Silicon photonics

Silicon photonics is the study and

application of photonic systems which use
silicon as an optical medium.[1][2][3][4][5] The
silicon is usually patterned with sub-
micrometre precision, into microphotonic
components.[4] These operate in the
infrared, most commonly at the 1.55
micrometre wavelength used by most fiber
optic telecommunication systems.[6] The
silicon typically lies on top of a layer of
silica in what (by analogy with a similar
construction in microelectronics) is known
as silicon on insulator (SOI).[4][5]

Silicon photonics 300 mm wafer

Silicon photonic devices can be made

using existing semiconductor fabrication
techniques, and because silicon is already
used as the substrate for most integrated
circuits, it is possible to create hybrid
devices in which the optical and electronic
components are integrated onto a single
microchip.[6] Consequently, silicon
photonics is being actively researched by
many electronics manufacturers including
IBM and Intel, as well as by academic
research groups, as a means for keeping
on track with Moore's Law, by using optical
interconnects to provide faster data
transfer both between and within
microchips.[7][8][9]

The propagation of light through silicon

devices is governed by a range of
nonlinear optical phenomena including the
Kerr effect, the Raman effect, two-photon
absorption and interactions between
photons and free charge carriers.[10] The
presence of nonlinearity is of fundamental
importance, as it enables light to interact
with light,[11] thus permitting applications
such as wavelength conversion and all-
optical signal routing, in addition to the
passive transmission of light.

Silicon waveguides are also of great

academic interest, due to their unique
guiding properties, they can be used for
communications, interconnects,
biosensors,[12][13] and they offer the
possibility to support exotic nonlinear
optical phenomena such as soliton
propagation.[14][15][16]
Applications
Optical communications

In a typical optical link, data is first

transferred from the electrical to the
optical domain using an electro-optic
modulator or a directly-modulated laser.
An electro-optic modulator can vary the
intensity and/or the phase of the optical
carrier. In silicon photonics, a common
technique to achieve modulation is to vary
the density of free charge carriers.
Variations of electron and hole densities
change the real and the imaginary part of
the refractive index of silicon as described
by the empirical equations of Soref and
Bennett.[17] Modulators can consist of
both forward-biased PIN diodes, which
generally generate large phase-shifts but
suffer of lower speeds,[18] as well as of
reverse-biased PN junctions.[19] A
prototype optical interconnect with
microring modulators integrated with
germanium detectors has been
demonstrated.[20][21] Non-resonant
modulators, such as Mach-Zehnder
interferometers, have typical dimensions
in the millimeter range and are usually
used in telecom or datacom applications.
Resonant devices, such as ring-resonators,
can have dimensions of few tens of
micrometers only, occupying therefore
much smaller areas. In 2013, researchers
demonstrated a resonant depletion
modulator that can be fabricated using
standard Silicon-on-Insulator
Complementary Metal-Oxide-
Semiconductor (SOI CMOS)
manufacturing processes.[22] A similar
device has been demonstrated as well in
bulk CMOS rather than in SOI.[23][24]

On the receiver side, the optical signal is

typically converted back to the electrical
domain using a semiconductor
photodetector. The semiconductor used
for carrier generation has usually a band-
gap smaller than the photon energy, and
the most common choice is pure
germanium.[25][26] Most detectors utilize a
PN junction for carrier extraction, however,
detectors based on metal-semiconductor
junctions (with germanium as the
semiconductor) have been integrated into
silicon waveguides as well.[27] More
recently, silicon-germanium avalanche
photodiodes capable of operating at
40 Gbit/s have been fabricated.[28][29]
Complete transceivers have been
commercialized in the form of active
optical cables.[30]
Optical communications are conveniently
classified by the reach, or length, of their
links. The majority of silicon photonic
communications have so far been limited
to telecom[31] and datacom
applications,[32][33] where the reach is of
several kilometers or several meters
respectively.

Silicon photonics, however, is expected to

play a significant role in computercom as
well, where optical links have a reach in
the centimeter to meter range. In fact,
progress in computer technology (and the
continuation of Moore's Law) is becoming
increasingly dependent on faster data
transfer between and within
microchips.[34] Optical interconnects may
provide a way forward, and silicon
photonics may prove particularly useful,
once integrated on the standard silicon
chips.[6][35][36] In 2006 Former Intel senior
vice president Pat Gelsinger stated that,
"Today, optics is a niche technology.
Tomorrow, it's the mainstream of every
chip that we build."[8]

The first microprocessor with optical

input/output (I/O) was demonstrated in
December 2015 using an approach known
as "zero-change" CMOS photonics.[37] This
first demonstration was based on a 45 nm
SOI node, and the bi-directional chip-to-
chip link was operated at a rate of
2×2.5 Gbit/s. The total energy
consumption of the link was calculated to
be of 16 pJ/b and was dominated by the
contribution of the off-chip laser.

Some researchers believe an on-chip laser

source is required.[38] Others think that it
should remain off-chip because of thermal
problems (the quantum efficiency
decreases with temperature, and
computer chips are generally hot) and
because of CMOS-compatibility issues.
One such device is the hybrid silicon laser,
in which the silicon is bonded to a different
semiconductor (such as indium
phosphide) as the lasing medium.[39]
Another possibility is the all-silicon Raman
laser, in which silicon is the lasing
medium.[40]

In 2012, IBM announced that it had

achieved optical components at the 90
nanometer scale that can be
manufactured using standard techniques
and incorporated into conventional
chips.[7][41] In September 2013, Intel
announced technology to transmit data at
speeds of 100 gigabits per second along a
cable approximately five millimeters in
diameter for connecting servers inside
data centers. Conventional PCI-E data
cables carry data at up to eight gigabits
per second, while networking cables reach
40 Gbit/s. The latest version of the USB
standard tops out at ten Gbit/s. The
technology does not directly replace
existing cables in that it requires a
separate circuit board to interconvert
electrical and optical signals. Its advanced
speed offers the potential of reducing the
number of cables that connect blades on a
rack and even of separating processor,
storage and memory into separate blades
to allow more efficient cooling and
dynamic configuration.[42]
Graphene photodetectors have the
potential to surpass germanium devices in
several important aspects, although they
remain about one order of magnitude
behind current generation capacity,
despite rapid improvement. Graphene
devices can work at very high frequencies,
and could in principle reach higher
bandwidths. Graphene can absorb a
broader range of wavelengths than
germanium. That property could be
exploited to transmit more data streams
simultaneously in the same beam of light.
Unlike germanium detectors, graphene
photodetectors do not require applied
voltage, which could reduce energy needs.
Finally, graphene detectors in principle
permit a simpler and less expensive on-
chip integration. However, graphene does
not strongly absorb light. Pairing a silicon
waveguide with a graphene sheet better
routes light and maximizes interaction.
The first such device was demonstrated in
2011. Manufacturing such devices using
conventional manufacturing techniques
has not been demonstrated.[43]

Optical routers and signal

processors

Another application of silicon photonics is

in signal routers for optical
communication. Construction can be
greatly simplified by fabricating the optical
and electronic parts on the same chip,
rather than having them spread across
multiple components.[44] A wider aim is all-
optical signal processing, whereby tasks
which are conventionally performed by
manipulating signals in electronic form are
done directly in optical form.[3][45] An
important example is all-optical switching,
whereby the routing of optical signals is
directly controlled by other optical
signals.[46] Another example is all-optical
wavelength conversion.[47]
In 2013, a startup company named
"Compass-EOS", based in California and in
Israel, was the first to present a
commercial silicon-to-photonics router.[48]

Long range
telecommunications using
silicon photonics

Silicon microphotonics can potentially

increase the Internet's bandwidth capacity
by providing micro-scale, ultra low power
devices. Furthermore, the power
consumption of datacenters may be
significantly reduced if this is successfully
achieved. Researchers at Sandia,[49]
Kotura, NTT, Fujitsu and various academic
institutes have been attempting to prove
this functionality. A 2010 paper reported
on a prototype 80 km, 12.5 Gbit/s
transmission using microring silicon
devices.[50]

Light-field displays

As of 2015, US startup company Magic

Leap is working on a light-field chip using
silicon photonics for the purpose of an
augmented reality display.[51]

Physical properties
Optical guiding and dispersion
tailoring

Silicon is transparent to infrared light with

wavelengths above about 1.1
micrometres.[52] Silicon also has a very
high refractive index, of about 3.5.[52] The
tight optical confinement provided by this
high index allows for microscopic optical
waveguides, which may have cross-
sectional dimensions of only a few
hundred nanometers.[10] Single mode
propagation can be achieved,[10] thus (like
single-mode optical fiber) eliminating the
problem of modal dispersion.
The strong dielectric boundary effects that
result from this tight confinement
substantially alter the optical dispersion
relation. By selecting the waveguide
geometry, it is possible to tailor the
dispersion to have desired properties,
which is of crucial importance to
applications requiring ultrashort pulses.[10]
In particular, the group velocity dispersion
(that is, the extent to which group velocity
varies with wavelength) can be closely
controlled. In bulk silicon at 1.55
micrometres, the group velocity dispersion
(GVD) is normal in that pulses with longer
wavelengths travel with higher group
velocity than those with shorter
wavelength. By selecting a suitable
waveguide geometry, however, it is
possible to reverse this, and achieve
anomalous GVD, in which pulses with
shorter wavelengths travel faster.[53][54]
Anomalous dispersion is significant, as it
is a prerequisite for soliton propagation,
and modulational instability.[55]

In order for the silicon photonic

components to remain optically
independent from the bulk silicon of the
wafer on which they are fabricated, it is
necessary to have a layer of intervening
material. This is usually silica, which has a
much lower refractive index (of about 1.44
in the wavelength region of interest[56]),
and thus light at the silicon-silica interface
will (like light at the silicon-air interface)
undergo total internal reflection, and
remain in the silicon. This construct is
known as silicon on insulator.[4][5] It is
named after the technology of silicon on
insulator in electronics, whereby
components are built upon a layer of
insulator in order to reduce parasitic
capacitance and so improve
performance.[57]

Kerr nonlinearity
Silicon has a focusing Kerr nonlinearity, in
that the refractive index increases with
optical intensity.[10] This effect is not
especially strong in bulk silicon, but it can
be greatly enhanced by using a silicon
waveguide to concentrate light into a very
small cross-sectional area.[14] This allows
nonlinear optical effects to be seen at low
powers. The nonlinearity can be enhanced
further by using a slot waveguide, in which
the high refractive index of the silicon is
used to confine light into a central region
filled with a strongly nonlinear polymer.[58]

Kerr nonlinearity underlies a wide variety

of optical phenomena.[55] One example is
four wave mixing, which has been applied
in silicon to realise optical parametric
amplification,[59] parametric wavelength
conversion,[47] and frequency comb
generation.,[60][61]

Kerr nonlinearity can also cause

modulational instability, in which it
reinforces deviations from an optical
waveform, leading to the generation of
spectral-sidebands and the eventual
breakup of the waveform into a train of
pulses.[62] Another example (as described
below) is soliton propagation.

Two-photon absorption
Silicon exhibits two-photon absorption
(TPA), in which a pair of photons can act
to excite an electron-hole pair.[10] This
process is related to the Kerr effect, and by
analogy with complex refractive index, can
be thought of as the imaginary-part of a
complex Kerr nonlinearity.[10] At the 1.55
micrometre telecommunication
wavelength, this imaginary part is
approximately 10% of the real part.[63]

The influence of TPA is highly disruptive,

as it both wastes light, and generates
unwanted heat.[64] It can be mitigated,
however, either by switching to longer
wavelengths (at which the TPA to Kerr
ratio drops),[65] or by using slot
waveguides (in which the internal
nonlinear material has a lower TPA to Kerr
ratio).[58] Alternatively, the energy lost
through TPA can be partially recovered (as
is described below) by extracting it from
the generated charge carriers.[66]

Free charge carrier interactions

The free charge carriers within silicon can

both absorb photons and change its
refractive index.[67] This is particularly
significant at high intensities and for long
durations, due to the carrier concentration
being built up by TPA. The influence of free
charge carriers is often (but not always)
unwanted, and various means have been
proposed to remove them. One such
scheme is to implant the silicon with
helium in order to enhance carrier
recombination.[68] A suitable choice of
geometry can also be used to reduce the
carrier lifetime. Rib waveguides (in which
the waveguides consist of thicker regions
in a wider layer of silicon) enhance both
the carrier recombination at the silica-
silicon interface and the diffusion of
carriers from the waveguide core.[69]

A more advanced scheme for carrier

removal is to integrate the waveguide into
the intrinsic region of a PIN diode, which is
reverse biased so that the carriers are
attracted away from the waveguide
core.[70] A more sophisticated scheme still,
is to use the diode as part of a circuit in
which voltage and current are out of
phase, thus allowing power to be extracted
from the waveguide.[66] The source of this
power is the light lost to two photon
absorption, and so by recovering some of
it, the net loss (and the rate at which heat
is generated) can be reduced.

As is mentioned above, free charge carrier

effects can also be used constructively, in
order to modulate the light.[18][19][71]
Second-order nonlinearity

Second-order nonlinearities cannot exist in

bulk silicon because of the
centrosymmetry of its crystalline
structure. By applying strain however, the
inversion symmetry of silicon can be
broken. This can be obtained for example
by depositing a silicon nitride layer on a
thin silicon film.[72] Second-order nonlinear
phenomena can be exploited for optical
modulation, spontaneous parametric
down-conversion, parametric
amplification, ultra-fast optical signal
processing and mid-infrared generation.
Efficient nonlinear conversion however
requires phase matching between the
optical waves involved. Second-order
nonlinear waveguides based on strained
silicon can achieve phase matching by
dispersion-engineering.[73] So far, however,
experimental demonstrations are based
only on designs which are not phase
matched.[74] It has been shown that phase
matching can be obtained as well in
silicon double slot waveguides coated
with a highly nonlinear organic cladding[75]
and in periodically strained silicon
waveguides.[76]

The Raman effect

Silicon exhibits the Raman effect, in which
a photon is exchanged for a photon with a
slightly different energy, corresponding to
an excitation or a relaxation of the
material. Silicon's Raman transition is
dominated by a single, very narrow
frequency peak, which is problematic for
broadband phenomena such as Raman
amplification, but is beneficial for
narrowband devices such as Raman
lasers.[10] Early studies of Raman
amplification and Raman lasers started at
UCLA which led to demonstration of net
gain Silicon Raman amplifiers and silicon
pulsed Raman laser with fiber resonator
(Optics express 2004). Consequently, all-
silicon Raman lasers have been fabricated
in 2005.[40]

The Brillouin effect

In the Raman effect, photons are red- or

blue-shifted by optical phonons with a
frequency of about 15 THz. However,
silicon waveguides also support acoustic
phonon excitations. Their interaction with
light is called Brillouin scattering. The
frequencies and mode shapes of these
acoustic phonons are dependent on the
geometry and size of the silicon
waveguides. Therefore, the frequencies
are tailorable from a few MHz to tens of
GHz. Their interaction with light can
among others be used to make
narrowband optical amplifiers.[77][78][79]
The interaction between photons and
acoustic phonons is also studied in the
field of cavity optomechanics, although 3D
optical cavities are not necessary to
observe the interaction.[80] For instance,
besides in silicon waveguides the
optomechanical coupling has also been
demonstrated in fibers[81] and in
chalcogenide waveguides.[82]

Solitons
The evolution of light through silicon
waveguides can be approximated with a
cubic Nonlinear Schrödinger equation,[10]
which is notable for admitting sech-like
soliton solutions.[83] These optical solitons
(which are also known in optical fiber)
result from a balance between self phase
modulation (which causes the leading
edge of the pulse to be redshifted and the
trailing edge blueshifted) and anomalous
group velocity dispersion.[55] Such solitons
have been observed in silicon waveguides,
by groups at the universities of
Columbia,[14] Rochester,[15] and Bath.[16]

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External links
Intel's page on silicon photonics
Jiang Xu's group on silicon photonics
Michal Lipson's page on silicon
photonics
Michael Watts' MIT group working on
silicon photonics
MIT spin-off company offering silicon
photonics design and [MPW]
Uk based project website on silicon
photonics
 European project website on silicon
photonics
UK based group working on silicon
photonics
French based group working on silicon
photonics
Belgian group working on silicon
photonics
Silicon photonics at KIT
Photon Transfer

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