Precipitation alternating layers of Glaze and Rime and

their specific gravity is 0.80.

● Any form of solid or liquid water that
Other Forms of Precipitation:
falls from atmosphere to the earth s
surface (e.g. Rain, drizzle, hail and
snow).
● Rainfall terms: Duration (min or hr),
Depth (inches or mm), Intensity
(mm/hr)
a) Glaze – is the ice coating, generally
clear and smooth, formed on exposed
surfaces by the freezing of supercooled
water deposited by rain or drizzle.
(freezed rain or drizzle)
b) Rime is a white, opaque deposit of ice
granules more or less separated by
trapped air and formed by rapid
freezing of supercooled water drops
impinging on exposed objects. (frost)

c) Sleet – consist of transparent, globular,

solid grains of ice formed by the
freezing of raindrops or freezing of
largely melted ice crystals falling
through a layer of subfreezing air near
Forms of Precipitation: the earth s surface.

1. Drizzle – sometimes called mist,

consist of tiny liquid water droplets, usually
with diameters between 0.1 and

0.5 mm, with such slow settling rates that they

occasionally appear to float.

2. Rain – consist of liquid water drops mostly

larger than 0.5 mm in diameter

a. Rainfall – usually refers to amounts

of liquid precipitation. (see figure Types of Precipitation:
on the next slide)
1. Frontal Precipitation – caused by the
3. Snow – is composed of ice crystals, chiefly expansion of air on ascent along or near a
in complex, branched hexagonal form, and frontal surface
often agglomerated into snowflakes, which
may reach 100 mm in diameter.The specific
gravity is often assumed to be 0.10.

4. Hail – is a precipitation in the form of balls

of ice produced in convective clouds,
mostly cumulonimbus. Hailstones may be
spheroidal, conical, or irregular in shape,
and range from about 5 to over 125 mm in
diameter.They are generally composed of
2. Convective Precipitation– upward Measurement of Precipitation:
movement of air which is warmer than its 1. Standard “8-in” precipitation gage –
surroundings. Rain passes from the collector into a
cylindrical measuring tube inside the
overflow can.The measuring tube has a
cross-sectional area 1/10 that of the
collector so that 2.5 mm rainfall will fill
the tube to a depth of 25 mm

3. Orographic Precipitation – air masses

which strike the mountain barriers and rise up,
causing condensation and precipitation.

2. Tipping bucket rain gauge – The

water caught in the collector is
funneled into a two-compartment
bucket; 0.25 mm, 0.1 mm, or some
other designed quantity of rain will
fill one compartment and
overbalance the bucket so that it
tips, emptying into a reservoir and
Asia’s Record Storms: moving the second compartment
into place beneath the funnel. (not
1. Daily Max. precipitation = 1,168 mm for snow)
(Baguio in 1911)

2. Monthly Max. precipitation = 9,300 mm

(Cherapundge,India)

3. Annual Max. precipitation = 26,461 mm

(Cherapundge,India)

4. Longest storm period = 322 days

(Bogor, Indobesia)

● Philippines Other records:

1. Rainfall Intensity = 341mm/6hrs

(Ondoy, 2009)
3. Weighing-type precipitation gage –
Weighs the rain or snow which falls
into a bucket set on the platform of
a spring or lever balance.The
increasing weight of the bucket and
its contents is recorded on a chart.
The record shows the accumulation
of precipitation.
c. Uncertainties from variations in rainfall
intensity
d. Dependency on raindrop size (cannot
measure drizzle)
e. Very huge data
6. Satellite Estimate – satellite cannot
measure precipitation directly, and
their use for estimating it is based
on relating brightness of cloud
photographs to rainfall intensities.

4. Tower-mounted storage gauge

with alter shield– Storage gauges
are used in remote regions where
frequent servicing is impracticable.
It can be placed in heavily-snowfall
areas and should have collectors in
the form of frustum of a cone to Other Measurement of Precipitation :
prevent wet snow from clinging to
➢ TRMM Rainfall estimates – data from
the inside walls and clogging the
(1998-2013). It is a joint scientific
orifice
satellite project between the United
5. Radar Rainfall Gauge – it measures
States and Japan designed to monitor
radar echo from raindrops.The and study tropical rainfall and the
echo intensity ≈D6.This echo is associated release of
called Radar Reflectivity Z.The
Measurement of Precipitation in the
relation between rainfall intensity
Philippines :
R and Z is called Z-R relationships
expressed as: ➢ Synoptic stations and Doppler Radar–
Z=ARB operated by Philippine Atmospheric,
Where A and B are coefficients Geophysical and Astronomical Services
depending on the type of rainfall. Administration (PAGASA).

▪ Disadvantages:
a. Ground effect
b. Screening by ground effect (shadow
areas)
Variation of Rainfall Return Period of Annual Rainfall

-rainfall measurement is commonly used to - Is an estimate of the likelihood of an

estimate the amount of water falling over the
land surface, part of which infiltrates into the
soil and part of which flows down to a stream
of river.
Methods of determining rainfall in a basin:
event, such as an earthquake, flood,
landslide or a river discharge flow to
occur.
Rainfall-Intensity-Duration-Frequency Curves
(RIDF)

a.) Arithmetic Mean Method – the average of - the analysis of continuous rainfall
rainfall depth. events, usually lasting for period or less
than a day, requires the evaluation of
rainfall intensities.

- Rainfall Intensity – is the amount of

rainfall for a given rainfall event
b.) Thiessen Polygon Method – considers the
recorded at a station divided by the
area of each rain gauge.
time of record, counted from the
Formula: beginning of the event.
n
Pi Ai Depth Area Duration Curves (DAD)
�
P=�
A  the amount of high rainfall that may be
i=1
expected over the catchment.

 Area precipitation is needed in the

analysis of rivers.

 rainfall depth is not proportional to the

c.) Isohyetal Method – requires plotting of time duration or rainfall observation.
isohyet
 for small area: rainfall is more ore less
Isohyets – lines drawn on a map passing uniform
through places having equal rainfall magnitude.
 for large area: variation of rainfall is
Formula: falling in different parts. The average
rainfall would be less than recorded
𝑷𝑷 + 𝑷𝑷𝒊𝒊−𝟏𝟏
𝒏𝒏
( 𝒊𝒊 ) over a small portion below the high
�=�
𝑷𝑷 𝟐𝟐
𝑨𝑨𝒊𝒊 rain fall occurring within the area.
𝒊𝒊=𝟏𝟏

(most accurate method) Abstraction from precipitation

Mean Rainfall Run off

- is the average or representative rainfall at a is the prime subject of study.

place. Mean annual rainfall is determined by
- can be described as the part of the
averaging the total rainfall of several
water cycle that flows over land as
consecutive years at a place.
surface water instead of being absorbed
into groundwater or evaporating.
Abstraction of precipitation includes: (ii). Temperature

1. Evaporation  - The rate of evaporation increases with

an increase in the water temperature.
2. Transpiration

3. Interception  - Winds aid in removing the evaporated

water vapour from the zone of
4. Depression Storage evaporation hence increases in wind
speed thereby creating greater scope of
5. Infiltration evaporation.
Evaporation (iv). Atmospheric Pressure

- Process of transformation of liquid water into - A decrease in the atmospheric pressure (as in
gaseous form. high altitudes areas), increases the evaporation
rate.
 The rate of evaporation is dependent on:
(v). Soluble salts
(i). Vapour pressures
 - when a solute is dissolved in water,
(ii). Temperatures the vapour pressure of the solution is
less than of pure water hence it causes
(iii). Wind speed reduction in the rate of evaporation.
Under identical conditions
(iv). Atmospheric pressure
evaporationfrom sea water is 2-3 % less
(v). Soluble salts than from fresh water.

(vi). Heat storage in water bodies Measuring the rate of Evaporation

(i). Vapour pressure  Evaporimeters

 - The rate of transformation is - are water containing pans which are

PROPORTIONAL to the difference
between the saturation vapour
pressure(ew) at the existing water
temperature, and the existing actual
vapour pressure in the air (ea).
exposed to the atmosphere and loss of water by
evaporation from these pans are measured at
regular intervals (daily).
Types of evaporimeter
1. Class A Evaporation Pan

 A pan of diameter 1210mm

Where; and depth 255mm

 Depth of water is maintained

between 18 and 20cm

 The pan is made of unpainted

GI sheet

 The pan is placed on a wooden

platform of height 15cm above
 ground level to allow free air
circulation below the pan
 Evaporation is measured by
measuring the depth of water
in a stilling well with a hook
gauge.
2. ISI Standard Pan ( Modified Class A Pan)
 A pan of diameter 1220mm and
depth 255mm
 The pan is made of copper
sheet 0.9mm thick, tinned
inside and painted white
outside
 The pan is placed on a square
wooden platform of width
1225mm and height 100mm
above ground level to allow
free air circulation below the
pan
 A fixed point gauge indicates
the level of water
3. Colorado Sunken Pan
 920mm square pan made of
unpainted GI sheet, 460mm
deep, and buried into the
ground within 100mm of the
top
 Main advantage of this pan –
its aerodynamic and radiation
characteristics are similar to
that of a lake
 Disadvantages – difficult to
detect leaks, expensive to
install, extra care is needed to
keep the surrounding area free
from tall grass, dust, etc.
4. US Geological Survey Floating Pan
 A square pan of 900mm sides
and 450mm deep.
 Supported by drum floats in
the middle of a raft of size
4.25m x 4.87m, it is set afloat in
a lake with a view to simulate
the characteristics of a large
body of water
 Water level in the pan is
maintained at the same level as
that in the lake, leaving a rim of
75mm.
 Diagonal baffles are provided
in the pan to reduce surging in
the pan due to wave action
 Disadvantages – High cost of
installation and maintenance,
difficulty in making
measurements.
Pan Coefficient (Cp)
Evaporation Pan are not exactly models of large
reservoirs and the following drawbacks:
1. They differ in the heat – storing capacity
and heat transfer from the sides and
bottom.
2. The height of the rim in an evaporation
pan affects the wind action over the
surface.
3. The heat – transfer characteristics of
the pan material is different from that
of the reservoir.
The evaporation observed from a pan has to be
corrected to get the evaporation from a lake
under similar climatic and exposure conditions.
Thus:
Lake evaporation = Cp x Pan Evaporation

ESTIMATION OF EVAPORATION
 Meyer’s Formula (Empirical Method)
𝑼𝑼
EL = KM ( ew - ea )( 1 + 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟗𝟗 )
where:
EL – lake evaporation in mm/day
ew – saturated vapour pressure at
the water surface temperature, mmhg
ea – actutal vapour pressure of
overlying air at specific height, mmhg
𝑈𝑈9 – monthly mean velocity in
km/hr. at about 9m above the ground.
KM – 0.36 for large deep waters; 0.5
for small, shallow waters.
 Analytical methods
I. Water – Budget Method
II. Energy – Balance Method
Water – budget method
 simplest but the least reliable. If the unit
of time is kept very large, estimates of
evaporation will be more accurate.
𝑷𝑷 + 𝑽𝑽𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊 +
𝑽𝑽𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊 = 𝑽𝑽𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 + 𝑽𝑽𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 + 𝑬𝑬𝑳𝑳 + ∆𝑺𝑺 + 𝑻𝑻𝑳𝑳
𝑃𝑃 = daily precipitation
Vis = daily surface inflow into the
lake
Vig = daily groundwater inflow
Vos = daily surface outflow from the
lake
Vog = daily seepage outflow
EL = daily lake evaporation
∆𝑆𝑆 = increase in lake storage in a day
TL = daily transpiration loss
Energy-budget method
– is application of law of conservation of
energy. The energy available for
evaporation is determined by
considering the incoming energy,
outgoing energy and energy stored in
the water body over a known time
interval.
Hn = Ha + Hc + Hg + Hs + Hi
where;
Hn = net energy received by the water
surface.
= Hc(1 – r) – Hb
Hc(1 – r) = incoming solar radiation into a
surface of reflection coefficient(albedo) r.
Hb = back radiation (long wave ) from water
body.
Ha = sensible heat transfer from water
surface to air.
Hc = heat energy used up in evaporation.
= ρLEL, where ρ = density of fluid,
L = latent heat of evaporation and
EL = evaporation on mm.
Hg = heat flux into the ground.
Hs = heat stored in a water body.
Hi = net heat conducted out of the system
by water flow
( advected energy)
Ha can be estimated as:
 𝑯𝑯𝒂𝒂
𝜷𝜷 = = 𝟔𝟔. 𝟏𝟏 𝑿𝑿 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏−𝟒𝟒 𝒙𝒙 𝑷𝑷𝒂𝒂
𝝆𝝆𝝆𝝆𝑬𝑬𝑳𝑳
Pa = atmospheric pressure in mm Hg.
Tw = temperature of water surface in oC
Ta = temperature of air in C
EL can be evaluated as
𝑯𝑯𝒏𝒏 − 𝑯𝑯𝒈𝒈 − 𝑯𝑯𝒔𝒔 − 𝑯𝑯𝒊𝒊
𝑬𝑬𝑳𝑳 =
𝝆𝝆𝝆𝝆(𝟏𝟏 + 𝜷𝜷)
Transpiration
- is the process by which water leaves the
body of a living plant and reaches the
atmosphere as water vapor. The water is
taken up by the plant-root system and
escapes through the leaves.
𝑻𝑻𝒘𝒘 − 𝑻𝑻𝒂𝒂  Actual Evapotranspiration (AET) -
𝒆𝒆𝒘𝒘 − 𝒆𝒆𝒂𝒂 Actual evapotranspiration is the
quantity of water that is actually
removed from a surface due to the
processes of evaporation and
transpiration.
 Field Capacity - is the maximum
o quantity of water that the soil can
retain against the force of gravity.
Any higher moisture input to a soil
at field capacity simply drains away.
 Permanent Wilting Point - is the
moisture content of the soil at which
the moisture is no longer available in
sufficient quantity to sustain the
plants.

The important factors affecting

transpiration are :

- atmospheric vapor pressure,

- temperature,

- wind, light intensity and

characteristics of the plant, such as the root
and leaf systems.

Evapotranspiration

- takes place at the land where plants exist;

also lose moisture by the evaporation of
water from soil and water bodies.

 Potential Evapotranspiration (PET) -

It is is defined as the amount of
evaporation that would occur if a
sufficient water source were
available.
 Measurement of Evapotranspiration
The measurement of Evapotranspiration
for a given vegetation type can be
carried out in two ways:
1. Lysimeters - is a measuring device
which can be used to measure the
amount of actual evapotranspiration
which is released by plants, usually
crops or trees. By recording the
amount of precipitation that an area
receives and the amount lost
through the soil, the amount of
water lost to evapotranspiration can
be calculated.
2. Field Experimental Plots - The
different elements of the water
budget (other than ET) in a known
interval of time are measured in
special experimental plots
established in the field. ET is then
estimated as:
Evapotranspiration Equations
 Penman’s Equation
Net Radiation can be estimated by the
following equation:
Ha = incident solar radiation outside the
atmosphere on a horizontal surface,
expressed in mm of evaporable water per
day ( it is a function of the latitude and
period of the years as indicated in Table 3.4)
a = a constant depending upon the latitude
∅ and is given by a = 0.29cos∅
b = a constant with an average value of 0.52
n = actual duration of bright sunshine in
hours
N = maximum possible hours of bright
sunshine ( it is a function of latitude as
indicated in table 3.5)
r = reflection coefficient (albedo)
Surface Range of r values
Closed Ground Corps 0.15 – 0.25
Bare 0.05 – 0.45
Water Surface 0.05
Snow 0.45 – 0.95
𝜎𝜎 = Stefan – Boltzman constant = 2.02 x
10-9 mm/day
Ta = mear air temparature in degrees kelvin
= 273 + oC
𝑈𝑈2
Ea = 0.35(1 + 160 )(ew - ea)
U2 = mean wind speed at 2m above ground
in km/day
ew & ea were define earlier.
Table 3.3 Saturation Vapour Pressure of  Thornthwaite Formula. Uses only
Water mean monthly temperature along
with an adjustment for day length.
Temperature Saturation A 10𝑇𝑇� 4
Vapour 𝐸𝐸𝑇𝑇 = 1.6𝐿𝐿𝑎𝑎 ( )
𝐼𝐼𝑡𝑡
Pressure
ET = monthly PET in cm
o
C ew (mm (mm/
C) La = adjustment for the number of hours
Hg) of daylight and days in the month,
related to the latitude of the place
0 4.58 0.30 (table 3.8)

5 6.54 0.45 𝑇𝑇� = mean monthly air temperature in

o
C.
7.5 7.78 0.54
𝐼𝐼𝑡𝑡 = the total 12 monthly valuesof heat
10 9.21 0.60 index = ∑12
𝑇𝑇� 1.514
1 𝑖𝑖, where i = ( )
5
12.5 10.87 0.71
a = an empirical constant
15 12.79 0.80
17.5 15 0.95
Interception
20 17.54 1.05
22.5 20.44 1.24
25 23.76 1.40
27.5 27.54 1.61
30 31.82 1.85
32.5 36.68 2.07
35 42.81 2.35
Depression Storage
37.5 48.36 2.62
When the precipitation of a storm
40 55.32 2.95 reaches the ground, it must fill up all
depressions before it can flow over the
45 71.20 3.66
surface. The volume of water trapped in
this depressions is called depression
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏.𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
𝒆𝒆𝒘𝒘 = 𝟒𝟒. 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝒆𝒆(𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐.𝟑𝟑+𝒕𝒕) (mm Hg) storage.

where t = temperature in oC
Infiltration Measurement of Infiltration

- is the flow of water into the ground
through the soil surface such as
rainfall, snowmelt or irrigation into
the soil.
Infiltration Capacity
The maximum rate at which a given soil
at a given time can absorb water is
defined as the infiltration capacity.
Infiltration characteristics of soil can be
estimated by:
1. Using flooding type infiltrometers
2. Measurement of subsidence of free
water in a large basin or pond
3. Rainfall simulator
4. Hydrograph analysis

Designated as 𝑓𝑓𝑝𝑝 and is expressed in Flooding type infiltrometers

units of cm/h • are experimental devices used to
Actual rate of infiltration 𝑓𝑓 is expressed obtain data relating to variation of
as infiltration capacity with time

𝑓𝑓 = 𝑓𝑓𝑝𝑝 when 𝑖𝑖 ≥ 𝑓𝑓𝑝𝑝 • The cylinder is driven into the

ground to a depth of 50 cm
𝑓𝑓 = 𝑓𝑓𝑝𝑝 when 𝑖𝑖 < 𝑓𝑓𝑝𝑝
• Knowing the volume of water added
where: during time intervals, the plot of
infiltration capacity vs. time is
𝑖𝑖 = intensity of rainfall obtained.
Infiltration Capacity

The infiltration capacity of a soil is high

at the beginning of a storm and has an
exponential decay as the time elapses.

The infiltration capacity of an area is

dependent on a large number of factors,
chief of them are:

1. Characteristics of the soil (texture,

porosity and hydraulic conductivity)

2. Condition of the soil surface

3.Vegetative cover

4.Current moisture content

5.Soil temperature
 Double- Ring Infiltrometer
• This commonly used infiltrometer is
designed to overcome the basic
objection of the tube infiltrometer.
• Two sets of concentrating rings with
diameters of 30 cm and 60 cm and
of a minimum length of 25 cm.
• The two rings are inserted into the
ground and water is applied into
both rings to maintain a constant
depth of about 5.0 cm.
• The specially designed nozzles
produce raindrops falling from a
height of 2m and are capable of
producing various intensities of
rainfall.
• The simulator give lower values than
flooding type infiltrometers.
Hydrograph Analysis
• Reasonable estimation of the
infiltration capacity o a small
watershed can be obtained by
analyzing measured runoff of
hydrographs and corresponding
rainfall records.

• In this the evapotranspiration losses

are estimated by knowing the land
cover/ use of the watershed.

Rainfall Simulator

• In this a small plot of land, of about

2m × 4m size. Is provided with a
series of nozzles on the longer side
with arrangements to collect and
measure the surface runoff rate.