LESSON 2: LOGIC

(for classroom purposes only)

A. HISTORY

The beginnings of logic could be traced back to ancient Greece and in Western Europe. The birth of
logic could be attributed to Aristotle of Stagira in Thrace (384-322 BC), Son of the Physician Nichomacus.
Aristotle became the student of Plato and 20 years after came to be known as Plato’s greatest student.

The primary aim of Aristotle in studying logic was to develop a system/method in attaining truths.
Eventually, he’s studies earned him the title “The Father of Logic”. Unlike his predecessors, Aristotle
devise a logical system not only intended for creating and refuting arguments but also a method for
analyzing and evaluating the correctness of an argument. This method is known as “syllogistic method”
in which the fundamental elements are called terms and the basis of a good argument is on the
arrangement of these terms.

Among the successors of Aristotle, Zeno of Citium (336-264 BC), founder of the Stoic school was the
most famous as he was the one who coined the term LOGIC to the formal study started by Aristotle.
Chrysippus (279-206 BC), another Greek and Stoic philosopher developed logic further by incorporating
whole propositions to the fundamental elements of logic. For Chrysippus, every proposition is either true
or false base on rules that he developed.

During the middle ages, Peter Abelard (1079-1142) refined the logic of Aristotle and Chrysippus by
introducing the theory of the Universals. Universals are general terms that characterize concepts in the
mind rather than the “reality” existing outside of the mind. Furthermore, Abelard also introduced a
method of distinguishing arguments that are valid on the basis of form as opposed to those that are valid
base on content.

After Abelard, Logic and the other sciences experience a sharp rise and fall with the coming of the
dark and medieval ages and the rise of Scholasticism in the western world. With the influx of hyper
realistic philosophies through out Europe and the prohibition of Aristotle in the University of Paris, the
study of Logic almost reach dormancy until the great Doctor of the church St. Thomas Aquinas re-
introduce Aristotelian philosophy by adopting it in his own philosophical framework.

The next major development in Logic would occur a century after in the person of Gottfried Wilhelm
Leibnitz (1646-1716). Leibnitz developed a symbolic language or “calculus” that could be used to settle
all forms of disputes in argumentation. For his contribution, Leibnitz would later be known as the
“FATHER OF SYMBOLIC LOGIC”.

Since the revival of Logic in the modern ages up to the present, numerous developments have been
introduced both in symbolic and inductive forms of logic. Some noted logicians are John Stuart Mill
(1806-1873), Alfred North Whitehead (1861-1947), Bertrand Russel (1872-1970, Ludwig Wittgenstein
(1889-1951) and Kurt Goedel (1906-1978).

B. MEANING

ETYMOLOGICAL
 Logic comes from the Greek term LOGIKE which means systematized and intelligible. The term
logike is closely related to the Gk. term LOGOS which is commonly understood as the WORD, THOUGHT,
REASON or DISCOURSE. Thus, Logic etymologically understood could be taken as a “systematic study of
things pertaining to thought or reason.”

REAL DEFINITION

Logic is the science and art of correct inferential reasoning.

1. Logic is considered a science for three important reasons: a.) it is a body of certain and proven
knowledge; b.) this body of knowledge is obtained in a systematic manner and c.) It is objective
and follows specific laws and principles that can be communicated to others.
2. Logic is considered and art in so far as it is directly and immediately related to performance,
namely to the acts of the mind. It lays down the rules which govern the internal action of the
thinking mind without much effort.

OTHER DEFINITIONS:

1. Logic is the science and art which directs the act of reason which enables one to proceed
without error, confusion, or unnecessary difficulty. – St. Thomas Aquinas
2. Logic is the science which directs the operation of the mind on the attainment of truth.
3. Logic is the study of arguments.
4. Logic is the study of methods and principles used to distinguish a correct from an incorrect form
of reasoning.

C. IMPORTANCE OF LOGIC

Logic, if properly understood is not only valuable but useful in many different ways. The values
derived from logic is not only limited to the theoretical but even on the practical aspect. Some of the
values are enumerated below.

1. With an understanding of the principles of logical inference, the student can reason out clearly,
spontaneously and correctly.
2. The student is enabled the capacity to detect the causes and errors of faulty argument and avoid
committing the same errors in his own judgments.
3. It ensures consistency in our judgments and validity in our processed of inference.
4. It makes the student more aware of the ambiguities in words and the various functions of
language, thereby motivating the student to secure clearer definitions of terms and making him
more effective in the use of linguistic symbols.
5. Logic is a necessary component for a person in becoming a critical thinker.

D. KINDS OF LOGIC
LOGIC
Base on the validity of reasoning Base on the approach use in reasoning
FORMAL MATERIAL DEDUCTIVE INDUCTIVE
The basis of valid The basis of valid A system of reasoning A system of reasoning
reasoning is conformity reasoning is on the base on a universal or base on particular to
with structure, pattern thought content, general truth to a more universal truths.
and arrangement of the meaning and particular or more This system is
constituent parts of truthfulness of the specific by way of a concerned in the
correct argument statement. An MIDDLE TERM. This correctness of
regardless whether argument becomes system is concerned in inferences when the
their contents are true valid when the ideas determining when an evidences are not
or not. conform to facts or argument is valid. conclusive. Its
reality conclusion follows with
probability.
Every A is B Dogs are animals All men are rational
But every B is C Orchids are plants Filipinos are men
/ every C is A Man is mortal Filipinos are rational
Filipinos are Asians

E. DIVISIONS OF LOGIC/FORMS OF MENTAL ACTIVITY

THINKING ACTIVITY LOGICAL PARTS

Simple Apprehension term
Judgment proposition
Reasoning Inference

FORMS OF MENTAL ACTIVITY

1. Simple apprehension – this is an act of the mind which consists in the creation and immediate
understanding of an idea through the process of abstraction.
2. Judgment – This is an act of the mind that compares two ideas and infers whether they agree or
not. Agreement in two ideas is called affirmative judgment; disagreement of ideas is done
through negation.
3. Reasoning – this is an act of the mind arriving at a new truth base on a previously established
truth.

LOGICAL PARTS

1. Terms – basic indivisible element of an inference.

2. Proposition – it is the judgment expressed in a sentence. It enunciates the truthfulness or falsity
of a statement
3. Inference – the entire process of reasoning.