Catalonia:
 There was a massive growth of a new political party, Esquerra
Republicana de Catalunya, which was led by Francesc Macià.
 The Catalan Generalitat was given provisional powers until the
Catalan statute was passed in 1932 after the coup d’état by
Sanjurjo.
 Basque Country:
 Most of the Basque political life was controlled by the Basque
Nationalist Party (PNV).
 The Statute of Estella was drafted in 1932 demanded their
autonomy and union with Navarre. However it was not passed by
the Cortes.
 Galicia:
 The autonomous feeling was led by Santiago Casares Quiroga,
who did not like federalism.
 The main problem was to fix the Galician capital.

 Some problems arose during the Reformist Biennium since there was a strong opposition
from some groups:
o General Sanjurjo led a coup d’état on 18 August 1932 in Seville, which was
completely unsuccessful. He was forced to exile in Lisbon.
o Monarchists also opposed the new regime.
o Far-right parties:
 José Antonio Primo de Rivera created Falange Española as a copy of
the Italian Fascist Party. 13
 Ramiro Ledesma founded the Juntas de Ofensiva Nacional Sindicalista

(JONS).
o Anarchists:
 FAI (Federación Anarquista Ibérica) proposed revolutions in Spain
through strikes.
 There was a major rebellion at Casas Viejas (Cádiz, January 1933),
which was put down by the Guardia Civil.
 These crises and revolts caused a government crisis and Azaña decided to call for new
legislative elections for a new government.
2.4. Right-wing government or Conservative Biennium (1933-1936)
 The elections were held in November 1933 and were won by the CEDA (Confederación
Española de Derechas Autónomas), led by José María Gil-Robles.
o This coalition of right-wing parties promised economic reforms as well as
amnesty for the authors of the coup d’état.
o Gil-Robles did not get the presidency of the government due to the opposition of
the left-wing parties.

14
 The government was first led by Alejandro Lerroux, leader of the Radical Party.
o There were some negotiations in order to sign a Concordat with the Holy See.
o Some lands that were seized to the nobility basing on the Agrarian reform were
given back.
 There were three major revolutions that took place in October 1934 due to the
appointment of three ministers who belonged to the CEDA.
o Catalan Revolution.
 Francesc Macià died and was substituted by Lluís Companys, who was
quite more radical.
 On 6 October Companys proclaimed the Catalan State within the
Spanish Federal Republic.
 This revolt failed since Companys was neither supported by the
Anarcho-syndicalists nor by the right-wing Catalanists.
o Socialist Revolution.

 It began on 5 October but it was not well prepared.

 It was just successful in Madrid.
o Miners’ Revolution.
 This revolution was the most important one and began on 6 October.
 It took place in the Basque Country and in Asturias, where it was
extremely radical.
 In Asturias the Trade Unions UGT and CNT formed an alliance to put
the bourgeois Republic into an end. 15
 Oviedo was mostly destroyed during these revolts.

 Money was suppressed and there were anti-clerical attacks.
 The revolution was stifled with the intervention of the army:
o General Yagüe landed in Gijón.
o General Ochoa attacked from the west.
o General Solchaga entered Asturias from the east.
o General Bosch Balmes attacked from the south.
o All the operations were led from Madrid by the General
Franco.
 The situation was controlled back on 18 October.
 There were major consequences due to these revolutions:

o There were more tensions between the ministers that belonged to the CEDA and
the ones who belonged to the Radical Party.
o The Catalan Statute was temporally suspended.
o An Agrarian Counter-reformation was implemented.
 Some members of the Radical Party were blamed for corruption, which caused another
major crisis:
o Some Dutch businessmen, Strauss and Perle, wanted to introduce in Spain a
new type of fraudulent roulette for San Sebastian Casino by bribing some
Radical ministers.
o It was a major scandal which was known as Straperlo.

 Due to that corruption scandal the Cortes were dissolved and new elections should be
held on 16 February 1936.
2.5. The Popular Front and the end of the 2nd Republic (1936)
 For these elections the left-wing parties made a coalition following the French model of
Popular Front.
o It was composed of Izquierda Republicana, Unión Republicana, PSOE, and 16
PCE (Partido Comunista de España).

o Its main goal was to seize the government thanks to the electoral law, which
benefited coalitions.
o It was quite heterogeneous because of all the forces that composed it, which
caused some divisions.
 The right-wing parties reacted late with the creation of the Bloque Nacional.
 The Popular Front won the elections and Manuel Azaña was elected as the new
President of the Republic.
o The government was presided over by Manuel Portela Valladares, but he was
substituted by Santiago Casares Quiroga.
o The socialists had different positions in this coalition:
 Indalecio Prieto defended the cooperation with the government.
 Francisco Largo Caballero defended a revolution.

o The officers who were not reliable for the new government were removed and
were given peripheral destinations:
 Franco was sent to the Canary Islands.
 Mola was taken to Navarre.
 Goded was in charge of the Balearic Islands.
o The Agrarian Reform was radicalised and the misappropriation of lands by
farmers were legalised.
 During this period there were many problems of public order: 17
o Many churches were burnt.

o There were continuous fights between Falangistas and communists. It was the
so-called Tragic Spring of 1936.
o Some left-wing or right-wing leaders were murdered:
 Lieutenant Castillo, belonging to the Guardia de Asalto, was murdered
by far-right activists on 12 July.
 Members of the Guardia de Asalto reacted on 13 July by murdering José
Calvo Sotelo, leader of the right-wing bloc.
o These disorders accelerated the coup d’état that was being prepared:
 The coup was finally staged in Melilla on 17 July.
 It spread to the Peninsula on 18 July; it was the beginning of the Civil
War since the coup d’état did not succeed everywhere.
3. THE CIVIL WAR (1936-1939)
3.1. Authors of the coup d’état
 There were some forced which opposed the Popular Front and supported the coup
d’état:
o Monarchists.
o Traditionalists (Carlists):
 They were very well organised.
 They constituted the Junta Carlista de Guerra.
 All the Traditionalists were led by the General Mola from Pamplona.

o Falange Española y de las JONS.

o Devout Catholics.
o Part of the Army, which was grouped in the UME (Unión Militar Española).
Some of its members were Mola, Queipo de Llano, Franco, Goded, and
Sanjurjo.
18
 It was prepared by the General Mola in March 1936:

o There should be four fronts that should rebel and march on Madrid.
o In Madrid there would be a spontaneous uprising of the population against the
Popular Front. It was the so-called Fifth Column.
o Their initial goal was to seize the Popular Front from the government, not to
attack the Republic and to establish a republican dictatorship, where the
Constitution would be temporally suspended.
 After the coup d’état Azaña contacted the Marquis of Carvajal (sent by Goded) to
avoid a war.
o Azaña promised a new government without communists.
o Mola did not accept his proposals since he understood it was already too late.
o The republicans thought that this coup d’état could be easily controlled as in
1932, but they were wrong.
3.2. Initial geography of the Civil War
 The National or Rebel side controlled some parts of Spain:

o They rebelled in Melilla and in the Protectorate of Morocco.
o The Canary Islands were controlled by Franco, who flew to Morocco on 19
July.
o Old Castile. It was a traditional conservative area, although there were some
initial difficulties in Salamanca and Valladolid.
o Navarre was a major Carlist area.
o Álava, where even the PNV supported the rebellion.
o Oviedo was an enclave which was controlled by the Nationals, although the rest
of Asturias was republican (save Gijón, where there was rebel group which
resisted until November 1936).
o Galicia was a quite conservative area.
o Aragón was controlled save Teruel.

o Balearic Islands supported the coup d’état, save Minorca.

o Most of Andalusia supported the left-wing parties but it was not controlled by
the republicans:
 Seville was the only place where the officers and the population did not
agree on the coup d’état. It was Queipo de Llano who took control over
the city.
 Queipo de Llano managed to take over Cordova and Cádiz.
 Granada was also an enclave of the Nationals. 19
 Some Civil Guards took refuge in the Sanctuary of Virgen de la Cabeza
(Andújar), where they resisted until November 1936.
o They counted on the African soldiers, who were used to fighting, as well as the
Castilian agrarian areas.
 The Republican side controlled some other areas:

o New Castile, where Madrid suffered an attempted coup d’état by the General
Fanjul which was quickly put down.
o Catalonia, where Barcelona was controlled by Anarchist militias, which
promoted the collectivisation of the means of production.
o Levant (Valencia and Murcia).
o Minorca.
o Andalusia was mostly supporter of the Republic with some exceptions which
were previously seen.
o Cantabrian coast, which was essential due to its industry. The only exceptions
were Oviedo and Álava.
o Teruel.
o The republicans controlled the resources of the State, the industry and most of
the army.
3.3. Development of the war
 The first stage was the Guerra de Columnas (July-November 1936).

o The initial goal of the Nationals is to occupy Madrid quickly and they reached
Somosierra on 22 July.
o Most of the capitals of Andalusia were taken over by the Nationals thanks to the
Anarchist inefficacy.
o Franco wanted to link the centre with the south:

 His army marched by the Portuguese boundary and occupied

Extremadura, where there was a major repression in Badajoz.
 Talavera de la Reina was occupied by the Nationals on 1 September
and allowed assisting Toledo due to symbolic reasons. It was eventually
taken over on 26 September.
 The Republicans had better defences as Franco were approaching
Madrid, where the Nationals reached on November 1936 and settled at
Ciudad Universitaria and a fierce combat began in the capital. 20
o In the north Irún was taken over by the Nationals but the rest remained loyal to
the Republic.
o The Republicans tried to occupy Ibiza and Majorca but it was unsuccessful.
 Between November 1936 and March 1937 all the efforts were in the Battle of Madrid:
o The Nationals did as much as they could in order not to do a frontal attack on
Madrid since they could not occupy it. They stayed at Ciudad Universitaria.
o There was a National offensive by the Jarama in order to cut the
communications with Levant.
 The Battle of Jarama was fought between 6 and 18 February.
 The Nationals were worn down by the Republicans.
 The battle ended since both sides were exhausted.
o The Battle of Guadalajara was done by the Nationals and the Italians.
 There were major Republican air raids which achieved to stop Franco.
 The area was left by the Nationals.
o Meanwhile, Málaga was captured in January 1937 by the Italian troops who
helped the Nationals.
 The Campaign of the North (April-October 1937) was essential for the future
development of the war:
o Franco decided to attack more areas which were easier than Madrid to be
occupied.
 Meanwhile, Mola died in an air accident and he was substituted in the
north by the General Varela.
 The Air Force and Artillery were basic in this stage of the war.
 In the Basque Country there were severe air raids by the German
Condor Legion, such as in Guernica (26 April).
 Bilbao was finally taken over by the Nationals on 19 June.

Santander was easily conquered due to the fact that the members of the
Popular Front deserted.
 Asturias was more difficult to occupy, where there was some resistance
in Infiesto and Gijón. The entire region was finally taken over by the
Nationals in October.
o The conquest of the north was essential since the Nationals took control over
iron and coal.
21
o The Republicans made some offensives to distract the Nationals from the north:
 They forced a major battle around Brunete (Madrid) in July 1937 so that
the Nationals left Madrid, but they counter-attacked and the
Republicans retreated.
 Another distractive battle was in Belchite (Zaragoza) in summer and
autumn 1937. Franco did not send the army of the north since he needed
it there. The Republicans also attacked Zaragoza.
 None of these manoeuvres were useful at all.
 The next stage was the combat around Teruel and the National arrival in the
Mediterranean Sea (November 1937-June 1938):
o The Republicans wanted to get more territories inland and occupied Teruel in
November, which was finally re-taken over by Franco in February 1938.
o After this victory, the Nationals moved by the river Ebro and captured Lérida (4
April 1938) and managed to reach the Mediterranean Sea at Vinaroz on 14
April, which divided the Republican area into two.
o The movement towards the south was slow but Castellón was eventually
occupied in June.

22
 The Battle of the Ebro (24 July-16 November 1938) was the last great battle of the war:
o The Republicans reorganised their army and crossed the river Ebro in Gandesa
in six different points.
o The Nationals did not expect this attack and managed to stop the Republicans
on 31 July, who resisted on the nearby mountains.
o The Nationals eventually defeated the Republicans on 16 November, whose
moral was very low now.
o There were 100,000 casualties in this battle.
o The end of this battle allowed the Nationals to enter Tarragona on 15 January
1939 and reached and occupied Barcelona on 26 January.
o Many Republicans decided to exile to France before the frontier was controlled
by the Nationals.
 The end of the war was between February and March 1939:
o The Popular Front disbanded bit by bit. Many of its leaders exiled.

o Minorca surrendered in February.

o The Republicans hesitated whether to resist or to make Madrid surrender.
 There were many combats within Madrid and a coup d’état was staged to
overthrow the communist government.
 Madrid was eventually handed over by the Republican Major Casado
to the Nationals on 28 March 1939.
o The official end of the war was on 1 April 1939 once Franco signed the last
military communiqué. 23
3.4. Government in both areas
 In the Republican side the government had all the state tools to govern although there
were major internal crises:
o There was a Social revolution within the republican side that supported the
collectivisation of the land and industry.
o There were many anti-clerical movements and many churches were burnt and
many religious people were attacked and killed.
o There was important social disorder.
o There was a serious repression against the rebels. It was the so-called paseo.
o The Basque Country was given its statute of autonomy to get their support for
the republican side.
o The government was initially led by Francisco Largo Caballero, who was
subsequently substituted by the communist Juan Negrín until de coup d’état of
the Major Casado in March 1939. There was a major division between
communists and anarchists which weakened the government.
o The capital was moved from Madrid to Valencia once it was surrounded by the
Nationals.
 The National side was quite more stable.
o All the republican reforms were retracted.
o A major repression was implemented against those ones who opposed the
rebellion.
o Franco held all the civil and military power once he was appointed as Head of
the National State and Generalísimo in September and October 1936.

o Falange Española Tradicionalista y de las JONS became the only oficial party
in this area after the unification of Falangistas and Carlists decreed by Franco.
o The capital of the Nationals was fixed in Burgos.
3.5. International intervention
 The Republicans had very little international help due to the signing of the
International Non-intervention Committee, which made the European democracies 24
not take part in this conflict:

o France sent very few weapons.
o The USSR sent some weapons in exchange of all the gold of the Bank of Spain.
o The Communist International (Comintern) raised volunteer soldiers who were
part of the International Brigades, who fought for the Republicans.
 The Nationals received some more assistance:
o Germany sent the Condor Legion, which was an elite air force.
o Italy sent the Corps of Volunteer Troops, who were important in the
occupation of Málaga and in the Battle of Guadalajara.
o Portugal created the Portuguese Legion and granted security along the border.
 All the international troops left Spain after the Battle of the Ebro.
3.6. Consequences
 The consequences of this Civil War had impact on several fields:

 Demographic consequences.
o It is estimated that more than 350,000 people died during the war.
o More than 400,000 exiled from Spain.
o There was a major repression in both two sides against dissidents.
 Economic consequences.
o Most of the means of production were destroyed.
o The internal communications were also destroyed.
o The entire gold reserve of the Bank of Spain was lost.
 Political consequences.
o The Civil War led to the establishment of a personal dictatorship led by the
General Franco, who had been appointed as Head of the National State on 1
October 1936.
o This regime lasted until Franco’s death on 20 November 1975.
4. ART IN SPAIN IN THE EARLY 20th CENTURY
 In architecture there are two important art movements:

o It was very important the Art Noveau style, whose main representative was
Antonio Gaudí.
 These buildings were full on undulating shapes.
 Decoration was based on natural motifs, such as plants or animals.
 His most famous works are in Barcelona: Sagrada Familia, Casa Batlló,
Casa Milá or La Pedrera, and the Parque Güell.

25
o Rationalist architecture was mostly represented by the collective GATEPAC,

whose main architect was José Luis Sert.
 Functional lines were preferred au lieu de massive decoration.
 Lines were also quite pure and geometric.
 Some of the best examples of Rationalism are Ciudad Universitaria and
Colonia del Viso, both in Madrid.
 There was an important renovation in sculpture, whose authors followed Cubism, such
as Pablo Gargallo or Julio González. Both of them used iron as main material.
 In painting there were two major Avant-garde art styles, whereas one traditional style
was followed at the beginning of the century:
o Luminism. It is a similar style to Impressionism where light and colour are
essential, but it is more vibrant and quick.
 Joaquín Sorolla (1863-1923) is its best representative, who used quick
brushstrokes to represent some sea scenes or traditional themes of
Valencia.

26
o Cubism. Its main representative was Pablo Ruiz Picasso (1881-1973), who had
several art periods during his life:
 First works. They were done when he was studying and he followed the
academic principles. Science and Charity and First Communion are
some of his best paintings of this period.
 Blue period (1901-1904). He expressed loneliness, sadness, and pain in
this period. The most used colour was blue. This stage began once he
visited Paris to study. La Vie and The Old Guitarist are good examples.
 Rose period (1904-1907). He painted melancholic figures, which were
often linked to the circus. Pink is the most common colour. Family of
Saltimbanques shows perfectly this style.
 Analytical cubism (1907-1911). His painting is almost abstract in this
period and the shapes are difficult to recognise. There is not any
traditional perspective. Les demoiselles d’Avignon is his best work of this
period.
 Synthetic cubism (1911-1924). There is a huge variety of colours and the
shapes are clearer.
 Classical cubism. He showed more recognisable figures and was more
dramatic, such as in Guernica, which was painted for the International
Exhibition in Paris. In this period he also made some versions of pictures
by Velázquez, Delacroix and Manet.

27
o Surrealism. There are two main authors of this style:

 Salvador Dalí (1904-1989). The world of dreams was his inspiration and
he represented them following his method of composition paranoiac-
critical, where he showed paranoia by strange figures that seem to melt.
His painting was masterful. Some of his major works are The persistence
of the memory or Premonition of Civil War
 Joan Miró (1893-1983). His surrealism is completely different from

Dalí’s although he also based on dreams. His style is composed of flat

coloured backgrounds which twisted or by geometrical shapes of gaudy

colours. Some of his major works are Femme, oiseau, étoile or
Constellations.
28

29

History 4th CSE 1
UNIT 10:
The Cold War and the
Decolonisation
UNIT 10: THE COLD WAR AND DECOLONISATION

1. THE COLD WAR: BLOCS
 The Cold War was an underlying conflict between the USA and the USSR and their
allies.
o Both two superpowers sought the control of the world after WWII.
1
o It lasted between 1945 and 1989.
o The worst period took place between 1945 and 1955.
o There was not any direct war between two powers. However, there were many
battlefields in Third World countries, where both two blocs offered their help.
o These two blocs are known as:
 Capitalist bloc, led by the USA.
 Communist bloc, led by the USSR.
 Two leaders of both two blocs kindled the Cold War:
o The American president, Harry S. Truman, alerted to the expansion of the
USSR in East Europe in 1947.
 Hence, Truman offered economic aid for those countries which were in
danger of being controlled by the communists, such as Greece or
Turkey.
 It is the so-called Truman Doctrine.
 The Marshall Plan was implemented in order to stop the communist
advance in Europe.
o On the other hand, the communist leader Zhdanov drafted a report in 1947 that
denounced American imperialism.
 The USSR offered their help to those countries which felt threatened by
the USA and wanted to fight their imperialism.
 It is the so-called Zhdanov Doctrine.
 Some military alliances were founded by the leaders of both two blocs in order to control
the enemies’ actions:
o The bloc led by the USA founded a military alliance in order to be protected
from any likely attack of the USSR; it was the NATO (North Atlantic Treaty
Organisation):
 It followed the principles of the Truman Doctrine (March 1947), which
fixed the protection of Western Europe by the USA. It also persecuted
any communist idea.
 It was founded on 4 April 1949 to stop any Soviet expansion.
 This alliance establishes that any attack to a member country is
considered an attack to all of them. Hence, all the members will help that
attacked state.
 The main goal is to save democracies, individual liberties and the State of
Law.
 The initial members were the USA, Canada, Iceland, Great Britain,
France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, Italy, Portugal,
Norway, and Denmark.
 Greece and Turkey joined the NATO in 1952, whereas West Germany
did it in 1955. Further enlargements were done from the 1980s onwards.
o Some other anti-communist and mutual-aid organisms were created in America,
Europe, Asia, and the Pacific area from 1950 onwards:
4th CSE YEAR UNIT 10. THE COLD WAR AND THE DECOLONISATION
The Organisation of American States (OAS) was founded in 1948 in

order to defend the American states in case of aggression. It also tries to
solve social, political, and economic conflicts.
 ANZUS was an alliance founded in 1951 between Australia, New
Zealand, and the USA.
 The SEATO (South East Asia Treaty Organisation) was an alliance
created in 1954 by the members of ANZUS plus the Philippines,
Thailand, and Pakistan. It also counted on French and British 2
cooperation due to their colonial possessions in the area. This alliance
was eventually dissolved in June 1977.
 The WEU (Western European Union) was composed of West
Germany, Italy, France, Great Britain, Belgium, the Netherlands, and
Luxembourg in May 1954. It was very linked to the NATO, which was
its European version. It disappeared in June 2011.
o On the other hand, the USSR founded the Warsaw Pact in May 1955:
 It was composed of the USSR, Albania (until 1962), East Germany,
Bulgaria, Romania, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, and Poland.
 There were some observer states, such as China, North Korea, and
North Vietnam.
 They constituted a mutual-defence alliance.
 Their external policies were common too.
 This alliance was led by the General Staff of the USSR.
 Both leaders also implemented economic policies in order to coordinate the economy of
their allies:
o The USA helped the western democracies through the Marshall Plan (European
Recovery Programme), which consisted of economic assistance for the
reconstruction of the European countries. All the European democracies received
millions of dollars for that task (donations and loans with very low interest rates).
o The USSR created the COMECON in 1949 (Council for Mutual Economic
Assistance), which fixed the economic principles for its state members,
especially in the area of heavy industry. It was composed of:
 The USSR.
 Bulgaria.
 Czechoslovakia.
 Hungary.
 Poland.
 Romania.
 Albania (left in 1961).
 East Germany (joined in 1950).
 Mongolia (joined in 1962).
 Cuba (joined in 1972).
 Vietnam (joined in 1978).
2. THE CAPITALIST BLOC
 The capitalist bloc was led by the USA, which defended the establishment of
democracies in Europe.
o These democracies guaranteed rights and freedoms. There were two exceptions
where there were dictatorships, which were Spain and Portugal.
o Capitalism was the economic system they followed, based on private property
and free market.
o There was an important economic and social growth in this bloc after WWII,
which involved the establishment of the welfare state in most of Europe and the
growth of the middle class.
4
2.1. The USA and Japan
 The USA was the leader of this bloc and had two main stages:
o Between 1945 and 1960 there were many anti-communist measures implemented
by the Republican presidents Harry S. Truman and Dwight Eisenhower:
 A blacklist was drafted with all those likely communist sympathisers
within the USA. It is the so-called McCarthyism or Witch-Hunt.
o The Democrat John Fitzgerald Kennedy became the president in 1961 and
tensions with the eastern bloc were reduced.
 Moreover, there were mobilisations in favour of civil rights for black
people led by Martin Luther King against racial segregation.
 Civil Rights Act was finally passed in 1964, where all discrimination
was abolished.
 Japan was occupied after WWII by the Americans, who forced the establishment of a
democracy in the empire.
o Japan’s sovereignty was restored in 1951 once the parliamentary monarchy and
democracy were fully established.
o There was an economic miracle which made Japan the second largest economy
in the world in the 1960s. It could be achieved thanks to the American
investment and the attitude of the Japanese.
2.2. Europe
 Meanwhile, the entire West Europe was composed of democracies (save Spain, Portugal,
and Greece).
 The Marshall Plan allowed the creation of an essential market for the USA.
 Some European democracies agreed on the foundation of some common institutions to
create a European identity:
o The British Prime Minister, Winston Churchill, suggested in 1946 that Europe
could compete with the USA and the USSR as a leading nation.
o The French Minister of Foreign Affairs, Robert Schuman, proposed on 9 May
1950 the creation of a common market of coal and steel to avoid rivalries and to
be more competent. Hence, that day is commemorated as the Day of Europe
since it is considered the foundations of the European Union.
 Shortly after, some treaties were signed by some European countries in order to fulfil
that goal:
o Benelux Customs Union (1948). It was an agreement that was signed by
Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg in order to remove customs and to
promote free movement of capital, goods, and workers.
o Treaty of Paris (18 April 1951). It involved the creation of the European Coal
and Steel Community (ECSC).

It was signed by France, Western Germany, Italy, Belgium, the
Netherlands, and Luxembourg.
 It created a free-trade area for coal and steel in the signing countries.
 It has been considered the basis for the future European Economic
Community.
 Its functions were assimilated by the future European Union, since it
expired in 2002.
o Treaty of Rome (25 March 1957). It constituted the creation of the European
Economic Community (EEC) or Common Market.
 Its main objectives were the free movement of people, goods, services,
and capitals by suppressing the customs duties among the member
countries.
 It was signed by West Germany, France, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands,
and Luxembourg.
 It also involved the creation of Euratom (European Atomic Energy
Community) for the development and research of the nuclear energy with
pacific goals as well as creating a common market of nuclear fuels.
3. THE COMMUNIST BLOC
 The regime of the communist countries was the so-called dictatorship of the proletariat,
although everything was controlled by the Communist party and the USSR.
o Economy was completely state-controlled with collectivised land and national
industry.
o All these states had full employment, which was guaranteed by the State.
Moreover, basic services were also provided by the State, such as education and
health.
o This bloc was quite backward in technology and standard of living compared to
the capitalist bloc.
 Apart from East Europe, communism also spread to Cuba, North Korea, Mongolia,
North Vietnam, and China, which has become a superpower. Some African countries
also adopted communism, such as Angola. 6
3.1. Expansion of communism in East Europe
 Stalin wanted to reach the same production of weapons as the USA.

o He wanted to avoid a likely invasion.
o He accomplished the atomic bomb in 1953.
 The USSR controlled all East Europe after Hitler’s fall.
 Communist parties seized the government in East Europe assisted by the Soviet army
and created people’s republics which worked as buffer-states with the western
democracies.
o Hungary was controlled in 1949.
o In Bulgaria the king Simeon II was expelled in 1949.
o In Romania there was a quick process when the king Michael was expelled in
1947.
o Poland was a much more complex case due to the British support, although anti-
Communists left the country after the Soviet repression in 1947.
o Czechoslovakia associated the Soviet bloc freely after the legal victory of the
communists in the elections in 1946. It was completely controlled by the USSR
after the resignation of the non-communist ministers in 1948.
o In Yugoslavia the communist partisans were really appreciated due their actions
during WWII. Josif Broz, Tito abolished monarchy once the king Peter was
expelled. Besides, he did not align with the communist bloc in 1948.
o In Albania a pro-Soviet regime was established after WWII and the expulsion of
the king Zog.
3.2. The USSR and East Europe after Stalin
 When Stalin died in 1953 he was succeeded by Nikita Khrushchev, who began a
process of De-Stalinisation to fight the abuse of power of cult of personality of the
previous leader.
o Khrushchev allowed some level of freedom and speech.
o The relations with the capitalist bloc enhanced a lot in this period. However there
were some critical moments due to Cuba or Berlin.
 Leonid Brezhnev led the USSR between Khrushchev’s death in 1964 and 1982.
o He stopped all Khrushchev’s reforms.
o His external policy switched from coexistence to tension with the USA.
 There were anti-communist revolts within the communist bloc in East Europe:
o Poland (June 1956). Revolts became once the miners in Poznan rose up against
the communist regime.
 The communist government pleaded for help and the USSR invaded
Poland so as to restore the order.
o Hungary (December 1956). The country began its De-Stalinisation in 1953.
 Imre Nagy, Hungarian president, wanted to proclaim the neutrality of the

country in December 1956 in order to establish a democracy.
 The Soviet army invaded Hungary.
 All the leaders were executed.
o Czechoslovakia (January-August 1968). The communist leader Alexander
Dubcek implemented some measures that gave more liberties and restricted
totalitarianism within the country. It is the so-called Prague Spring.
 Censorship was put into an end and there were measures to legalise non- 7
communist political parties.
 The USSR and the allied of the Warsaw Pact (save Romania) invaded
Czechoslovakia in August 1968 and those measures were completely
stopped.
3.3. China
 After WWII China suffered a civil war between the Nationalists or Kuomintang, led by
Chiang Kai-Shek (president of the Republic), and the Communists, led by Mao
Zedong (Mao Tse-tung):
o Mao led a communist revolution which Chiang Kai-shek wanted to put down.
o Mao’s final victory took place in 1949.
o Chiang Kai-shek and his supporters left China and took refuge on Formosa,
where they created the so-called Republic of China (Taiwan).
 The People’s Republic of China was eventually proclaimed by Mao Zedong on 1
October 1949.
o The new republic became a communist regime where there was a fierce
repression of the opposition and complete control of the society.
o The control was stronger during the Cultural Revolution (1967-1971), which
made people leave their traditional ways of life.
o Chinese economy was based on two fields:
 Collectivisation of the land, which was organised in communes, which
were self-sufficient.
 Promotion of heavy industry after 1958; the so-called Great Leap
Forward.
 China invaded Tibet in 1950 and influenced over the neighbouring countries, such as
North Korea, Mongolia, Laos, Cambodia or North Vietnam.
o China and the USSR had excellent relations after the Revolution. Hence. They
signed a treaty of friendship.
o However, Mao’s communist theories differed a lot from the USSR after Stalin’s
death and he considered it was a treason of Marxist principles.
o Hence, Maoism criticised the Soviet policy and created its own economic system
away from Soviet principles.
4. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS
4.1. Extreme tension (1947-1956)
 Germany became the first tension hotspot after WWII and marks the beginning of the
Cold War :
o The four major allies divided the country into four sectors. Moreover, the
national boundaries were reduced up to 25% and Germany could not have any
army.
o The entire German budget was used for reconstruction.

o The Soviets dismantled all the production units in their sector, which were taken
to the USSR.
o There were conflicts between the former allies about the type of state to create
since there were different interests.
 The USSR wanted a state-controlled economy in Germany.
 France did not want a powerful state.
 Great Britain and the USA wanted to establish a democratic regime in
Germany.
o Thanks to the Marshall Plan industry and agriculture grew a lot in Germany.
o In September 1948 Great Britain and the USA passed a Constitution for the
Federal Republic of Germany (FRG), composed of their sectors. On 23 May
1949 France joined its sector to the newly constituted West Germany.
o The USSR did not unite its sector to that country and founded the German
Democratic Republic (GDR) on 7 October 1949, which existed until 3 October
1990.
o After the creation of both two republics Berlin became the new tension hotspot
due to the Blockade of Berlin:
 Between July 1948 and May 1949 the USSR cut all the contacts with
West Berlin (controlled by the USA, France, and Great Britain; thus by
West Germany).
 No food arrived in West Berlin from West Germany.
 Western powers reacted by creating a non-armed Airlift to provide the
necessary supplies for West Berlin.
 Western powers intended to thwart the blockading of the city of Berlin.
 The Korean War (1950-1953) was a major hotspot where both two blocs fought:
o Korea was a strategic area for China, USSR, and Japan.
o It was invaded by the USSR in August 1945, but Great Britain and the USA
occupied the south up to the 38ºN parallel.
o That division involved the creation of both two Koreas:
 North Korea was controlled by the USSR and had 120,000 km2 with 10
million inhabitants.
 South Korea was a democratic state of 98,500 km2 and 40 million
inhabitants.
o The UN wanted to re-unite both two countries between 1946 and 1948, but the
USSR did not want.
 There were unified elections in May 1948, but they were boycotted in the
north.
 In 1949 the USA army eventually left South Korea.
o North Korea invaded South Korea on 25 June 1950.
 The UN demanded the protection of the south.
 Great Britain and the USA intervened in favour of South Korea.
 China and the USSR helped North Korea.
 A truce was eventually agreed on 24 July 1953:
 Korea would be divided into two countries in the 38th parallel.
 Parallel 38ºN became a demilitarised area administered by the
UN.
 This war made the USA the protector of the democracies in South East
Asia.
 The Suez Crisis took place in 1956 once the Egyptian leader, Gamal Abdel Nasser,
nationalised the Suez Canal from Great Britain.
o Great Britain and France allied with Israel in order to attack Egypt.
o The USSR promised to defend Egypt from any foreign attack.
o The USA made the Anglo-Franco-Israeli alliance quit from any possible war.
o Egypt received the Soviet help after this diplomatic victory by Nasser.
4.2. Period of coexistence: the détente (1956-1976) 10
 Once the process of De-Stalinisation was more important, the relations between the
USA and the USSR improved and there was a period of peaceful coexistence. However,
there were some critical moments in this period:
 Berlin Wall (1961). The Soviet leader, Nikita Khrushchev, demanded the withdrawal
of the allied army from West Berlin in 1960.
o The inhabitants of East Berlin took advantage of the situation in order to cross
the border to West Berlin.
o Khrushchev commanded the construction of the Berlin Wall in August 1961.
o More than 100,000 people tried to cross this wall.
o This wall existed until 9 November 1989 when it was torn down by the Berliners.
 Cuban Missile Crisis (October-November 1962). After the revolution led by Fidel
Castro in 1959, a pro-communist government was established, which was a threat for
the USA.
o In 1961 Kennedy tried to depose Castro from the Cuban government by
invading the island. Hence the USA executed the Bay of Pigs Invasion.
 This invasion was completely thwarted by the Cuban authorities.
 After this attempt by the USA, Castro strengthened his communist
reforms on the island.
o Shortly after, the USSR tried in 1962 to install military bases in Cuba with
missiles.
 The USA protested against those military bases, which were very close to
them. They threatened with a nuclear attack on the USSR and Cuba was
blocked by sea.
 After some negotiations, the USSR eventually accepted not to install its
bases in Cuba.
 As a consequence, the red telephone line (Moscow-Washington

hotline) was created between the White House (USA) and the Kremlin
(USSR) in order to reduce tensions between both two countries.
 Vietnam War (1956-1975) became a major conflict where the interests of the USSR
and the USA fought.
o After the war of independence, the communist government of North Vietnam
led an invasion of South Vietnam, which was protected by the USA.
o The USA intervened by supporting South Vietnam, whilst the communist 11
countries supported North Vietnam.

o Ho Chi Minh, the North Vietnamese leader, organised the Viet Cong, which
was an army that ambushed and attacked the American army everywhere.
o After many years of war and many protests within the USA, the Americans left
Vietnam.
o Vietnam unified in a single country led by the communist Ho chi Minh.
4.3. Return to tension and end of the Cold War (1977-1991)
 Tensions increased after 1977 again since the USSR installed nuclear missiles in those
countries it controlled. Some of those missiles directly pointed towards West Europe.
 The USSR tried to impose its control in some other countries:
o It invaded Afghanistan in 1979 in order to support the communist government.
None the less, they found a strong opposition from the local population, mostly
by the Taliban.
o It intervened in some African countries, such as in Angola.
 On the other hand, the Republican Ronald Reagan was elected as the new president of
the USA, who increased the military budget:
o They supported some Latin American dictatorships in order to avoid the spread
of communism, such as in Chile or Argentina.
o They developed the Programme of Strategic Defence (Star Wars) in order to
create an anti-missile shield.
 The tension relaxed once Mikhail Gorbachev was appointed as the new leader of the
USSR since he implemented some reforms in order to modernise the communist system,
the so-called Perestroika.
o Dialogue with the USA was reopened.
o The USSR withdrew from Afghanistan.
o More autonomy was given to the communist republics in East Europe, which led
to the fall of Berlin Wall in 1989.
o The USSR was eventually dissolved in 1991 after a coup d’état against 12
Gorbachev. Hence, the USA became the only superpower and it involved the
end of the Cold War.
4.4. Arab-Israeli conflicts
 The creation of the State of Israel involved the creation of another tension hotspot:
o The UN decided to create in 1947 a new state by dividing Palestine into two
sectors: a Jewish area and an Arab area, whilst Jerusalem would be
internationally controlled.
o Palestine attacked the new Israeli towns since they did not accept that division.
o The State of Israel was eventually proclaimed on 15 May 1948 and the British
troops left the area.
 Arab armies from Egypt, Jordan, Iraq, Syria, and Lebanon attacked
Israel, but it resisted.
 A ceasefire was signed in July 1949 and the territory was divided again:
 The Gaza Strip should be controlled by Egypt.
 The West Bank was given to Jordan.
 Negev Desert and Galilee were kept by Israel.
 In 1964 the PLO (Palestine Liberation Organisation) was established in order to

create an independent Palestinian state. They have received a massive support from the
Arab countries. Its main leader was Yasser Arafat.
 There have been more wars between Israel and its neighbouring states:
 Six-Day War (1967). Israel launched a surprise attack on Egypt, Syria, and Jordan to
prevent a likely Arab invasion and due to the blockade of the Gulf of Aqaba by Egypt.
o Israel conquered many territories in just six days:
 West Bank from Jordan.

 Sinai Peninsula and Gaza Strip from Egypt.
 Golan Heights from Syria.
o The new capital of Israel was fixed in the newly conquered Jerusalem.
o Many Jewish colonies were built in those territories.
13
 Yom Kippur War (1973). Arab forces made an alliance launched a surprise attack on
Israel during their holy feasts.
o Israel counterattacked quickly and re-took over many territories.
o The Arab countries threatened the world by raising the price of petroleum, which
caused a major economic crisis worldwide.
o Peace mediators put this war to an end.
 There have been attempts to reach agreements between Israel and its neighbouring
countries.
o Camp David Accords were signed in 1978 between Israel and Egypt.
 Israel agreed on returning Sinai to Egypt.
 Egypt acknowledged the State of Israel.
o Oslo Accords were signed in 1993, where Israel agreed on granting autonomy to
the West Bank and Gaza Strip and to be ruled by Palestinian authorities.
 Nowadays there are still many conflicts since there are still Jewish settlements in
Palestinian lands, whereas Palestinians still attack Israel.
5. THE DECOLONISATION
 Before Decolonisation most of the world was controlled by European nations.

 The Decolonisation was a movement that grew after WWII in those areas which were
controlled by European nations.
o The colonies had taken part in WWII and their inhabitants understood that they
had got the right for self-determination.
o WWII had also shown that their metropolises were quite weak.
o The UN promoted the self-determination right with the support of the USSR and
the USA.
o At that moment there were some movements that grew to gain the independence
of the colonies: Pan-Arabism, Pan-Africanism, and Pan-Asiatism.
o Some major leaders strengthened nationalist ideas across the colonies, such as
Gandhi in India, Sukarno in Indonesia, or Ho Chi Minh in Indochina.
o The Conference of Bandung (1955) was a meeting point of 29 former colonies
which condemned colonialism and the system of blocs. This was the origin of the
movement of Non-Alignment.
 The main problem after the decolonisation was to fix the borders of the new states
because they did not create ethnic states but artificial states.
5.1. Independence of Asia
 In Asia there were different metropolises:

o Great Britain ruled over India, Pakistan, Burma, Ceylon, Hong Kong,
Malaysia, and Singapore.
o France controlled Indochina. 14
o The Netherlands owned Indonesia.

o The USA had controlled the Philippines since 1898.
o The USSR annexed some areas which gained their independence after the
dissolution of the Soviet regime: Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan,
Tajikistan, and Kyrgyzstan. Moreover, Siberia is part of Russia.
 The Philippines became the first state to be born after WWII when the USA granted
them their independence in 1946.
 Shortly after, India and Pakistan also became independent states:
o The Indian Empire (British Raj) was a big ethnic mosaic of 4 million km2 with
430 million inhabitants:
 340 million people were Hindu.
 90 million people were Muslim.
 More than 1,500 languages are spoken.
o The nationalist movements began at the end of the 19th century:
 The Indian National Congress was founded in 1885 in order to create an
Indian state.
 Mahatma Gandhi was one of its main leaders. He rejected
violence and suggested to boycott British products in India.
 The All-India Muslim League was promoted by the British and founded
in 1906.
 They defended the interests of the Muslim population, who mostly
lived in Pakistan and East Pakistan (Bangladesh).
 After 1940 they advocated the creation of an independent Muslim
state.
 Its main leader was Muhammad Ali Jinnah.
o After WWII there were frequent clashes between Muslims and Hindus.
 British wanted to create a federal Hindu-Muslim state, but it was not
possible.
 On 15 August 1948 India and Pakistan proclaimed their independence
from Great Britain.
 After the independence there was a major problem since there
were more than 50 million Muslims in India, whereas 20% of
Pakistan was Hindu.
 There were massive migrations to go to their country basing on
religious reasons. Many trains were attacked and many people
died.
 At the same time Ceylon also gained its independence in 1948, where Sri
Lanka was created.
o The Indo-Pakistani War broke out in 1949 due to the Indian control of some
Muslim areas.
 The UN intervened in the conflict.
 India eventually annexed part of Kashmir and Hyderabad.
o East Pakistan proclaimed its independence in 1971, which involved the birth of
Bangladesh.
 The new state was supported by India.
 Burma and Malaysia had been British until the Japanese invasion in 1942.
o They demanded their independence after the creation of Pakistan and India.
o They gained their independence in 1948 and joined the Commonwealth of
Nations.
 Indonesia had been a Dutch colony since the 17th century and was invaded by Japan in 15
1941.
o It is a 10,000-island archipelago with 1.9 million km2 and 100 million
inhabitants.
o After the end of WWII Sukarno proclaimed the independence of Indonesia,
which was acknowledged by Great Britain and the USA.
o The Netherlands tried to re-gain control over Indonesia, but it was not possible.
Hence, the total independence took place in 1954.
o After the independence there were some internal problems, such as guerrillas,
which led to a military coup d’état by Suharto in 1968.
 Indochina was a French area with four protectorates (Laos, Cambodia, Annam, and
Tonkin) and one territory (Cochinchina).
o During WWII Ho Chi Minh defended the colony from Japan and after the end
of the war attacked the French army.
 He created the communist Democratic Republic of Vietnam (North
Vietnam), where he created the Viet Minh (League for the Independence
of Vietnam).
 He also took part in the guerrillas of Laos and Cambodia.
 The French army resisted in the south, but they were massacred by the
North Vietnamese guerrillas in Dien Bien Phu in 1953. 16
o The Geneva Accords were signed on 21 July 1954 by China, the USSR, the
USA, France, Great Britain, and representatives of the colonies:
 Laos, Cambodia and North Vietnam would be fully independent.
 A new state was created: South Vietnam. Its north border was fixed in
the 17th parallel.
 A further reunification should be discussed, which was the origin of the
Vietnam War (1956-1975) with the USA.
 In the Middle East there were mandates controlled by France and Great Britain in the
former territories of the Ottoman Empire.
o New states were born in those mandates: Syria (from France), Lebanon (from
France), and Iraq (from Great Britain).
o Palestine was partly divided between Arabs and Jews, which led to the creation
of the State of Israel in 1948.
5.2. Independence of North Africa
 Egypt had been a British protectorate until 1922, when it officially gained its
independence.
o A monarchy was established in Egypt until the king Farouk I was expelled from
the country in 1952 after the revolution led by Gamal Abdel Nasser.
o After that revolution a republic was established in Egypt, which is considered to
be the actual moment of the independence.
o That revolution also involved the independence of Sudan from Egypt in 1956.
o Nasser created the United Arab Republic with Syria and North Yemen in
1958 in order to develop a Pan-Arabic state, which just lasted until 1961.
 Libya had been an Italian colony until the end of WWII.
o After WWII the UN did not agree on what to do with Libya. Hence it was
accepted to proclaim the independence in 1951.
o The new state was led by the former emir of the Cyrenaica region, King Idris I,
who was dethroned in a revolution in 1969 by Muammar al Gaddafi.
 Tunisia was controlled by France, which signed an agreement of pre-independence in
1955.
o The actual independence was gained in March 1956.
o The new state was a monarchy until 1957.
 Morocco had been divided into two protectorates in 1912, which were controlled by
France (most of Morocco), and Spain (the north):
o France granted the independence to its protectorate on 2 March 1956.
o Spain gave the independence to its part on 10 March 1956, which joined the rest
of Morocco.
o The international city of Tangiers was also added to the new kingdom.
o Only Ifni remained controlled by Spain, which ceded it back in 1969.
o A monarch was established by Muhammad V, who has been succeeded by

Hassan II, and Muhammad VI.
 Algeria was a very difficult process since it was a part of the French metropolis as a
department.
o There was an important social difference, since French people owned the best
lands, which had been seized to the native population. They were just 1,000,000
people.
o Instead, native Algerians were 6,000,000 and did not have the same rights. 17
o Some nationalist organisations grew in Algeria, which merged and created the
National Liberation Front (FLN) in 1954, led by Ben Bella.
o The FLN declared war on France in 1954.
 It was a very hard war since it involved many groups:
 400,000 French soldiers.
 Algerian rebels, who were internationally supported.
 Franco-Algerians created the terrorist group OAS (Organisation
of the Secret Army), which attacked every nationalist interest.
o The French president, Charles de Gaulle, eventually gave the independence to
Algeria on 4 July 1962, which became the People’s Democratic Republic of
Algeria.
 All the colonists left Algeria and their lands were seized.
5.3. Independence of Sub-Saharan Africa
 Most of the new states of this area agreed their independence with their former
metropolises, although there are some exceptions.
 There were very few independent countries before the Decolonisation:
o Liberia, which had been independent since 1957.
o South Africa, which gained its full independence in 1910.
o Ethiopia, just controlled by Italy between 1936 and 1941.

 The first country to gain its independence was Ghana (Gold Coast), which got it in
1957 from Great Britain. It actually joined the Commonwealth of Nations.
 Shortly after, Guinea, obtained its independence from France in October 1958 once
they voted against the Constitution of the French Fifth Republic.
 Between 1959 and 1960, 17 new states gained their independence:
o Mali (from France).
o Mauritania (from France). 18
o Chad (from France).

o Niger (from France).
o Burkina Faso (Upper Volta, from France).
o Senegal (from France).
o Ivory Coast (from France).
o Benin (Dahomey, from France).
o Cameroon (from France).
o Central African Republic (from France).
o The Congo (from France).
o Gabon (from France).
o Madagascar (from France).
o Nigeria (from Great Britain).
o Togo (from Great Britain).
o Somalia (from Italy and Great Britain).
o Democratic Republic of the Congo (from Belgium). There was a civil war
where the UN Blue Berets had to take part.
 Most of the other states gained their independence between 1961 and 1970:
o Sierra Leona (from France).
o Burundi (from Belgium).
o Rwanda (from Belgium).
o Uganda (from Great Britain).
o Tanzania (it was the union of Tanganyika and Zanzibar, from Great Britain).
o Kenya (from Great Britain).
o Malawi (from Great Britain).
o Zambia (from Great Britain).
o Botswana (from Great Britain).
o Swaziland (from Great Britain).
o Lesotho (from Great Britain).
o Equatorial Guinea (from Spain).
 After 1970 there were very few dependent states, whose processes of independence were
really different.
o Angola and Mozambique gained their independence from Portugal in 1975
after a long and dramatic war.
o São Tomé and Príncipe, Cape Verde, and Guinea Bissau got their
independence from Portugal in 1975 in a pacific war.
o Djibouti gained its independence from France in 1975.
o Zimbabwe (former Rhodesia) got its independence from Great Britain in 1980
after a long war and the non-accepted Unilateral Declaration of Independence in
1965.
o Namibia was a South African protectorate after 1990.
o Eritrea proclaimed its independence from Ethiopia in 1993 after a long war of
independence.
o South Sudan separated from Sudan in 2011 after a long civil war with the north.
o Spanish Sahara (Western Sahara) has never gained its independence after the
Spanish withdrawal in 1975.
 Morocco planned the Green March to occupy its territory in October
1975.
 It was agreed to share the country between Morocco and Mauritania, but
the latter relinquished of its rights in 1979.
 It has been an occupied territory since then and there is not a defined date 19
for the referendum of independence. Meanwhile, many Saharans fled to
Algeria as refugees.
5.4. Independence of the European colonies
 The sole colonies that existed in Europe were controlled by Great Britain:
o Malta was given its independence in 1964 and it remained as a part of the
Commonwealth of Nations until 1974.
o Cyprus was a much more complicated case due to the existence of Greek and
Turkish communities.
 It became an independent country in 1960.
 Greeks wanted to join Greece, whilst Turks did not. Hence, in 1974 there
was a Turkish invasion that occupied the north of the island.
 Henceforth, Cyprus had been divided into two areas:
 The south is controlled by the Greco-Cypriot government and is
part of the European Union.
 Instead the north has established the Turkish Republic of
Northern Cyprus, only acknowledged by Turkey.
 Gibraltar is the only colony that exists in Europe and is still controlled by Great
Britain, which has caused many diplomatic conflicts with Spain, which claims its
sovereignty.
5.5. Consequences of the Decolonisation
 Political consequences:
o There is not a national structure in most of them.
o Most of the boundaries were traced with straight lines without any tribal respect,
which have caused many civil wars.
o These countries did not have well-prepared politicians.
o Many states have suffered totalitarian and corrupt regimes since it has been very
difficult to keep democracy.
 Economic consequences:
o These countries have commonly depended on their former metropolises or on the
USA or former USSR.
o There has been a new way of colonialism in these countries, Neo-colonialism.
 Social consequences:
o Most of the people who live in these states are really poor. 20
o There have been severe famines in many of these countries caused by

underfeeding.
o Many of their inhabitants suffer from medical deficiencies and are illiterate.
6. NON-ALIGNED MOVEMENT
 During the period of the Cold War there were new countries which did not want to join
any of both two blocs.
o Hence, these states met at the Bandung Conference (1955) where they
established the principles of non-alignment.
o This movement was the result of decolonisation since many of its members were
former Asian or African colonies and they condemned colonialism.
o After the meeting some new members joined this movement (apart from the
former colonies), such as Colombia, Ecuador, and Yugoslavia.
 The characteristics of the non-aligned countries are:

o Politics. They had different regimes, since there were democracies and
dictatorships. None the less, all of them supported the right to self-determination.
o International relations. They did not establish any military alliance and
considered themselves neutral in the Cold War.
 They also defended non-violent solutions of conflicts.
 They supported every country’s right to take decisions with no external
interference.
o Economy. Most of these countries were developing economies and they meant to
get growth and development through cooperation.
 These non-aligned countries were known as the Third World, since they did not belong
to any of the other two blocs.
21
History 4th CSE 1
UNIT 11:
Francoist Spain

UNIT 11: FRANCOIST SPAIN

1. THE FRANCOIST REGIME: FOUNDATIONS
 Franco became the ruler of Spain after the Civil War (1936-1939):
o However, Franco had already concentrated powers within the rebel side during
the war:
1
 He was appointed Generalísimo de los Ejércitos (Supreme General of the
Armies) in September 1936.
 He was also appointed as Head of the State and the Government on 1
October 1936.
 Franco was also the only leader of Falange Española y de las JONS.
o Francoism rejected the national sovereignty and representative democracy:
 There was not any political or trade union freedom.
 There was an official Trade Union: Sindicato Vertical, whose members
were workers and employers.
 Francoist ideology was known as Movimiento Nacional, whose main principles were:
o Fascism.
 Falange was conceived as a Fascist party whose main leader was Franco.
 Franco was given the title of Caudillo.
 Fascist symbols were adopted, such as the salute, paramilitary uniforms,
or the emblem of the yoke and the arrows.
o Nationalism and centralism.
 The statutes of autonomy were abolished as well as other languages or
flags other than the Spanish.
 There were military parades, hymns, and exaltation of the national flag.
o National-Catholicism.
 Francoism was legitimised by the Catholic Church since the Civil War
was considered a crusade against Marxist atheism.
 Catholicism was the official religion of Spain.
o Traditionalism.
 The Habsburg Imperial Spain was the model Franco followed.
 Liberalism and enlightenment were blamed for the decline of Spain.
4th CSE YEAR UNIT 11. FRANCOIST SPAIN

 Franco had some supporters within Spain:

o The Army, the Catholic Church, and Falange. Initially the monarchists also
supported Franco since they thought that monarchy would be re-established.
o Landowners, businessmen and bankers also supported Franco. Bit by bit the
middle class also accepted his regime since they preferred a better standard of
living.
2. POLITICAL SITUATION
2.1. Political situation between 1939 and 1959
2.1.1. Internal policy

 The Post-War period was very hard for Spain, whose reconstruction was extremely slow.
 Franco used this period to consolidate the foundations of his new State by passing some
essential laws:
o Fuero del Trabajo (1938):
 It was an act that regulated labour rights.
 It created the Sindicato Vertical as a trade union.
o Ley de Cortes (1942):
 This act created a sort of one-house Parliament whose decisions were
strictly advisory.
o Fuero de los Españoles (1945):
 It can be considered Franco’s Constitution.
 It speaks about the rights of the Spaniards.
 It involved the birth of the “organic democracy”, which was the name
Franco gave to his regime.
o Ley de Referéndum Nacional (1945):
 This act allowed Franco to call a referendum in order to vote for any of
his proposals.
o Ley de Sucesión (1947):
 Due to this act Spain was considered a kingdom but without a king.
 Hence, Franco is appointed Caudillo de España.
 Franco had the power to appoint his successor.
o Ley de Principios Fundamentales del Movimiento (1958):
 It was an act that followed Falange’s 12 main principles.
 It also fixed the main principles of the national organisation.

 Every person who wanted to hold a public charge had to swear allegiance
to it.
 During this period Juan Carlos de Borbón arrived in Spain after the conversations that
Franco and Juan de Borbón held in 1948 on the yacht Azor.
 This stage of Francoism involved a very hard repression where the followers of the
defeated side in the war were executed without fair trials and many people were jailed:
o There were more than 30,000 executions in the early 1940s.
o More than 250,000 people were in prison due to their political ideas. 3
2.1.2. External policy

 During WWII Spain was officially neutral (non-belligerent), although relations changed
as war did:
o There was an initial support to the Axis:
 Franco met Hitler in Hendaye (France) on 23 October 1940 in order to
negotiate the entry of Spain in the war.
 Franco demanded the north of Africa in exchange of joining the
Axis.
 Hitler rejected ceding those territories to Franco.
 Spain sent the Blue Division (División Azul) led by Muñoz Grandes in
order to fight with the Axis in the USSR.
o After the German defeat in the USSR, Franco declared the actual neutrality of
Spain and did not support the Axis any longer.
 After WWII Spain was internationally isolated since it was a regime that had been
created with the assistance of the Nazi-Fascist powers:
o All the ambassadors left Madrid in 1946, save Portugal, Argentina, Switzerland,
and Ireland’s.
o Spain was not allowed joining the newly created UN.
o Some nations supported Spain:
 Portugal and Spain signed the Iberian Pact (Pacto Ibérico) in 1942 to
give mutual support.
 Franco signed a protocol with Perón’s Argentina in 1948 so as to import
Argentinean products.
 The Cold War in the 1950s was extremely beneficial for Spanish international relations
since the USA sought support against the spread of communism:
o Spain could join some international organisms thanks to this new policy:
 FAO in 1950.

 WHO in 1951.
 UNESCO in 1952.
 UN in 1955.
o There were also some international agreements that Spain signed in this period:
 A Concordat was signed in 1953 with the Holy See:
 Spain gained its right to present bishops for its dioceses.
 In exchange, the Church got tax exemptions, economic support for
the clergy, and control over education. 4
 An essential agreement was signed in 1953 with the USA due to

Franco’s anti-communist ideas:
 The USA would guarantee economic support to Spain.
 The USA also gave Spain war material.
 Spain would also defended by the USA.
 Some American military bases were built in Spain: Torrejón de
Ardoz, Morón de la Frontera, Rota, and Zaragoza.
2.1.3. Opposition to the regime

 Once the Civil War ended many people exiled and a Republican government was
created in exile:
o It was led by Diego Martínez Barrio.
o This government was fixed in Mexico City at the beginning and subsequently in
Paris.
 Monarchists also opposed the regime after WWII since they supported the return of
Juan de Borbón (Alphonso XIII’s son) as his legitimate successor.
o Don Juan wrote the Manifesto of Lausanne in 1945, where he denounced
Franco’s totalitarianism and demanded the reestablishment of monarchy as well
as democracy.
 Within Spain there were also armed groups who hid in the mountains to attack the
regime; they were the so-called maquis.
o They were around 10,000 guerrilla fighters.
o They carried out sabotage and undercover attacks to Francoist targets.
o They expected a popular uprising against Franco, but it never existed.
o Their most important campaign counted on some international help when the
Aran Valley was invaded in 1944 in order to restore the Republic in Spain
(Operación Reconquista de España). However, this military campaign was not
successful due to Franco’s reaction.
2.2. Political situation between 1959 and 1975
2.2.1. Internal policy

 During this period there were some attempts of political opening-up with new acts:
o Ley Orgánica del Estado (1966).
 It created two figures on the top of the political status: Head of the State
and President of the Government.
 It was allowed to created political associations.
o Ley de Prensa (1966). It was drafted by the minister of Information and Tourism,
Manuel Fraga Iribarne. It relaxed censorship on press.
o Ley de libertad religiosa (1967). It allowed worshiping any religion apart from
Catholicism.

 The governments of this period were controlled by the so-called Technocrats, most of
who belonged to the Opus Dei.
o Their main goal was to promote economic development in order to keep social
stability.
 Franco’s last years were marked by his succession:
o The Cortes appointed Juan Carlos de Borbón as Franco’s successor as King of
Spain on 22 July 1969.
5
o Franco also appointed Luis Carrero Blanco as President of the Government in

1973:
 He was assassinated by ETA on 20 December 1973.
o After Carrero’s assassination, Carlos Arias Navarro was appointed as the new
President, who promised some timid political opening-up.
 Francisco Franco died on 20 November 1975 and was succeeded by Juan Carlos I,
who was crowned as King of Spain on 22 November.
2.2.2. International policy

 Due to the Cold War the regime of Franco was internationally accepted:
o The US President Eisenhower visited Spain in 1959.
o There were negotiations to join the European Economic Community in 1962.
However, it was not possible since it was not a democratic regime.
 In 1970 Spain reached a commercial agreement that granted a reduction
in customs duties for trade with the EEC members.

 During this period Spain lost its last colonies:

o Spanish Morocco was ceded back to Morocco in 1956 after the independence of
the French protectorate.
 Due to historical reasons Spain kept Ceuta, Melilla, the Peñón de Vélez
de la Gomera, the Peñón de Alhucemas, the Chafarinas Islands, as
well as the Islet of Perejil.
 Cape Juby (next to the Spanish Sahara) was given back to Morocco in
1958. 6
o Ifni was eventually given back to Morocco in 1963.
o Equatorial Guinea (Fernando Po, Annobon, and Río Muni) was granted
autonomy in 1967 and it gained its independence in 1968.
o Spanish Sahara was occupied by Morocco during the Green March in October
1975.
 The Green March was organised by Hassan II, who sent 350,000
civilians and 25,000 soldiers to occupy the Spanish Sahara.
 Morocco tried to avoid the UN’s resolution of self-determination for
Western Sahara.
 As a consequence, in the Agreements of Madrid Spain divided the
territory between Morocco and Mauritania to avoid a war. None the
less, the latter relinquished over its part in 1979.
 The Saharan conflict is still unfinished.

 Spain also claimed its sovereignty over Gibraltar.

o The UN drafted a resolution that was in favour of Spain.
o However, the UK rejected leaving the Rock.
o Spain reacted by closing the border that divided both territories in 1969.
2.2.3. Opposition to the regime

 There were some major strikes at the Universidad Complutense in 1956, where many
students and professors were subsequently judged:
 There was a very important meeting of opponents in Munich in 1962, the so-called
Contubernio de Múnich.
o These opponents agreed on some points to develop in Spain:
 Freedom of trade unions, press, association, and expression.
 Acknowledgment of regional feelings.
 Development of human rights.
 They agreed on developing democracy.
 During the 1960s strikes became common in the industrial areas.
o In addition, the trade union Comisiones Obreras was founded in 1962. It was
created by the PCE.
o Shortly after the PSOE and UGT also reorganised themselves.
 After the Second Vatican Council (Vatican II) the Catholic Church was more critical
against the Francoist regime.
o Many Catholic organisations opposed the regime, mostly at the University.
 Terrorism grew to attack the regime in some parts of Spain:
o ETA (Euskadi ta Askatasuna) was created in 1959 in order to get the
independence of the Basque Provinces.
 It began as a cultural movement, which in the 5th Assembly (1969)
evolved into a terrorist group.
 At the beginning they mostly attacked policemen.
 They were the authors of Carrero Blanco’s assassination in 1978.
 They had some popular support since they were considered a means to
end with the dictatorship.
o There was also communist terrorism once the PCE created the GRAPO (Grupo
Revolucionario Armado Primero de Octubre).
 Meanwhile all the clandestine political parties coordinated the establishment of a
democracy in Spain once Franco died.

o For that task some parties created the so-called Spanish Democratic Junta
(1974). It was composed of PCE, PSP (Partido Socialista Popular), Comisiones
Obreras, and the Carlist Party.
o Another institution was created in 1975 by the PSOE: the Democratic
Convergence Platform.
o Their role in the future Transition was essential.
3. ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT 8
3.1. Autarchy (1939-1959)
 Between 1939 and 1959 Franco tried to impose the so-called Autarchy, which tried to
provide products that may be just produced in Spain (but Argentinean food). Hence, the
State had to intervene a lot in economy.
 The State intervened in every economic matter:
o It created the INI (Instituto Nacional de Industria) in 1941 in order to control
the national production. All the state industries were part of this institution.
o It also created the Instituto Nacional de Colonización in 1939 to have more
farmed lands in Spain.
o Some services were also nationalised, such as the railway system, which was
grouped in RENFE.
o The State also controlled the prices and production of wheat.
 This policy had some consequences such as:
o There was a decline in agricultural and industrial production, which caused
economic stagnation.
o Ration coupons had to be used in Spain until 1951 since there was shortage of
basic products, which led to hunger.
o Black market (straperlo) developed in order to get those basic products which
could not be obtained with the coupons. Those good increased their price
notably.
o This shortage made people suffer and caused some of the first time protests,
mostly in Catalonia, Basque Provinces, and Asturias.
 In the 1950s there were also other measures to improve the Spanish economy:
o Construction of reservoirs across Spain.
o Construction of electrical power plants.
o Relative liberalisation of external trade and prices.

3.2. Desarrollismo (1959-1975)
 Between 1959 and 1975 the new economic period is the so-called Desarrollismo due to
the approval of the Plan de Estabilización Económica, which was passed in 1959 and
involved the end of the Autarchy:
o The government tried to get the economic balance and to reduce the national
debt.
o Prices and production were deregulated. 9
o The Spanish peseta was strongly devaluated in order to attract foreign

investment.
o Salaries were frozen in order to get a competitive workforce.
o It made many people migrate to other European countries, who sent back foreign
currencies to Spain, which reactivated the Spanish economy.
 The Planes de Desarrollo began in 1964 and let create industrial hubs across Spain.
o They involved the development of leading sectors of economy:
 Iron and steel industry.
 Automobile industry.
 Construction.
 Electrical appliance industry.
o This industrialisation made exports grow.
o Foreign investment was essential.
 Spain also joined some international economic organisations such as the OEEC
(Organisation for European Economic Co-Operation), which was the organ that had
managed the Marshall Plan after the WWII.
 All economic sectors improved in this period thanks to these policy:
o Farming lands grew thanks to the colonisation of new areas and the use of new
techniques, such as irrigation, machinery, fertilisers...
o These measures made tourism become a basic pillar of the Spanish economy.
o The Spanish GDP grew between 4 and 7% annually.
 Spanish economy modernised during this period and a middle class grew thanks to these
improvements:
o However, the growth was not even and made regional imbalances appear.
 Industry was mostly concentrated in Madrid and around the coast.

 Inland Spain remained agrarian and many people migrated to the

industrial areas; it is the so-called rural exodus.
Economic sectors (1960) Economic sectors (1975)

20
33
39 39
10
Primary Primary
Seondary Seondary
Tertiary 41 Tertiary
28
4. SOCIETY IN FRANCOIST SPAIN
 Between 1939 and 1975 Spanish population grew a lot: from 26 million up to 35.5
million inhabitants.
o None the less, during the Post-War years there was a severe decrease of the
birthrate.
Evolution of population during Francoism

40
35,4
33,9
31,9
30 28,1 29 30,5
26 26,8
millions
20
10
0
1940 1945 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975
 There were many migration movements in Spain and outside Spain:
o There was a massive internal migration movement in the 1950s and 1960s: the
rural exodus.
 More than 4 million people left their homes and moved to the most
industrial or tourist areas.
 The areas that mostly suffered this emigration were both two Castiles,
Extremadura and many Andalusian areas.
 The areas that received more immigrants were Madrid, the Basque
Provinces, the Ebro valley, and the Mediterranean coasts.
 Some cities grew so quickly that did not have enough housing and
services. Hence, some slums were created on the outskirts of these cities.
o External migration took many Spaniards to other European countries in the 1960s
and early 1970s. They mostly emigrated to West Germany, France, Belgium, and
Switzerland, where they did the hardest jobs.

Rural and urban population

80
66
60 57
51
49 52
48
40 43
34
20 11
0
% 1940 1950 1960 1970
Urban Rural
 A new social structure developed after the 1950s once there was economic development:
o The upper class was now held by the bankers and businessmen, not by the
landowners.
o Middle class grew in this period and most of the Spaniards belonged to this
group. Most of them worked in the tertiary sector.
o Working class was composed of farmers (who were fewer than before) and
industrial workers, who improved their conditions and had access to buy their
own properties.
 During Francoism there was a programme of indoctrination which meant to promote
traditional ideas, such as patriotism and family values:
o Sección Femenina and Frente de Juventudes were in charge of accomplishing
this mission.
o The University was controlled by Falange through policemen who attended the
classes and the SEU (Sindicato Español Universitario).
o Other organisations which were not established by Franco were completely
banned (trade unions, political parties, student associations...).
5. ART DURING FRANCOISM
 In architecture there were two tendencies:

o A revival of the Habsburg Imperial style was common for some public buildings:
such as Ministerio del Aire (Madrid), which was inspired by El Escorial, and the
completion of Nuevos Ministerios. The most symbolic building was the Valle de
los Caídos, which was homage to the victims of the Civil War.
o In the 1960s modern international style became common in most of the building,
where geometric shapes and little decoration was usual. The main architect was
José Luis Sert, Miguel Fisac, or Sáenz de Oiza.

12
 In sculpture there were also two main tendencies:

o At the beginning there was some intervention of the state, which did not want
any avant-garde movement. Hence, sculptors followed classical shapes.
 Many equestrian statues of Franco were placed in the centre of the
Spanish towns.
o Modern sculpture developed in the 1960s with abstract sculptors like Eduardo
Chillida and Jorge Oteiza.
 In painting we can find two movements:

o Initially artists followed classical and realistic shapes.

 Some artists preferred painting landscapes, such as Benjamín Palencia

and Ortega Muñoz.
 Some other artists depicted peasants and common daily aspects of life,
like Rafael Zabaleta.
o In the 1960 some modern authors returned to Spain, such as Miró and Dalí.
 New young artists developed avant-garde movements like Antoni Tàpies
and Antonio Saura.
 Pop art was developed in Spain by the Equipo Crónica. 13

History 4th CSE 1
UNIT 12:
Contemporary World

UNIT 12. CONTEMPORARY WORLD

1. THE DISSOLUTION OF THE COMMUNIST BLOC
1.1. Dissolution of the Soviet Union
 Once Leonid Brezhnev died in 1982 he was succeeded by two leaders, who died shortly
1
after getting the charge: Yuri Andropov and Konstantin Chernenko.
 The new Soviet leader was elected in 1985: Mikhail Gorbachev. He implemented some
measures in order to open up the political panorama and to put the economic and
political crisis to an end:
o Perestroika (Reconstruction). It was a group of reforms that included the
legalisation of political parties, free elections, economic reforms, and the creation
of private companies. Hence, the State intervention was reduced.
o Glasnost (Openness). It meant to get transparency in politics and allowed
freedom of speech, opinion, and press.
o The conservative communists showed a big opposition against these reforms,
since they thought they would involve the end of communism.
o However, these measures failed to improve the social and economic situation.
 Gorbachev implemented more measures in 1991 to decentralise the State, which met the
radical opposition of the army:
o A coup d’état was staged in August 1991 and Gorbachev was isolated in his
Crimean house.
o The president of the Russian Republic, Boris Yeltsin, promoted the popular the
resistance against the coup d’état, which eventually failed.
o From that moment onwards reforms accelerated across the USSR and the
Communist Party was banned.
4th CSE YEAR UNIT 12. CONTEMPORARY WORLD

 The Soviet Republics proclaimed their independence from the USSR, which dissolved:
o Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania were given their independence in August 1991.
o Gorbachev resigned in December 1991 and the USSR dissolved when the CIS
(Commonwealth of Independent States) was created by 12 out of the former
Soviet republics:
 Russia.
 Ukraine.
 Belarus.
 Moldova.
 Georgia.
 Armenia.
 Azerbaijan.
 Kazakhstan.
 Uzbekistan.
 Turkmenistan.
 Tajikistan.
 Kyrgyzstan.
 The Warsaw Pact was also dissolved in 1991. The difficult transition to democracy and
capitalist economy began in the former USSR and in East Europe.

1.2. The Fall of Communism in Eastern Europe
 Once Gorbachev got the government of the USSR, some reforms were also
implemented in the communist bloc of East Europe.
o Gorbachev and Ronald Reagan (President of the USA) agreed in 1987 on
withdrawing the Soviet troops from Eastern Europe.
 In 1989 there were very important reforms in these countries which allowed some free
movement among them: 3
o Poland had major strikes led by the trade union Solidarity, controlled by Lech
Walesa:
 The first free elections were held in August 1989, which allowed forming
the first non-communist government in East Europe.
o In Hungary the government implemented some democratic measures and in

October 1989 the communist party decided to call for free elections and
guaranteed human rights.
o In Czechoslovakia the Velvet Revolution of November 1989 made the
government collapse and a provisional government was established.
 Its main leader was Vaclav Havel, who became the first non-communist
Czechoslovak president.
 On 1 January 1993 Czechoslovakia peacefully split up into the Czech
Republic and Slovakia.
o In Bulgaria the communist leader Zhivkhov resigned on 10 November 1989 and

the first free elections were held in June 1990.

o In Romania there was a major revolution in December 1989, when the

communist dictator Nicolae Ceausescu and his wife Elena were captured and
executed.
 The most symbolic change took place in East Germany:
o Many East Germans had tried to go to West Germany since summer 1989 by
crossing Czechoslovakia, Hungary, and Austria.
o Erich Honecker resigned in October due to those massive flights.
o On 9 November 1989 the new communist government surprisingly announced 4
that all the borders in Berlin should open for a free transit of citizens.
o Subsequently Berliners crossed the border for the first time in many years.
o Berliners themselves began to destroy the Berlin Wall on that same night with
every tool they had.
o On 3 October 1990 Germany reunified as a single country as the German
Democratic Republic was dissolved.
1.3. The breakup of former Yugoslavia: the Yugoslav Wars
 Once Tito died in 1980 a major crisis began in Yugoslavia, where a collective
presidency was created in order to represent the six republics that composed the state.
o Serbia tried to rule over the other republics after the nationalist parties seized the
power. Other nationalist parties also accessed the governments of the other
republics.
o Slovenia and Croatia reacted by proclaiming their independence on 25 June

1991.
 The Yugoslav army invaded Slovenia; although 10 days later it withdrew
and the Slovenian independence was accepted (it was the Ten-Day War).

 A full-scale war took place in Croatia, where there was a major group of
Serbs, mostly in the East and close to Bosnia and Herzegovina.
 An independent Serbian state was created within Croatia:
Krajina.
 Many Croatian cities were bombed and attacked by the Serbian
army.
 A ceasefire was signed in 1992, but hostilities went on.
 The eventual peace was signed in 1995 by the Croatian president,
Franjo Tudjman, and the Serbian president, Slobodan
Milosevic.
 Krajina was re-taken over by the Croatian government in 1995.
o The most dramatic case took place once Bosnia and Herzegovina proclaimed its
independence from Yugoslavia on 29 February 1992.
 There were three major ethnic groups in Bosnia and Herzegovina: Serbs
(31%), Croats (17%), and Muslim Bosniaks (44%). The two latter groups
did not want to live in a Yugoslavia controlled by Serbia (Serboslavia).
 Serbs did not accept the independence of the country and declared war on
the new state. Furthermore they created an independent state within
Bosnia and Herzegovina: the Republika Srpska, led by Radovan
Karadzic.
 The Serbian army began the so-called ethnic cleansing by killing the non-
Serbs. Croats acted in the same way.
 The international community reacting by embargoing weapons to former
Yugoslavia.
 The end of this war reached once the Dayton Agreement was signed on
21 December 1995.
 It was signed by Franjo Tudjman (Croatian president),
Slobodan Milosevic (Serbian president), and Alia Izetbegovic
(Bosnian president).
 Bosnia and Herzegovina became an independent federal state.
 The new country had two states:

o Federation of Bosnia-Herzegovina. It is mostly inhabited

by Croatian Bosniaks and Muslim Bosniaks.
o Republika Srpska. It is mostly inhabited by Serbs.
o Macedonia also declared its independence on 25 September 1991, but they did
not suffer any war since Serbia announced that it would not intervene in the new
state.
 Serbia and Montenegro were the only republics that composed the new Yugoslavia,
but there were further problems.
o Montenegro held a referendum for its independence in 2006 which was
promoted by the UN.
 It eventually declared its independence once its inhabitants voted for it.

o Kosovo was a region within Serbia that was mostly inhabited by Albanians, who
were discriminated by the Serbian administration.
 Slobodan Milosevic attacked Kosovo and persecuted Kosovar Albanians
in the late 1990s.
 The NATO reacted by bombing Serbia and sending a peace force to
protect the region.
 In 2008 the regional government proclaimed a unilateral declaration of
independence, which has not been acknowledged by many states. Hence, 7
its international status is still pending.
2. THE EUROPEAN UNION
2.1. Integration of the European Union
 The European Union is an economic and political association of 28 democratic

European countries that has grown with many treaties after the signing of the Treaty of
Rome (25 March 1957):
o Single European Act (February 1986). This agreement aims to get full
economic integration.
o Treaty on European Union (Maastricht Treaty, 7 February 1992). It made the
European Economic Community become the European Union, whose main
three pillars are:
 Economic and monetary union.

 Common foreign and security policies.

 Cooperation in judicial and domestic matters.
o Treaty of Amsterdam (2 October 1997). This treaty reinforced several pillars:

 Free movement of people.
 Social policy based on the respect of human rights.
 Matters of common security, by creating Europol.
o Creation of the euro (1 January 1999). The single currency came into
circulation in 2002 in many of the European countries, although it was used for
financial transactions since 1999, when its value was fixed.
o Treaty of Nice (26 February 2001). It reformed the institutions of the EU and
reinforced the division of powers with a view to the enlargement of the EU.
 The number of deputies to represent each member country in the
European Parliament was changed basing on population criteria.
 The European Commission adapted the number of votes of each member
country according to their population.
o Treaty of Lisbon (13 December 2007). This treaty gave greater power to the
European Parliament and allows more participation of national parliaments and
citizens.
 It also established the European Council as a formal EU institution.
 It gives the EU international capacity to sign treaties and agreements with
third countries.
 It classified the competences of the EU and the member states.
 This treaty substituted the non-passed project of European Constitution.
 Another major treaty was the Schengen Agreement, which established an area with no
internal borders where people and goods can move freely.

2.2. Enlargement of the European Union
 Since the EU (originally the EEC) was created in 1957 by West Germany, France, Italy,
Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg, it has been enlarged several times.
o 1973: on 1 January the UK, Ireland, and Denmark joined the EEC. Norway was
to join the EEC but they finally refused it.
o 1981: on 1 January Greece joined the EEC.
o 1986: on 1 January Spain and Portugal joined the EEC.
o 1990: on 3 October former GDR (German Democratic Republic) joined the EEC
once the German reunification took place.
o 1995: on 1 January Austria, Sweden, and Finland joined the EU.
o 2004: on 1 May Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Czech Republic, Slovakia,
Hungary, Slovenia, Malta, and Cyprus joined the EU.
o 2007: on 1 January Romania and Bulgaria joined the EU.
o 2013: on 1 July Croatia will join the EU.
o There are also candidate counties: FYR Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia, Iceland,
and Turkey.
2.3. Institutions of the European Union
 There are some common institutions within the EU:

 European Parliament.
o It is composed of the members of the Parliament that have been elected in
universal suffrage by the European citizens in the European elections held every
five years. Now there are 754 MEPs.
o The number of deputies per country is based on the population and a country can
have as maximum as 99 deputies and as minimum as 6.

o It exercises the legislative branch together with the Council of the European
Union. It controls the work of the European Commission and approved the EU
budget jointly with the Council. The Treaty of Lisbon has increased its powers
on laws, budget and passing of international agreements.
o This EU Parliament is located in Strasbourg (France) and it also meets in
Brussels.
10
 European Council.
o It has become a European institution after the Treaty of Lisbon and it is the main
political organ of the EU.
o It is composed by all the Heads of State or Government of all the member
countries. The figure of president of the European Council has been created and
is elected every 2½ years (it can be renewed just once).
o Its main function is to guarantee the continuity of the Council’s work and takes
decisions about EU policy.
o The number of votes in the Council is based on the population of the country.
There are 345 votes in total.
 In order to reach a qualified majority 255 votes are needed.
 From 2014 onwards it will be needed 55% of the members of the Council
that represent at least 65% of EU’s population.
o The meetings of the European Council are held twice a semester.
o The European Council is located in Brussels (Belgium).
 Council of the European Union.
o Its presidency rotates among the member countries every six months.
o It is composed of the ministers of the member states. There are different areas
that meet to discuss about them.
o It is responsible for passing EU laws and approving the budget together with the
Parliament. It also coordinates economic policies.
o The Council meets in Brussels or in Luxembourg, as well as in the presiding
countries.
 European Commission.
o It is composed of a president (been elected by the EU governments basing on the
results of the EU elections) and commissioners (one per state) who cover with
some specific areas. This distribution will be until 2014, since then the number
will be reduced to 2/3 of the member countries.
o It exercises the executive branch of power.
o Its main function is to present proposals for laws to the EU Parliament and
Council. It also controls and implements common EU policies and manages the
budget.
o It is located in Brussels.

o The Treaty of Lisbon involved the creation of some other posts such as the High
Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy (Mr. PESC)
and a Vice President of the Commission who is responsible for foreign policy
and EU defence policy.
11
 Court of Justice of the European Union.

o It is composed of one judge from each EU state appointed every six years.
o Its main function is to make sure that EU laws are interpreted and applied in the
same way across the EU. The Treaty of Lisbon enlarges its power to police and
judicial matters.
o It is located in Luxembourg.
 Court of Auditors.
o It is composed of one member from EU state.
o It must check that EU funds are managed and spent correctly.
o It is located in Luxembourg.
 There are other European institutions, such as:
o Economic and Social Committee, which represents groups in civil society
(Trade Unions, employers’ associations, consumers...).
o Committee of the Regions, which represents local and regional institutions.
o European Central Bank, which is in charge of managing the euro and EU
monetary policy.
o European Investment Bank, which finances some sectors within the EU.
o European Ombudsman. He is elected every five years by the European
Parliament and every citizen can address him when treated unfairly by any EU
institution.
2.4. Economic integration
 The economic policy of the EU is based on the Economic and Monetary Union
(EMU), which was created in 1990 to coordinate economic policies of the EU countries
in order to adopt a single currency. It finished in 1999 once the euro was adopted as
national currency by most of the member states, which has eased trade among member
countries.
 The European Central Bank (ECB) is in charge of ruling the monetary policy within
the eurozone. It guarantees the stability of princes and manages the euro.

 All the member states must enforce some convergence criteria, such as control of
inflation and control of public deficit.
 The European Investment Bank (EIB) lends money in order to develop the European
regions in infrastructure, telecommunications, or industry and services... as well as
environmental projects, small- and medium-sized companies...
 There are also other economic policies carried out by the EU:
o Common Agricultural Policy (CAP). It means to promote high quality
12
agricultural production respecting the environment and helps the farmers. It
means to develop rural areas. It has also imposed quotas so that there is not
agricultural surplus.
o Common Fisheries Policy (CFP). Its main objective is to protect fishing
grounds and the sea environment. It must also cover with the fishing fleet,
aquaculture and the negotiation and signing of fishing agreements with non-EU
countries.
o European Energy Policy. It was agreed in 2007 and means to promote a
responsible use of energy and to combat climate change by investing in
renewable energy. Moreover it means to create and internal market of energy.
EU Budget (2009, 133.8 billion €)
1% 6%
6%
45% New jobs, research, cohesion

Agriculture, environment
External relations
Freedom, security, and justice
Others
42%
2.5. Regional policy
 There are many economic contrasts between regions in the EU (GDP per capita,
unemployment rate, education level, infrastructures...); hence some regional policies are
applied in order to reduce these imbalances:

13
o Structural funds. They mean to reduce those differences and to promote

development of those regions. There are 4 types of funds:
 European Regional Development Fund (ERFD). It offers financial help
to the least developed regions or those ones which are being restructured.
 European Social Fund (ESF). It means to improve employment
opportunities for jobless people and prepares workers through education,
training and employment projects.
 European Agricultural Fund for Rural Development (EAFRD). It
offers financial help to rural areas and farmers.
 European Fisheries Fund (EFF). It helps fishing and aquaculture
industries.
o The Cohesion Fund is for those regions whose GDP is lower than 90% of the
EU average. It funds environmental projects, infrastructures, transport...

2.6. Other policies
 In foreign policy there is a Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) that tries to
keep the security and independence of the EU as well as to promote cooperation.
o It also means to increase the EU power in international affairs by adopting
common actions.
o One of its goals is the creation of a likely EU Army.
 There are some social measures that have been passed in the Charter of the 14
Fundamental Rights of the European Union.

o It promotes de values of respect for human dignity, freedom, democracy,
equality, law, and human rights.
o There are some other directives that pay attention to working conditions,
protection of unprivileged people, protection to consumers...
 In education the Bologna Plan has created a common framework for universities that set
compatible standards and degrees within the EU states.
o The Erasmus Programme has allowed many university students to study in
other EU universities.
o There is a very important promotion of science and culture.
 Concerning environment it has promoted the creation of protected parks within the
network Natura 2000.
3. MODERN WORLD
3.1. The power of the USA
 At the early 1980s the president Ronald Reagan began a policy of nuclear rearmament
in order to strengthen the US’ military defence.
o This policy went on until 1987, when Reagan and Gorbachev signed a
disarmament agreement.
 After the fall of communism, the USA has become the sole superpower in the world.
o Hence, Presidents George Bush Sr. (1989-1993), Bill Clinton (1993-2001),
George W. Bush (2001-2009), and Barack Obama (2009-2017) have governed
the USA from their position of global dominance.
o The USA has declared its intention to defend peace, democracy, and freedom
worldwide.
 It has reduced its military presence in Europe but it has increased it in the
Caribbean, Asia, and the Pacific area.
 The Middle East has become a priority objective in order to protect its
access to the oil reserves in the area.

 There have been some wars where the USA has been involved since the 1990s:
o Gulf War (1990-1991). Iraq’s ruler, Saddam Hussein, ordered the invasion of
Kuwait on 2 August 1990.
 The USA convinced the UN to protect the sovereignty of Kuwait.
 Iraq was defeated after a one-month attack and Kuwait re-gained its
independence.
o Invasion of Afghanistan (2001). It was the reaction of the USA after the attack
on the World Trade Centre in New York City on 11 September 2011; War on 15
Terror began:
 Two planes were crashed on those two towers and a third one on the
Pentagon (Washington DC).
 The attack was claimed by the Islamic terrorist group Al-Qaeda.
 Osama Bin Laden, the leader of Al-Qaeda, was supposed to be
protected by the Taliban government of Afghanistan.
 The USA invaded Afghanistan on 7 October and managed to depose the
Taliban government.
 The internal situation of Afghanistan is still unresolved due to the
presence of many members of Al Qaeda and Talibans.
o Invasion of Iraq (2003). The president of the USA, George W. Bush sustained
that the Iraqi regime was producing weapons of mass destruction. Hence, he
wanted to destroy them.
 The USA did not get the support of the UN.
 The invasion of Iraq was done by the American and the British armies.
 Saddam Hussein was eventually overthrown and executed after a trial.
 The international forces stayed in Iraq for ten years to pacify the
situation, which is not safe enough yet.
 A major economic crisis has affected the USA since 2008 and has spread all over the
western world.
o It has been caused by overproduction, speculation, and the housing bubble.
o Banks could not get back their loans and they cut credits to other entities or
people. In addition they did not trust each other and they lost big amounts of
money.
o That credit crunch has affected the general economy and unemployment has
grown.

o Taxes revenue decreased as unemployment benefits grew. Hence, state deficit

has grown a lot.
3.2. Russia and the former communist bloc
3.2.1. Russia
 After the fall of communist and the dissolution of the USSR, Russia became a regional
power whose influence was shorter than before. 16
o None the less Russia kept its position as a permanent member of the UN
Security Council.
o It was also accepted as a member of the G8.
 Boris Yeltsin became the first democratically elected president of Russia in 1992:
o His government was marked by the transition to capitalism.
o Agricultural land and state-owned companies were privatised.
o Outdated industries were closed down.
o Public subsidies for housing, healthcare, electricity, and other services ended.
o These reforms initially made production fall, inflation rise and unemployment
rise. In addition, there were very important social inequalities.
o There was also a political approach to the West, although there were some
problems once the USA deployed missiles in Poland and in the Czech Republic.
 The Russian economic situation has improved a lot since the early 2000s due to their
exports of gas and petroleum.
 Vladimir Putin has become the almighty president of Russia and has exerted a
complete control over every sector of the country.
o However, there are some open conflicts such as in the Caucasus, where there is a
strong guerrilla in Chechnya, which has fought for its independence since 1991
and that has caused many terrorist attacks on Russian targets.
3.2.2. The former communist bloc

 In the republics that were part of the USSR there are different situations:
o In Ukraine, Moldova, and Belarus there are internal conflicts between
Russophiles and pro-western factions.
o The Caucasian republics of Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan have major
ethnic conflicts that have led to some wars (Russia-Georgia). In addition there
are disputes over the borders (Armenia-Azerbaijan).

o In the Central Asian republics there are many autocratic regimes and the situation
is not very stable.
o The Baltic republics of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania have abandoned every
common past with the former USSR and joined the EU and the NATO in 2004.
 The countries of East Europe that were part of the communist bloc (Poland, Czech
Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Romania, and Bulgaria) have adopted democracy and a
capitalist system. However, their economic situation is not as good as in West Europe.
o All these countries have joined the EU and the NATO, which has caused some 17
tension with Russia, since it lost power and influence over the area.
o East Germany reunited Germany on 3 October 1990 and from that moment
onwards it was part of both international institutions (EU, NATO).
 After the Yugoslav Wars those republics that belonged to former Yugoslavia have lived
a different situation. The most developed states are Slovenia and Croatia, which have
joined the European Union in 2004 and 2013, respectively.
3.3. The new power of China
 Mao Zedong died in 1976 and his regime went on.

 There were some protests against communism within China between April and June
1989:
o Many people concentrated in Beijing’s Tiananmen Square, which became the
centre of the revolution.
o The Chinese government declared the martial law and the army controlled the
situation.
o It is still unknown the actual figure of casualties in these protests.
 The communist leader Deng Xiaoping implemented new measures to improve the
Chinese economy: Market socialism.
o Communism and capitalism were combined.
o Communes were dismantled.
o The land was distributed among the farmers, who could sell their own products.
o Foreign businesses have been allowed to settle in China.
o The cheap workforce has made Chinese industry very competitive.
o There has been a huge economic growth in China and it has become the second
leading economic power.
 Xiaoping’s followers, Jiang Zeming and Hu Jintao have followed the same policy.
 China has re-taken over the British colony of Hong Kong (1997) and the Portuguese
Macau (1999).

o There are still some open conflicts in Tibet, where there are revolts that have
claimed for its independence since the Chinese invasion in 1950.
o China also claims for the control of Taiwan, whose political and economic
situation has been completely different since the Communist Revolution in 1949.
3.4. The Muslim World
 The Muslim World has been quite instable at the late 20th century and early 21st century. 18
 Fundamentalism has emerged in many Muslim nations since the late 1990s and have
used terrorism as a way to achieve their objectives:
o The main Fundamentalist terrorist group is Al Qaeda, which was founded and
funded by the Saudi billionaire Osama Bin Laden, who was eventually killed by
an American corps on 1 May 2011.
o Those terrorist groups want to end any western influence over any Muslim
country.
o These Fundamentalist groups want to impose the Sharia or Islamic law in all the
Muslim countries.
o They also defend Pan-Islamism in order to unite all Muslims under a single
political power.
o The influence of Fundamentalism has affected many Muslim countries due to
the emergent power of the USA over the area.
o Afghanistan, Pakistan, Iraq, Iran, Lebanon, Syria, Egypt, Sudan, Algeria,
Mauritania, Mali, or Nigeria are countries where Fundamentalism has caused
many deaths and much destruction.
 There have been some revolutions in many Muslim countries at the early 2010s claiming
for democratic regimes and the end of the dictatorships that have controlled the area for
a long time; it is the so-called Arab Spring:
o Tunisia was the first country where a massive revolution managed to depose the
government of Ben Ali in January 2011. A democratic regime has been
established in the country.
o Egypt was the most populated country where a revolution took place in the
Islamic world.
 After some weeks of revolution Hosni Mubarak (who had ruled the
country since 1981) was eventually overthrown in February 2011.
 Free elections were held and they were won by the Muslim
Brotherhood, whose leader was Mohamed Morsi.
 The army staged a coup d’état against Morsi in July 2013, who was jailed
and judged.
 There is a quite instable and unresolved situation in Egypt at the moment.
o In Libya there had been a personal dictatorship by Muammar al-Gaddafi since
1969.
 A revolution began in the eastern provinces, which spread westwards.
 A civil war broke out and the rebels were assisted by a UN international
mission.
 Gaddafi was eventually captured and killed in October 2011.
 The Libyan situation is still quite unclear.
o In Yemen the revolution eventually managed to oust the government of Saleh in
February 2012.

o In Syria there has been a civil war since March 2011. The Syrian leader Bashar
al-Assad has managed to control the war and was not eventually attacked by an
international mission that had been prepared for that task.
o Other minor revolts have taken place in Morocco, Algeria, Sudan, Bahrain,
Oman, Kuwait, and Jordan.
19

History 4th CSE 1
UNIT 13:
Democratic Spain

UNIT 13. DEMOCRATIC SPAIN

1. THE TRANSITION TO DEMOCRACY
 After Franco’s death, Juan Carlos I was crowned as King of Spain, who worked to
establish a parliamentary monarchy in Spain.
1
 Meanwhile, the opposition parties grouped together in 1976 in an association called

Coordinación Democrática (so-called Platajunta since it merged both Plataforma and
Junta Democrática), which demanded the dissolution of the Francoist Cortes and
elections for new Constituent Cortes.
 The first president was Carlos Arias Navarro, who began some opening-up but he did
not break up with Francoist laws:
o There were some social conflicts:
 Strikes.
 Fights with Carlists, such as in Montejurra on 9 June 1976.
 Terrorism of ETA and GRAPO.
o Arias Navarro resigned since he did not accept the pro-democratic measures the
King wanted to implement.
 The new president was Adolfo Suárez, who was directly appointed by the King in July
1976:
4th CSE YEAR UNIT 13. DEMOCRATIC SPAIN

o He declared the general amnesty of political prisoners.

o He drafted a plan to reform the Spanish politics, whose final act was the Ley para
la Reforma Política, which was ratified in referendum on 15 December 1976 by
94% of the voters:
 It established a democratic system where national sovereignty was
essential.
 Universal suffrage was established.
 The new Cortes should have two houses which should draft a 2
Constitution.
o The Electoral Law was passed in March 1977 for the coming legislative
elections.
o All the political parties were legal, but the PCE (Partido Comunista de España),
which was eventually legalised on Good Saturday of 1977.
 The most conservative sectors opposed to this decision since they
considered the PCE the worst enemy of the previous regime.
 Suárez understood that this party was essential to have clear and
democratic elections.
o Some other decisions were taken in order to make a real democracy:

 Special tribunals were suppressed.
 Right to strike was acknowledged.
 Trade unions were legalised.
o However, there were some major problems during this period:
 Terrorism by ETA.

 Francoist opposition, who massacred the Atocha labour lawyers on 24

January 1977.
 The Spanish economy was suffering a major crisis:
 Unemployment grew rapidly.
 The economic growth stopped.
 Inflation was really high, since it reached 20-30%.
3
 After all Suárez’s reforms the first democratic elections were held on 15 June 1977,
where his political party won (UCD: Unión de Centro Democrático). Hence, he became
the first democratic president after 40 years.
o The distribution of seats of the main political parties in these elections was:
 UCD: 165 seats.
 PSOE: 118 seats.
 PCE: 20 seats.
 AP (Alianza Popular): 16 seats.
 PSP (Partido Socialista Popular): 6 seats.
 PNV: 8 seats.
 Catalan Democratic coalition: 11 seats.
 Others: 6 seats.
Elections (June 1977)

11 6
8
6
16
UCD
20
PSOE
PCE
165 AP
PSP
PNV
Catalans
118
Others
o The regional institutions were restored:

 Juntas Generales Forales de Álava, Vizcaya, and Guipúzcoa.

 A pre-autonomous government was established in the Basque Country on

30 December 1977.
 Another pre-autonomous government was established in Catalonia with
the restoration of the Generalitat de Catalunya on 29 September 1977.
 Galicia was also given a pre-autonomous system on 16 March 1978.
o During this government there were also social and economic agreements due to
economic crisis caused by the oil price rise and the high unemployment. The
result was the signing of the Pactos de La Moncloa (25 October 1977):
 They fixed the principles of the economic transition, such as wage
moderation, employment flexibility, tax reforms, public spending controls
or increase of unemployment benefits.
 They also acknowledged common rights and liberties in a democratic
system.
 The signing parts (employers, trade unions, government) agreed on
having a social truce until the democratic system was fully established
once the Constitution was passed.
2. THE CONSTITUTION OF 1978
 The Constitution of 1978 was drafted by a commission of seven deputies of different

political parties in order to make a lasting constitution:
o UCD members: Miguel Herrero de Miñón, Gabriel Cisneros, and José Pedro
Pérez-Llorca.
o PSOE member: Gregorio Peces Barba.
o PCE member: Jordi Solé Tura.
o AP member: Manuel Fraga Iribarne.

o Catalan minority member: Miquel Roca Junyent.
 The text of the Constitution was passed by the Cortes Generales on 31 October 1978.
o Spanish people ratified the text on 6 December 1978 in a referendum. 87.9% of
the people who voted (67.1%) said yes to this constitution.
o It was eventually sanctioned by the King Juan Carlos I on 27 December 1978.
 The principles of the Spanish Constitution are:

o National sovereignty resides in Spanish people, who delegate their power to
those representatives elected through universal suffrage.
o Division of powers:
 Executive, which is held by the President of the Government (who is
appointed by the Congress of the Deputies).
 Legislative. It is composed of the Cortes, where there are two houses:
 Congress of the Deputies. Its members are elected by the people
in provincial constituencies. The number varies basing on the
population.
 Senate. It is the upper house, where the territories are represented.
Its members are elected in provincial constituencies whose
number is equal in all of them.
 Judicial. Two upper tribunals were created:

 Tribunal Supremo.
 Tribunal Constitucional.
o The form of the State is the parliamentary monarchy.
o Rights (both civil and social) and liberties are acknowledged.
o There is political pluralism.
o There is not any official religion, although it acknowledges that there is a
Catholic majority.
o There is a new national organisation based on municipalities, provinces, and 6
autonomous regions, which was completely new and quite polemic.

o Spanish is the common official language. However, it also acknowledges co-
official languages in several parts of Spain:
 Catalan, in Catalonia and the Balearic Islands.
 Valencian (a branch of Catalan), in the Valencian Community.
 Galician, in Galicia.
 Basque, in the Basque Country and in Navarre.
 After the approval of the Constitution the Cortes were dissolved and new elections were
called.
3. DEMOCRATIC GOVERNMENTS
3.1. The government of UCD (1979-1982)
 The second democratic elections were held on 1 March 1979, whose results were:
o UCD: 168 seats.
o PSOE: 121 seats.
o PCE: 23 seats.
o CD (Coalición Democrática): 9 seats.
o PNV: 7 seats.
o HB (Herri Batasuna): 3 seats.
o CiU (Convergència i Unió): 8 seats.
o PA (Partido Andalucista): 5 seats.
o Others: 6 seats.

Elections (March 1979)

8 5 6
8
7
9 UCD
23 PSOE
PCE
7
CD
168 PNV
HB
CiU
PA
121 Others
 The first democratic municipal elections were held in June 1979:

o PSOE and PCE won in many major cities.
o Nationalist parties won in those regions where there was a pre-autonomous
government: Catalonia (CiU) and Basque Country (PNV).
 Suárez’s party (UCD) suffered a major internal decomposition:
o These internal problems and the political situation made Adolfo Suárez resign
on 29 January 1981.
o Leopoldo Calvo Sotelo became the new leader of the party was.
 When Calvo Sotelo was to be elected president by the Congress of the Deputies on 23
February 1981 there was an attempted coup d’état:
o Antonio Tejero entered the Congress and kidnapped the deputies for one night.
o Some major officers supported the coup d’état, such as Armada or Milans del
Bosch.
o The coup d’état was eventually thwarted by the King himself and made
democracy consolidate.

 The government of Calvo Sotelo (February 1981-October 1982) took some important
decisions:
o The LOAPA (Ley Orgánica de Armonización del Proceso Autonómico) was
enacted to allow the establishment of new autonomous regions.
o Approval of the Divorce Law in June 1981, which was the first law that allowed
people to divorce in more than 40 years.
o All the statutes of autonomy were eventually passed:
 Catalonia on 18 December 1979.
 Basque Country on 18 December 1979.
 Galicia on 6 April 1981.
 Andalusia on 30 December 1981.
 Principality of Asturias on 30 December 1981.
 Cantabria on 30 December 1981.
 Region of Murcia on 9 June 1982.
 La Rioja on 9 June 1982.
 Valencian Community on 1 July 1982.
 Aragon on 10 August 1982.
 Canary Islands on 10 August 1982.
 Castile-La Mancha on 10 August 1982.
 Chartered Community of Navarre on 10 August 1982 (modernisation
of their Fuero).
 Balearic Islands on 25 February 1983.
 Castile and Leon on 25 February 1983.
 Extremadura on 25 February 1983.
 Community of Madrid on 25 February 1983.
 Ceuta on 14 March 1995 (autonomous city).
 Melilla on 14 March 1995 (autonomous city).

o Spain also joined the NATO on 30 May 1982.

o A major sport event took place in June 1982 when the Football World Cup was
held in Spain, which opened the country to the world.

3.2. Felipe González’s Socialist governments (1982-1996)
 The PSOE led Spain for 13.5 years after winning their first elections on 28 October
1982:
o PSOE: 202 seats.
o AP: 107 seats.
o UCD: 11 seats.
o PCE: 4 seats. 10
o CDS (Centro Democrático y Social): 2 seats.

o PNV: 8 seats.
o HB (Herri Batasuna): 2 seats.
o CiU (Convergència i Unió): 12 seats.
o Others: 2 seats.
8
Elections (October 1982)
2
2 12 2
11 PSOE
4 AP
PCE
UCD
CDS
PNV
107 HB
202
CiU
Others
 Felipe González was the president and also won the elections in 1986, 1989, and 1993.
 Some dramatic economic measures had to be taken:

o Industrial restructuring (1984):
 The ZUR (Zonas de Urgente Reindustrialización) were created in order
to end with the non-profitable sectors:
 Iron and steel industry.

 Shipbuilding.
 This restructuring involved a major growth of unemployment in the most
industrial areas, mostly in Asturias, Biscay, Sagunto (Valencia), El Ferrol
(La Coruña), and Vigo (Pontevedra).
o Inflation was controlled during the socialist government.
o The Balance of Payments was also controlled and balanced.
 Some other social and political reforms were passed:
o A substantial educational reform was passed in 1990: LOGSE (Ley Orgánica 11
General del Sistema Educativo), which rose the compulsory education age up to
16 years old.
o The abortion law was passed in 1985, where there were 4 different conditions
which allowed women to abort.
o The Autonomic Agreement was signed in 1992 between PSOE and PP in order to
balance the powers of all autonomous regions.
 Spain signed the Treaty of Adhesion to the European Economic Community on 12
June 1985, although it actually joined on 1 January 1986.
o It has been essential for the Spanish development since it has allowed having a
common market for Spanish goods.
o It has also received many types of funds to make Spain adapt to the rest of
Europe.
 More elements concerning international policy were carried out by this government:
o A referendum was held in 1986 in order to stay or to leave the NATO.
o Spain acknowledged the State of Israel in 1986.
o Spain also cooperated in international military missions such as in the Gulf War
against Iraq in 1991.
 During 1992 there were major events in Spain to commemorate the 5th centennial of the
discovery of America:
o The Olympic Games were held in Barcelona.
o Seville hosted the Universal Exhibition.
o Madrid was also the European Cultural Capital.

12
 González’s last years were marked by the economic crisis (which led up to 25% of
unemployment) and political corruption.
o There were also some polemic cases of state terrorism once the GAL (Grupos
Antiterroristas de Liberación) were created in order to murder ETA terrorists.
3.3. José Mª Aznar’s Partido Popular governments (1996-2004)
 José Mª Aznar won the elections in 1996 with a very narrow margin and had to
cooperate with both Basque and Catalan nationalists. None the less in 2000 he obtained a
very broad overall majority.
 During his first term he had to tackle a major crisis that had begun in 1993:
o He had to implementing some neoliberal measures and privatised many public
companies, such as Iberia, Telefónica...
o This government also created a reserve fund in order to pay for the pensions in
critical moments. It was agreed with the PSOE in the Pactos de Toledo.
o During this government it was managed to create the most expansive economic
period.
 During this period Spain managed to join the euro after accomplishing the convergence
criteria fixed by the European Central Bank.
o They involved controlling public deficit, inflation, and unemployment.
o The euro became the national currency on 1 January 1999 although it eventually
came into circulation on 1 January 2002, when it replaced the Spanish peseta.

 This government abolished the compulsory military service in 2001. That is why a
professional army was created.
 Concerning international policy Spain became part of NATO’s military structure in
1997.
o It was a member of the UN Security Council in 2003-2004.
o José Mª Aznar’s government brought Spain closer to the USA. Hence, he
cooperated in the Iraqi War of 2003.
 On 11 March 2004 Spain suffered the most appalling bomb outrage ever when four 13
trains in Madrid were blown up by Islamic Fundamentalist terrorists, who caused 193
deaths.
3.4. José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero’s Socialist governments (2004-2011)
 José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero won the elections of 2004 after the outrage of the trains
and he tried to go away from that coalition with the USA:
o Spain withdrew from Iraq, but it collaborated in missions such as in Afghanistan,
Lebanon, or Libya.
 His government was marked by social features:

o Approval of the homosexual marriage in 2005, which caused some public
protests and was even repealed before the Constitutional Court.

o Approval of the Ley de Igualdad (2007) in order to give women the same
chances to have high posts in the administration and leading charges in the
private companies.
o The Ley de Dependencia was passed in 2006. It guaranteed a minimum level of
funding to those people who are dependent due to age, illness or other causes.
o A new abortion law (2010) was passed in order to allow women to abort with
very few limits.
o This government also enacted the Ley de Memoria Histórica in 2007 in order to 14
recognize the victims of Francoism and the Civil War.
 There was also a major cultural event when the International Exhibition was held in
Zaragoza in 2008.
 Concerning terrorism, ETA announced a ceasefire on 20 October 2011 which is still into
effect.
 Zapatero’s second term was marked by the strongest economic crisis in many years,
which began in 2008.
o Some measures were implemented to minimise its consequences, such as
injecting money into the banks and increasing public works. They however made
public deficit grow a lot.
o That high deficit made the European Union intervene and fix some economic
rules, like reducing the salary of civil servants, pensions, and the increase of
retirement age.
o This period was marked by very important cuts that have reduced the state of
welfare.
 The deep impact of this crisis weakened the government and José Luis Rodríguez
Zapatero anticipated the elections (which were due for March 2012) to November 2011.
3.5. Mariano Rajoy’s Partido Popular government
 Mariano Rajoy’s Partido Popular won the elections on 20 November 2011 and
obtained a comfortable overall majority.
 His most important measures have been focused on tackling the crisis in order not to
receive any international financial bailout, as it happened in Greece, Portugal, or Ireland.
o None the less there has been a partial bailout for the banking sector.
o A major labour reform was passed, which caused major protests and a general
strike in 2012.

 There have been other social measures such as:

o Change in the educational law by passing the so-called LOMCE (Ley Orgánica
de Mejora de la Calidad de la Enseñanza), which has caused some unrest
among left-wing sectors.
o New law about abortion, which has invalidated the new socialist act and has
reduced the chances to carry out an abortion.
 One of the main problems this government has had is the secessionist challenge of
Catalonia, where its political leaders are claiming for holding a referendum about a 15
likely independence of the region:

o They have fixed its date for 9 November 2014.
o The government and the PSOE however do not accept any independence
referendum and announce they will not allow holding it.
4. SOCIETY IN DEMOCRATIC SPAIN
 Spanish society has changed a lot during the democratic period.

 The population growth was quite little between 1975 and 2001, although it has been
really high between 2001 and 2011 due to immigration.
o Between 1975 and 2001 it grew from 35.5 million up to 41.1 million inhabitants.
o On the other hand, between 2001 and 2011 it has grown up to 47 million.
o Immigration has been essential in the late 1990s and 2000s until the economic
crisis began. They were around 5.7 million in 2010 and mostly came from Latin
America, Africa, and Eastern Europe.
o There has been a severe fall in birthrate, which has grown a little owing to
immigrants.

Evolution of population (1975-2010)

50
47
45 44
40 38,4 38,8 39,3 40
37,4
35 35,5
millions
30
16
25
20
15
10
5
0
1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Inhabitants
 Most of the population lives in urban areas (circa 80%) and many rural areas have been
uninhabited.
 Modern Spanish society is mostly composed of middle class thanks to the economic
growth of the 1960s.
 Workers have changed their activities and now Spain is mostly a country where the
tertiary sector predominates (up to 70%).
 Families have changed a lot in this period due to the divorce law, homosexual
marriage...Hence; nowadays there are many single-person homes or single-parent
families.
 Women have changed their social role in the late 20th century.
o They have accessed the labour market.
o They have received a much better and more equal education.
o Women still suffer however some inequalities with men.
 Concerning religious traditions there has been a progressive secularisation of the Spanish
society since the 1970s.
5. ART IN SPAIN AFTER 1975
 In architecture we find very modern authors that have made Spanish art be en vogue in
the late 20th century, such as:
o Ricardo Bofill (Palacio de Congresos in Madrid or National Theatre in
Barcelona).
o Santiago Calatrava (Ciudad de las Artes y las Ciencias in Valencia).
o Rafael Moneo (Roman Art Museum in Mérida, extension of the Prado Museum
in Madrid, or Kursaal in San Sebastián).

17
o We can find different styles in architecture, like rationalism (Moneo) and

organic architecture (Calatrava).
o Some other international artists have also worked in Spain, such as Norman
Foster (underground stations in Bilbao) or Frank O. Gehry (Guggenheim
Museum in Bilbao).
 In painting there are several styles that have grown since the 1970s, such as
hyperrealism (Antonio López) or postmodernism (Miquel Barceló). Other major
painters have been Eduardo Arroyo, Luis Gordillo, or Juan Genovés.

History II. From Interwar To Modern World PDF

Diunggah oleh

Informasi Dokumen

Judul Asli

Hak Cipta

Format Tersedia

Bagikan dokumen Ini

Bagikan atau Tanam Dokumen

Opsi Berbagi

Apakah menurut Anda dokumen ini bermanfaat?

Apakah konten ini tidak pantas?

Hak Cipta:

Format Tersedia

History II. From Interwar To Modern World PDF

Diunggah oleh

Hak Cipta:

Format Tersedia

IES COMPLUTENSE DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY

Jorge-Elías de la Peña y Montes de Oca

History 4th CSE

Block II: Units 7-13

UNIT 7: THE INTERWAR PERIOD

1.1. Causes of the revolution

4th CSE YEAR UNIT 7. THE INTERWAR PERIOD

 It was divided into two major branches that finally split up in

1.2. Revolutions of 1917 and Civil War

1.2.1. February Revolution

1.2.2. October Revolution. The Bolshevik Revolution

4th CSE YEAR UNIT 7. THE INTERWAR PERIOD

 A new Revolutionary government was formed by the Bolshevik leaders:

4th CSE YEAR UNIT 7. THE INTERWAR PERIOD

regions of the former Russian Empire, such as Finland, the Baltic

1.2.3. Civil War (1918-1921)

1.3. Lenin’s government (1917-1924)

4th CSE YEAR UNIT 7. THE INTERWAR PERIOD

4th CSE YEAR UNIT 7. THE INTERWAR PERIOD

 The Constitution of the USSR was passed on 6 June 1923:

1.4. Stalin’s government (1924-1953)

4th CSE YEAR UNIT 7. THE INTERWAR PERIOD

2. THE ROARING TWENTIES

4th CSE YEAR UNIT 7. THE INTERWAR PERIOD

3. THE CRASH OF 1929 AND THE GREAT DEPRESSION

German war reparations were received.

4th CSE YEAR UNIT 7. THE INTERWAR PERIOD

Unemployment in the USA

 There were different solutions in order to ease the crisis:

4th CSE YEAR UNIT 7. THE INTERWAR PERIOD

4. TOTALITARIAN REGIMES: FASCISM AND NAZISM

 During the 1920s and 1930s many regimes were totalitarian.

4.2. Italian Fascism

 Fascism was established in Italy between 1922 and 1943.

4th CSE YEAR UNIT 7. THE INTERWAR PERIOD

4th CSE YEAR UNIT 7. THE INTERWAR PERIOD

4th CSE YEAR UNIT 7. THE INTERWAR PERIOD

 Albania and Somalia was occupied in 1939.

4.3. German Nazism

4th CSE YEAR UNIT 7. THE INTERWAR PERIOD

o His programme was hyper-nationalist (Pan-German), where Germans should get

4th CSE YEAR UNIT 7. THE INTERWAR PERIOD

4th CSE YEAR UNIT 7. THE INTERWAR PERIOD

 On 9 November 1938, the so-called Night of Broken Glass

4th CSE YEAR UNIT 7. THE INTERWAR PERIOD

 Saarland was reincorporated in Germany in 1935 after a plebiscite

 Hitler commanded the invasion of Poland on 1 September 1939, which

4th CSE YEAR UNIT 7. THE INTERWAR PERIOD

4th CSE YEAR UNIT 7. THE INTERWAR PERIOD

4th CSE YEAR UNIT 7. THE INTERWAR PERIOD

History 4th CSE 1

UNIT 8: THE SECOND WORLD WAR AND ITS

1.1. Causes of the war

4th CSE YEAR UNIT 8. WWII AND ITS CONSEQUENCES

 Germany developed the Blitzkrieg (Lightning War) in order to

the country had a puppet government.

1.3. Characteristics of the war

4th CSE YEAR UNIT 8. WWII AND ITS CONSEQUENCES

1.4. Development of the war

1.4.1. First stage (1939-1941)

4th CSE YEAR UNIT 8. WWII AND ITS CONSEQUENCES

 At this time Hitler controlled most of Europe:

4th CSE YEAR UNIT 8. WWII AND ITS CONSEQUENCES