1.

Taxonomy of Manufacturing Processes/ Mass Reducing/ Mass Conserving/ Joining/ Heat

Treatment/ Surface Finishing

Taxonomy of Manufacturing Processes

The Manufacturing Process Taxonomy, based on the process classification system initially
developed at Brigham Young University and later adapted by members of the Manufacturing Consortium,
provides a concise roadmap of some 300 processes used for modifying geometry or properties of
engineering materials. It has been said that students can learn twice as much in half the time when the
material to be studied has been classified and the critical attributes have been clearly identified. In this text,
we attempt to do both.
Processes used for modifying the workpiece geometry are called “shaping” processes. Processes
used for modifying properties of materials are called “nonshaping” processes. Shaping processes have
been grouped into “mass-conserving” processes, “mass-reducing” processes, and “mass-increasing”, or
“joining processes”. Nonshaping processes have been grouped into processes dealing with heat treatment
and with surface finishing. Each of these processes have been further subdivided into fourteen major
“families” of processes. In turn, each of the process families has been subdivided into unique individual
processes.
Source:
Todd, R. H., Allen, D. K., & Alting, L. (1994). Fundamental principles of manufacturing processes.
Industrial Press Inc..
 2. Machine Tools for Traditional Machining
2.1 General Purpose Machine Tools
2.11 Machine Tools for Cutting Cylindrical Surfaces (lathe, boring, and drilling
machines)

a. Lathe
Definition:
Lathe can be defined as a machine tool which holds the work between two rigid and strong
supports, called centres, or in a chuck or Face plate while the lathe revolves. It is generally used in
metalworking, metal spinning, woodturning, and glassworking. The various operations that it can perform
include the following: sanding, cutting, knurling, drilling, and deforming of tools that are employed in creating
objects which have symmetry about the axis of rotation. Some of the most common products of the lathe
machine are crankshafts, camshafts, table legs, bowls, and candlestick holders.

Parts:
There are many types of lathe machine but each machine consists some basic part which are essential
for its proper working. These parts are bed, tool post, Chuck, head stock, tail stock, legs, Gear chain, lead
screw, carriage, cross slide, split nut, apron, chip pan, guide ways etc. These parts work together to obtain
desire motion of tool and work piece so it can be machined.
 Bed
The bed of Lathe acts as the base on which the different fixed and operations parts of the Lathe
are mounted. Lathe beds are usually made as single piece casting of semi-steel (i.e., toughened cast
iron),
with the addition of small quantity of steel scrap to the cast iron during melting; the material ‘cast iron’
facilitating an easy sliding action. In case of extremely large machines, the bed may be in two or more
pieces, bolted together to from the desired length. Lathe Bed are heavy rigid structure which is having
high damping capacity for the vibrations generated by machines during machining. The rigid structure
will help to avoid deflections. The guides and ways which are present on the top of the bed will act as
rails and supports other parts like tail stock. The bed will be designed in such a way that easily bolted
to the floor of the machine shop.

 Tool Post
It is bolted on the carriage. It is used to hold the tool at correct position. Tool holder mounted on it.

 Chuck
Chuck is used to hold the workspace. It is bolted on the spindle which rotates the chuck and work
piece. It is four jaw and three jaw according to the requirement of machine.

 Headstock
Head stock is the main body parts which are placed at left side of bed. It is serve as holding device
for the gear chain, spindle, driving pulley etc. It is also made by cast iron.

 Tail Stock
Tail stock situated on bed. It is placed at right hand side of the bed. The main function of tail stock
to support the job when required. It is also used to perform drilling operation.

 Lead Screw
Lead screw is situated at the bottom side of bed which is used to move the carriage automatically
during thread cutting.

 Legs
Legs are used to carry all the loads of the machine. They are bolted on the floor which prevents
vibration.
  Carriage
It is situated between the head stock and tail stock. It is used to hold and move the tool post on the
bed vertically and horizontally. It slides on the guide ways. Carriage is made by cast iron.

 Apron
It is situated on the carriage. It consists all controlling and moving mechanism of carriage.

 Chips pan
Chips pan is placed lower side of bed. The main function of it to carries all chips removed by the
work piece.

 Guide ways
Guide ways take care of movement of tail stock and carriage on bed.

 Speed Controller
Speed controller switch is situated on head stock which controls the speed of spindle.

 Spindle
It is the main part of lathe which holds and rotates the chuck.

Operations and Work:

Lathe machine is used to cut the metal from cylindrical work piece, and convert it into desire shape.
It turns the cylindrical work piece, and during turning a sharp edge cutting tool introduce, which cuts the
metal. Its working can be described as follow:

1. A cylindrical work piece fixed to the chuck. A chuck may have three jaw or for jaw according to the
requirement. The work piece is at the center or some eccentric according to the process perform.

2. The spindle starts to rotate and set it at desire speed. The spindle speed plays a huge role during
cutting. The spindle rotates the chuck and work piece.
3. Now check the work piece is turning properly. If it not set the work piece using dial gauge.

4. Now set the tool at desire feed by moving the tool post and carriage. The feed also play main role
during cutting. Large feed may cause unwanted temperature increase.

5. After it tool is introduce between moving work piece at desire feed rate. It cut the metal from work
piece. The feed rate is set at the cutting condition.

6. Now all unwanted metal is removed by moving the carriage form horizontally and vertically as
desire according to the job requirement. After complete all process we got a well finished job.

7. Lathe can perform turning, boring, chamfering, shaping, facing, drilling knurling, grooving as shown
in figure.

Sources:
Chris, J. (2010, January 15). The lathe machine. Retrieved from http://www.brighthubengineering.com/
manufacturing-technology/59033-what-is-a-lathe-machine-history-parts-and-operation/

Engineering Insider. (2017, June 28). Lathe machine: main parts,operation, and working. Retrieved from
 https://engineeringinsider.org/lathe-machine-parts-operation-working/

b. Boring Machines
Definition:
Boring machines are used to mill, drill, bore, cut threads or face turn using a rotating tool, usually
a cutter, drill, boring rod or milling head. Boring machines are used to drill closed and open openings in
solid material, boring, reaming, threading, milling surfaces, etc. Drill bits, reamers, thread cutters, milling
cutters and other tools are used to perform these operations. One type of boring machine is a horizontal
boring machine with a horizontal spindle. Movement along individual axes needed for the work cycle is
performed by a CNC control system.

Types:
 Horizontal Boring Machine (HBM): (a)The work is supported by a table which is stationary, and
the tool revolves on a horizontal axis. (b) It can perform different operations like boring, reaming,
turning, threading, facing, milling, grooving, recessing and many other. (C) Work piece which are
heavy, irregular, unsymmetrical or bulky can also be conveniently held and machined.

1. Table type HBM

It is most common type of all HBMs. Work is mounted on the adjustable table. Longitudinal
or transverse feed is given manually or by power. This type of machine is suitable for general
purpose work where other operations in addition to boring are required to be performed.
2. Planner type HBM
In planner type HBM the table slides directly on the bed instead of on a saddle. Workpiece
of different sizes can be accommodated by adjusting the end supporting column and head
stock supporting column towards or away from the table. It is suitable for supporting a long
work.

3. Floor type HBM

It does not have a table for supporting work piece. It uses a stationary floor-plate on which
T-slots are provided to hold the work. The headstock supporting column and the end supporting
column are mounted on the runways which are placed at right angles to spindle axis. The
purpose of such design is to hold very large and heavy work piece which are difficult to be
mounted and adjusted on a table.

4. Multiple Spindle HBM

It does not have a table for supporting work piece. It uses a stationary floor-plate on
which T-slots are provided to hold the work. The headstock supporting column and the end
supporting column are mounted on the runways which are placed at right angles to spindle
axis. The purpose of such design is to hold very large and heavy work piece which are
difficult to be mounted and adjusted on a table.

 Vertical Boring Machine (VBM): (a) In this type of machine, work rotates on a horizontal table
about a vertical axis and the tool is stationary. (b) As the table being horizontal, the diameter of the
table may be designed as large as possible to support large work pieces. (c)Multiple tooling may
be adapted in the case of a vertical boring machine. (d) A vertical boring machine is particularly
employed for large, heavy, large gear blanks, heavy castings for steam and water turbine,
locomotive and rolling stock tires, flywheels, heavy flanges and number of circular parts. (e) There
are two designs for VBM – single column VBM and double column VBM. (f) It is sometimes called
a rotary planer for its cutting actions on flat discs are identical with a planer. (g) These machines,
rated according to their table sizes, vary from 0.9-0.12m.

 Precision Boring Machine

 It uses single point tools to machine surface rapidly and accurately. Cemented carbide and
diamond tipped single point tools are operated at a very high cutting speed to produce accurately sized
holes with a fine surface finish. The machine may be horizontal or vertical.

 Jig Boring Machine

It is first developed in 1910 in Switzerland. It is used as a locating machine. It is accurate machine tool.
They are popularly used for manufacturing of jigs, fixtures, tools and other precision parts which require
high degree of accuracy. The machine accuracy is very high. This is due to high rigidity, low thermal
expansion. The spindle and other parts of the machine are extremely rigid to resist deflection and the
vibration is lowest. The spindle runs on antifriction bearing. Two types of JBM are available(i) Vertical
milling machine type (ii) Planer type. It is mainly designed to manufacture precision dies, gauges and
jigs and fixtures. They can also be used as a measuring machine.

Parts:

Operations:

Sources:
Rajput, R. K. (2007). A textbook of manufacturing technology: Manufacturing processes. Firewall Media.
Strojimport.(na). Lathes, boring machines, milling machines, grinding machines. Retrieved from
 http://www.strojimport.com/

c. Drilling Machines
Definition:
In a lot of manufacturing processes, one of the most indispensable machining tools is the drilling
machine. The drilling machine is commonly called a drill press and is responsible for drilling various sizes
of holes in any surface area and to precise depths.

Operations:
 Tapping- is the process of drilling a hole most specifically in pipelines that are under pressure.
 Spotfacing- is the process of furnishing finished circular surfaces around the top of a hole for seating
the washer or the bolthead.
 Reaming- is the process of making existing helos more dimensionally accurate for the improvement
of the surface finish.
 Countersinking- is a chamfering process around the top of a hole for holding the screw head or bolt
below the surface of the drilled material.
 Counterboring- is the process of enlarging an already drilled hole for the accommodation of the screw
head.

Types:
There are four major categories of the drilling machine which include the upright sensitive drilling
machine, upright drilling machine, radial drilling machine, and special purpose drilling machine. Although
these drilling machines perform basic drilling operations, there are some specific functions that are
performed more accurately and conveniently by each of these types.

 Upright Sensitive Drilling Machine

This drilling machine employs the use of a belt drive spindle head. The method of feeding this
machine into the workpiece is by hand only, thus the name upright sensitive. This set-up is actually an
advantage because the operator can literally feel the cutting action of the tool. There are two
orientations of this machine- the bench style and the floor style. The upright sensitive drilling machine
is recommended for moderate-to-light duty work.

 Upright Drilling Machine

The upright drilling machine uses a geared drive spindle head. In comparison to the previous type,
the manner of feeding this machine into the workpiece can be done by hand or automatically. For the
automatically fed upright drilling machines, automatic table-raising mechanisms are also provided. This
drilling machine is more appropriate to use in large-hole producing operations.

 Radial Arm Drilling Machine

This is probably one of the most popular types of drilling machine. Due to its radial orientation, the
radial arm drilling machine provides a great deal of versatility in its operation, most especially on larger
and heavier parts. The set-up of this drilling machine allows the operator to manipulate the machine
over the workpieces, thus making it more convenient to operate and drill on large workpieces.
Moreover, the radial arm drilling machine can be coupled with a tilting table, or a trunion table, for the
drilling of intersecting and angular holes.

 Special Purpose Drilling Machine

This drilling machine is used for special purposes including that of drilling multiple holes at one
setting. Intricate tasks such as the drilling of very small holes can also be performed by the special
purpose drilling machine. Some of the special purpose drilling machines includes the Micro-Drill Press,
Multiple Spindle Drilling Machine, and the Turret Type Drilling Machine.

Source:
Chris, J. (2010, January 17). Various types of drilling machines. Retrieved from
http://www.brighthubengineering.com/manufacturing-technology/61704-various-types-of-drilling-
machines/

2.12 Machine Tools for Cutting Flat Surfaces (shapers, planers, & slotters; milling and
broaching machines)

a. Shapers, Planers, and Slotters

Shapers
Definition: The shaper is a reciprocating type of machines. It is a tool used for producing small
flat surface with the help of a single point tool reciprocating over the stationary workpiece. The flat surface
may be vertical & horizontal.

Classification:
1. Acc. to the ram driving mechanism a. Crank shaper b. Geared shaper c. Hydraulic shaper
2. Acc. to the position travel of ram a. Horizontal shaper b. Vertical shaper
3. Acc. to the direction of cutting stroke a. Push cut shaper b. Draw cut shaper
4.Acc. to the design of the table a. Standard shaper b. Universal shaper

Working Principle: The tool is held in the tool post of the reciprocating ram & perform the cutting
operation during its forward stroke. It may be noted that during the backward stroke of the ram, the tool
does not remove material from the workpiece. For shaping in horizontal direction, the depth of cut is
adjusted by moving the tool downward towards the workpiece. In vertical, the tool is feed vertically towards
the workpiece, the depth of cutting is adjusted by the workpiece sideways.

Slotters
Definition:
The vertical shaper, sometimes called a slotter, has a vertical ram. If a rotary table is mounted on
the regular table, a number of slots can be made at quit accurately spaced intervals. This machine can
work either outside or inside a part, provided that the interior opening is larger than the tool head.

Classifications: Punchers slotter, Production slotter, and Tool Room slotter

Parts:
1. Base - it is rigidly built is cast integral with the column
2. Saddle – it is mounted on the guide ways& may be moved towards or away from the column.
3. Cross slide – it is mounted on the guide ways of the saddle & may be moved parallel to the
phase of the column.
4. Rotary table – it is a circular table mounted on the top of the cross slide this is provided with an
index plate . Index plate is provided accurate division of parts.
5. Ram – it reciprocate in a vertical direction ram caries cutting tool at its lower end

Planer
Definition:
This machine is used to produce plane & flat surface by single point cutting tool . It is similar to
shaper but its size is very large and is adopted for producing flat surface of much larger work than a
shaper. The basic difference between planer & shaper is , in planer , the tool remains stationary & the
work reciprocate whereas in shaper, the tool reciprocate & work is stationary

Types:
1. Double-housing planer – it consist of a long heavy base on which the table reciprocate. It is having 2
housing one on each side of the table, the housing are connecting at the top.
2. Open-sided planer – it is having housing only on one side . It permits machining wider workpiece.
3. Pit planer - it is massive type planer capable of holding very big workpiece . In this the bed is stationary
& the tool is moved over the job.
 4. Edge or plate planer – it is specially designed planer used for the edge of heavy steel plate, pressure
vessels& ship building works.

Parts: Bed, Table, Housing, Cross Rail, Tool Head

Source:
Navin, A. (2016, April 28). Shaper, planer, and slotter. Retrieved from
https://www.slideshare.net/100001223034338/shaper-planer-and-slotter?from_action=save

b. Milling Machine
Definition:
A milling machine is typically used to produce parts that are not axially symmetric and have many
features, such as holes, slots, pockets, and even three dimensional surface contours. Parts that are
fabricated completely through milling often include components that are used in limited quantities, perhaps
for prototypes, such as custom designed fasteners or brackets. Another application is the fabrication of
tooling for other processes. Due to the high tolerances and surface finishes that milling can offer, it is ideal
for adding precision features to a part whose basic shape has already been formed.

Operations and its principles:

 Chamfer milling - A chamfer end mill makes a peripheral cut along an edge of the workpiece or a
feature to create an angled surface, known as a chamfer. This chamfer, typically with a 45 degree
angle, can be machined on either the exterior or interior of a part and can follow either a straight or
curved path.

 Drilling - A drill enters the workpiece axially and cuts a hole with a diameter equal to that of the tool. A
drilling operation can produce a blind hole, which extends to some depth inside the workpiece, or a
through hole, which extends completely through the workpiece.

 Face milling - A face mill machines a flat surface of the workpiece in order to provide a smooth finish.
The depth of the face, typically very small, may be machined in a single pass or may be reached by
machining at a smaller axial depth of cut and making multiple passes.

 Drilling - A drill enters the workpiece axially and cuts a hole with a diameter equal to that of the tool. A
drilling operation can produce a blind hole, which extends to some depth inside the workpiece, or a
through hole, which extends completely through the workpiece.

 Boring - A boring tool enters the workpiece axially and cuts along an internal surface to form different
features. The boring tool is a single-point cutting tool, which can be set to cut the desired diameter by
using an adjustable boring head. Boring is commonly performed after drilling a hole in order to enlarge
the diameter or obtain more precise dimensions.

 Counterboring - An counterbore tool enters the workpiece axially and enlarges the top portion of an
existing hole to the diameter of the tool. Counterboring is often performed after drilling to provide space
for the head of a fastener, such as a bolt, to sit below the surface of a part. The counterboring tool has
a pilot on the end to guide it straight into the existing hole.

 Countersinking - A countersink tool enters the workpiece axially and enlarges the top portion of an
existing hole to a cone-shaped opening. Countersinking is often performed after drilling to provide
space for the head of a fastener, such as a screw, to sit flush with the workpiece surface. Common
included angles for a countersink include 60, 82, 90, 100, 118, and 120 degrees.
 Reaming - A reamer enters the workpiece axially and enlarges an existing hole to the diameter of the
tool. Reaming removes a minimal amount of material and is often performed after drilling to obtain
both a more accurate diameter and a smoother internal finish.

 Tapping - A tap enters the workpiece axially and cuts internal threads into an existing hole. The
existing hole is typically drilled by the required tap drill size that will accommodate the desired tap.
Threads may be cut to a specified depth inside the hole (bottom tap) or the complete depth of a through
hole (through tap).

 End milling - An end mill makes either peripheral or slot cuts, determined by the step-over distance,
across the workpiece in order to machine a specified feature, such as a profile, slot, pocket, or even
a complex surface contour. The depth of the feature may be machined in a single pass or may be
reached by machining at a smaller axial depth of cut and making multiple passes.

Parts:

 Base and column - The base of a milling machine is simply the platform that sits on the ground and
supports the machine. A large column is attached to the base and connects to the other components.

 Table - The workpiece that will be milled is mounted onto a platform called the table, which typically has
"T" shaped slots along its surface. The workpiece may be secured in a fixture called a vise, which is
secured into the T-slots, or the workpiece can be clamped directly into these slots. The table provides
the horizontal motion of the workpiece in the X-direction by sliding along a platform beneath it, called the
saddle.

 Saddle - The saddle is the platform that supports the table and allows its longitudinal motion. The saddle
is also able to move and provides the horizontal motion of the workpiece in the Y-direction by sliding
transversely along another platform called the knee.

 Knee - The knee is the platform that supports the saddle and the table. In most milling machines,
sometimes called column and knee milling machines, the knee provides the vertical motion (Z direction)
of the workpiece. The knee can move vertically along the column, thus moving the workpiece vertically
while the cutter remains stationary above it. However, in a fixed bed machine, the knee is fixed while the
cutter moves vertically in order to cut the workpiece.

Source:
CustomPart. (2018). Milling. Retrieved from http://www.custompartnet.com/wu/milling

c. Broaching Machine
Definition:
Broaching machines are very simple compared to other manufacturing machines as they only have
to move the broach in a linear motion at a regular speed.They can be horizontal or vertical, but the vertical
models are far more popular, because it saves more space than horizontal models. Virtually, all broaching
machines are hydraulic but a few special cases are mechanically driven.
Working Principle:
The broach is a multi-edge tool, with a progressive and linear cutting edges (so the broaching
operations ever finish the surface in a single pass). For reference, there are cilindrical broachs for internal
cutting by compression and plain broachs for external cutting by traction, but broachs can be build and
categorized by many means. Most broachs are made of uncoated HSS (High Speed Steel) and (less
frequently) tungsten carbide. When coats are used to extend life and increase superficial hardness, TiN
and TiCN are common chooses.

Role in Manufacturing:
 The broaching operation is best employed in high volume workpieces: a customized broach usually
costs between $8,000 (smallest ones) to $40,000 (bigger ones). The complete cycle hardly is over than 20
seconds, with great productivity and quality.Many operations can be replaced by broaching, earning lots of
time and requiring less tools. Almost any mettalic alloys can be broached, but this operation works best on
soft materials like aluminum, copper alloys, brass and even in plastics, other polimeres and wood, with
good performance on mid steels. Hard materials like titanium can be broached, but the broach will dull
quickly.
Source:
Brito, C. (2009, June 26). How a broaching machine works. Retrieved from
http://www.brighthubengineering.com/manufacturing-technology/40254-how-a-broaching-
machine-works/

2.13 Grinding Machines (honing, superfinishing, and lapping machines)

a. Honing Machine
Operation:
Honing is a finishing process, in which a tool called hone carries out a co rotary and reciprocating
motion while the workpiece does not perform any w motion. Most honing is done on internal cylindrical
surface, such as auto cylindrical walls. The honing stones are held against the workpiece with co light
pressure. The honing head is not guided externally but, instead, floats hole, being guided by the work
surface. It is desired that (1) honing stones should not leave the work surface and (2) stroke length must
cover the entire work length. In honing, rotary and oscillatory motions are combined to produce a cross
hatched lay pattern. The honing stones are given a complex motion so as to prevent every single grit from
repeating its path over the work surface. The critical process parameters are: (1) rotation speed (2)
oscillation speed, (3) length and position of the stroke and (4)honing stick pressure. With conventional
abrasive honing stick, several strokes are necessary to obtain the desired finish on the work piece.
However, with introduction of high performance diamond and cBN grits it is now possible to perform the
honing operation in just one complete stroke. Advent of precisely engineered microcrystalline cBN grit has
enhanced the capability further. Honing stick with microcrystalline cBN grit can maintain sharp cutting
condition with consistent results over long duration.

Role:
It corrects the geometry of holes and produces the surface finish required for an application. Many
geometric errors or distortions, such as out-of-roundness, bellmouth, axial straightness, waviness,
undersize, barrel, taper, boring marks, reamer chatter, rainbow and misalignment that result from grinding,
heat treatment, forming, or other manufacturing processes, can be removed.

b. Superfinishing Machine
Role:
Superfinishing machines are used to produce a very highly polished mirror finish with high
geometric correctness (e.g. high flatness, straightness, roundness). The geometry is corrected initially with
pre-superfinishing honing or grinding processes.

Operations:
 Burnishing
The burnishing process consists of pressing hardened steel rolls or balls into the surface of the
workpiece and imparting a feed motion to the same. During burnishing considerable residual compressive
stress is induced in the surface of the workpiece and thereby fatigue strength and wear resistance of the
surface layer increase.

 Magnetic Float Polishing

Magnetic float polishing finds use in precision polishing of ceramic balls. A magnetic fluid is used
for this purpose. The fluid is composed of water or kerosene carrying fine ferro-magnetic particles
 along with the abrasive grains. Ceramic balls are confined between a rotating shaft and a floating
platform. Abrasive grains ceramic ball and the floating platform can remain in suspension under
the action of magnetic force. The balls are pressed against the rotating shaft by the float and are
polished by their abrasive action. Fine polishing action can be made possible through precise
control of the force exerted by the abrasive particles on the ceramic ball.

 Magnetic Field Assisted Polishing

Magnetic field assisted polishing is particularly suitable for polishing of steel or ceramic roller. The
process is illustrated schematically in Fig. 30.21. A ceramic or a steel roller is mounted on a rotating
spindle. Magnetic poles are subjected to oscillation, thereby, introducing a vibratory motion to the
magnetic fluid containing this magnetic and abrasive particles. This action causes polishing of the
cylindrical roller surface. In this technique, the material removal rate increases with the field
strength, rotational speed of the shaft and mesh number of the abrasive. But the surface finish
decreases with the increase of material removal rate.

 Electropolishing
Electropolishing is the reverse of electroplating. Here, the workpiece acts as anode and the material
is removed from the workpiece by electrochemical dissolution. The process is particularly suitable
for polishing irregular surface since there is no mechanical contact between workpiece and
polishing medium. The electrolyte electrochemically etches projections on the workpiece surface
at a faster rate than the rest, thus producing a smooth surface. This process is also suitable for
deburring operation.

c. Lapping Machine
Definition:
Machine lapping is meant for economic lapping of batch qualities. In machine lapping, where high
accuracy is demanded, metal laps and abrasive powder held in suitable vehicles are used. Bonded
abrasives in the form wheel are chosen for commercial lapping. Machine lapping can also employ abrasive
paper or abrasive cloth as the lapping medium. Production lapping of both flat and cylindrical surfaces are
illustrated in Fig. 30.3 (a) and (b). In this case cast iron plate with loose abrasive carried in a vehicle can be
used. Alternatively, bonded abrasive plates may also be used. Centreless roll lapping uses two cast iron
rolls, one of which serves as the lapping roller twice in diameter than the other one known as the regulating
roller. During lapping the abrasive compound is applied to the rolls rotating in the same direction while the
workpiece is fed across the rolls. This process is suitable for lapping a single piece at a time and mostly
used for lapping plug gauges, measuring wires and similar straight or tapered cylindrical parts.

Operation:
 Use of loose abrasive between lap and the workpiece
 Usually lap and workpiece are not positively driven but are guided in contact with each other
 Relative motion between the lap and the work should change continuously so that path of the
abrasive grains of the lap is not repeated on the workpiece.

Role:
Lapping generates flat surfaces (geometry refinement) with extremely fine finishes using lapping
compound, where parts are processed between one or two large flat lap plates or platens. Lapping is a
gentle surfacing process using low speeds (<80 RPM) and low pressures. Compared to grinding and
honing, lapping removes much less material. Finishes are measured in micron and nanometer ranges.
Lapping is often the final abrasive finishing operation that produces extreme dimensional tolerances
(generally less than 2.5 μm uniformity), corrects minor imperfections of shape, refines surface finish (mirrors
finishes are common), and produces a close fit between mating surfaces.
Source:
Engineering360. (2018). Honing, lapping, and superfinishing machines information. Retrieved from
http://www.globalspec.com/learnmore/manufacturing_process_equipment/abrasives_grinding_
finishing/grinding_machines_finishing_equipment/honing_lapping_super_finishing_machines

2.2 Special Purpose Machine Tools (Gear cutting machines)

Gear Cutting Machines

Hobbing cutters (gear cutting machines) are used to produce gears with straight and slanted teeth,
chain gears, radially machined worm gears, fluted spindles, etc. Gear shapers are intended for gear
manufacture by hobbing. The machine can be used to hob gears with straight, slanted, internal and external
teeth, teethed segments, etc.
Gears are an integral part of the power transmission system as they are used for transferring toque or
power from prime mover to the location where it is needed or will be used. Besides that, gears are also
involved in transferring the accurate veracity ratio between two shafts. Velocity ratio is the ratio of revolution
per minute (rpm) of driven shaft to the revolution per minute of driver shaft.
Gear cutting machines are used to make chain gears, gears with straight and slanted teeth, fluted spindles
and radially machined worm gears among others, through processes such as hobbing and shaping.
Gear hobbing machines are used to generate gears by rolling a gear blank with a rotating cutter known as
hob. The multipoint cutting tool or the gear hob is normally rotated at a suitable revolution per minute and
at the same time fed to the gear blank. The rpm of both the gear hob and gear blank are synchronized in
such a way that for each gear hob’s revolution, the gear blank rotates by a distance that is equal to one
pitch distance of the gear to be cut. Gear hobbing method produces gears such as spur gear, splines, gear
sprockets, hearing-bone and helical among others.
Gear shaping machines are used to cut the teeth of both internal and external gears. The machine cutting
tool is usually gear shaped and has the same pitch as that of the gear to be cut. For internal gears, the
number of cutting teeth on the gear shaper must be less than that of the gear to be cut. For external gears,
however, the number of cutting teeth on the gear cutter is only limited by the shaping machine’s size.
Gear cutting machines come in a variety of types depending on their cutting speed, indexing motion and
depth of cut. Some of them include ofa-32-cnc-6, ofa-75-cnc-6, ofa-100-cnc-6 and oha-50-cnc for gear
shaping machines.

Source:
Strojimport. (na). Gear cutting machines. Retrieved from
http://www.strojimport.com/products/gear-cutting-machines/

3. Numerical Control of Machine Tools

3.1 Introduction (Economics of CNC, Advantages of CNC, Disadvantages of CNC, NC
Systems Components)

Economics:
The big drawback of NC is its initial cost. NC machines cost from around 1-1.5 times as much as
conventional machines of like size, depending upon the capacity of the control and accessories.
Maintenance of the NC equipment requires a high order of skill and trained personnel, although this is being
alleviated by diagnostic systems and replaceable circuit boards for controls. Programmers are needed for
most NC machines.
NC is not the best method for all jobs; it is the more economical for certain kinds of work and
quantities. In many cases, one or a few simple pieces can be machined by a skilled operator in less time
at a lower cost per hour on general purpose conventional machines than would be required to program and
run the job on an NC machine. On the other hand, with more intricate parts even one piece may be made
more economically by NC. Once the programming has been done, the time is often less per piece on the
NC machine, which is then more economical for more than a few pieces.
As an example, assume that the time to produce a part on an NC machine is 40% of the time
required on a conventional machine; that is a savings of 60% in time. The conventional machine takes 1 hr
to make one part and the NC machine can make one part in 24 minutes or 2.5 parts/hr, an increase in
productivity of 150%. Moreover, NC systems offer savings other than those reflected by reductions in
operating time. Scrap and rework were reportedly reduced over 25%, material handling decreased 20-50%,
and inspection cost reduced by 30-40%. Since operator errors were better controlled by NC, parts were
produced more accurately, and assembly costs were reportedly reduced by 10-20%. An NC machining
center may be able to do in one operation as much as several different conventional machines, thus saving
considerable floor space. Multiple control of machine tools and even remote control for dangerous material
is practical for NC. Tooling in the form of tapes or disks is easily stored and preserved. With NC’s flexibility,
setup cost is often less and smaller lot sizes are economical and, less floor space is needed for materials
in the process and storage.

Advantages:
 Improved flexibility of operation
 Accuracy and repeatability are improved and maintained through a full range of cutting
conditions
 Shorter setup and machining times
 Shorter manufacturing lead times
 Improved productivity and part quality
 Machine adjustments are easier in NC systems using computers and digital readouts

Disadvantages:
 The need for a highly skilled maintenance crew, as special and preventive maintenance
procedures are required
 A relatively high initial investment
 The need for trained NC programmers and the cost of computing time

Components:
 Program or Instructions

The typical desktop program gives the instructions to the computers to perform certain functions.
The program of instructions of the NC machine is the step-by-step set of instructions that tells the
machines what it has to do. These instructions can tell the machine to turn the piece of metal to certain
diameter, drill the hole of certain diameter up to certain length, form certain shape etc. The set of
instructions are coded in numerical or symbolic form and written on certain medium that can be
interpreted by the controller unit of the NC machine. The mediums commonly used earlier for writing the
instructions were punched cards, magnetic tapes and 35mm motion picture film, but now 1 inch wide
punched tape is used more commonly.
The program instructions are written by the expert who has programming knowledge as well the
machining knowledge. The person should know the various steps of the machining required to
manufacture a particular product and should be able to write these steps in the form of the program that
can be understood by the control unit of the NC machine, which would eventually direct the machine tool
to perform the required machining operations.
One can also input the instructions directly into the controller unit manually, this method is called
as manual data input (MDI), which is used for very simple jobs. Then there is direct numerical control
method (DNC) in which the machines are controlled by the computers by direct link omitting the tape
reader.
 Controller Unit or Machine Controller Unit (MCU)
The controller unit is most vital parts part of the NC and CNC machines. The controller unit is made
of the electronics components. It reads and interprets the program of instructions and converts them in the
mechanical actions of the machine tool. Thus the controller unit forms an important link between the
program and the machine tool. The control unit operates the machines as per the set of instructions given
to it. The typical control unit comprises of tape reader, a date buffer, signal output channels to the machine
tools, feedback channel from the machine tool, and the sequence control to coordinate the overall
machining operation.
Initially, the set of instructions from the punched tape are read by the tape reader, which is sort of
the electromechanical devise. The data from the tape is stored into the data buffer in form of logical blocks
of instructions with each block resulting in certain sequence of operations.
The controller sends the instructions to the machine tool via signal output channels that are connected to
the servomotors and other controls of the machines. The feedback channels ensure that the instructions
have been executed by the machine correctly. The sequence control part of the controller unit ensures that
all the operations are executed in the proper sequence.
One important thing to note about the controller unit here is that all the modern NC machines are
equipped with the microcomputer that acts as the controller unit. The program is fed into the computer
directly and the computer controls the working the machine tool. Such machines are called as Computer
Controller Machines (CNC) machines.

 Machine Tool
It is the machine tool that performs the actual machining operations. The machine tool can be any
machine like lathe, drilling machine, milling machine etc. The machine tool is the controlled part of the NC
system. In case of the CNCmachines, the microcomputer operates the machine as per the set of
instructions or the program.
The NC machine also have the control panel or control console that contains the dials and switches using
which the operator runs the NC machine. There are also displays to display information to the user. Most
of the modern NC machines are now called as the CNC machines.

Sources:
Khemani, H. (2009, November 12). Components of the NC system. Retrieved from
http://www.brighthubengineering.com/manufacturing-technology/55676-components-of-the-nc-
system/
Kalpakjian, S., & Schmid, S. R. (2014). Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials–5th
Edition. agenda, 12, 1.

3.2 NC Concepts (Machine Tool Axes, Point Location, Absolute & Incremental Positioning)

Machine Tool Axes

Definition:
In NC machine tool, each axis of motion is equipped with a driving device to replace the
handwheel of the conventional machine tool. A axis of motion is defined as an axis where relative
motion between cutting tool and workpiece occurs. The primary axes of motion are referred to as
the X, Y, and Z axes and form the machine tool XYZ coordinate system Conventionally machine
tools are designated by the number of axes of motion they can provide to control the tool position
and orientation.

2-axis machine tool

If the machine tool can simultaneously control the tool along two axes, it is classified as a 2-axis machine.
The tool will be parallel and independently controlled along third axis. It means that machine tool guided
the cutting tool along a 2-D contour with only independent movement specified along the third axis. The Z-
axis control plane is parallel to the XY plane.

2.5-axis machine tool

In this type of machine tool, the tool can be controlled to follow an inclined Z-axis control plane and it is
termed as 2.5-axis machine tool. The figure above explains the axes system in 2.5-axis machine tool.

3-axis and multiple axis machine tool

In these CNC machine tools, the tool is controlled along the three axes (X, Y, and Z) simultaneously, but
the tool orientation doesn’t change with the tool motion.

If the tool axis orientation varies with the tool motion in 3D, 3-axis machine gets converted into multi-axis
orientation machine (4-, 5-, or 6-axis). The figure below shows the schematic of tool motion in a multi-axis
CNC machine tool.
 Point Location
Instead of plotting theoretical points to represent conceptual ideas, the CNC programmer is going
to be plotting physical end points for axis motions. Each linear axis of the machine tool can be thought of
as like a base line of the graph. Like graph base lines, axes are broken into increments. But instead of
being broken into increments of conceptual ideas like time and productivity, each linear axis of a CNC
machine's rectangular coordinate system is broken into increments of measurement. In the inch mode, the
smallest increment may be 0.0001 inch. In the metric mode, the smallest increment may be 0.001 millimeter.
(By the way, for rotary axis the increment is 0.001
degrees.)
Just like the graph, each axis within the CNC machine's coordinate system must start somewhere.
This place where the vertical and horizontal base lines come together is called the origin point of the graph.
For CNC purposes, this origin point is commonly called the program zero point (also called work zero, part
zero, or program origin).
Prior to writing the program, the programmer determines the position of the program zero point. Typically,
the program zero point is chosen as the point where all dimensions begin. With this technique, if the
programmer wishes the tool to be sent to a position one inch to the right of the program zero point, X1.0 is
commanded. If the programmer wishes the tool to move to a position one inch above the program zero
point, Y1.0 is commanded. The control will automatically determine how many times to rotate each axis
drive motor and ballscrew to make the axis reach the commanded destination point. This lets the
programmer command axis motion in a very logical manner.

Absolute and Incremental Positioning

In the absolute mode, the end points for all motions will be specified from the program zero
point. For beginners, this is usually the best and easiest method of specifying end points for motion
commands. However, there is another way of specifying end points for axis motion.
In the incremental mode, end points for motions are specified from the tool's current position, not
from program zero. With this method of commanding motion, the programmer must always be asking, "How
far should I move the tool?" While there are times when the incremental mode can be very helpful, generally
speaking, this is the more cumbersome and difficult method.
Aside from making it very easy to determine the current position for any command, another benefit
of working in the absolute mode has to do with mistakes made during motion commands. In the absolute
mode, if a motion mistake is made in one command of the program, only one movement will be incorrect.
On the other hand, if a mistake is made during incremental movements, all motions from the point of the
mistake will also be incorrect.

Source:
Lynch, M. (na). Key cnc concept #1- the fundamentals of cnc. Retrieved from
https://www.mmsonline.com/articles/key-cnc-concept-1the-fundamentals-of-cnc

3.3 Movements in CNC Systems

The Three Most Basic Motion Types:

 While your particular CNC machine may have more motion types (depending on your application),
let's concentrate on the three most common types available on almost all forms of CNC equipment. After
briefly introducing each type of motion, we'll show an example program that stresses the use of all three.
These motion types share two things in common. First, they are all modal. This means they remain
in effect until changed. If, for example, several motions of the same kind are to be given consecutively, the
corresponding G code need only be specified in the first command.
Second, the end point of the motion is specified in each motion command. The current position of the
machine will be taken as the starting point.

Rapid Motion (Also Called Positioning)

This motion type is used to command motion at the machine's fastest possible rate. It is used to
minimize non-productive time during the machining cycle. Common uses for rapid motion include
positioning the tool to and from cutting positions, moving to clear clamps and other obstructions, and in
general, any non-cutting motion during the program.
One must check in the machine tool builder's manual to determine a machine's rapid rate. Usually
this rate is extremely fast (some machines boast rapid rates of well over 1000 ipm!), meaning the operator
must be cautious when verifying rapid motion commands. Fortunately, there is a way for the operator to
override the rapid rate during program verification.
The command almost all CNC machines use to initiate rapid motion is G00. Within the G00
command, the end point for the motion is given. Control manufacturers vary with regard to what actually
happens if more than one axis is included in the rapid motion command. With most controls, the machine
will move as fast as possible in all axes commanded. In this case, one axis will probably reach its destination
point before the others. With this kind of rapid command, straight line movement will not occur during rapid
and the programmer must be very careful if there are obstructions to avoid. With other controls, straight line
motion will occur, even during rapid motion commands.

Straight Line Motion

This motion type allows the programmer to command perfectly straight line movements as
discussed earlier during our discussion of linear interpolation. This motion type also allows the programmer
to specify the motion rate (feed rate) to be used during the movement. Straight line motion can be used any
time a straight cutting movement is required, including when drilling, turning a straight diameter, face or
taper, and when milling straight surfaces.
The method by which feed rate is programmed varies from one machine type to the next. Generally
speaking, machining centers only allow the feed rate to be specific in per-minute format (inches or
millimeters per minute). Turning centers also allow feed rate to be specified in per-revolution format (inches
or millimeters per revolution).
A G01 word is commonly used to specify straight line motion. Within the G01, the programmer will
include the desired end point in each axis.

Circular Motion
This motion type causes the machine to make movements in the form of a circular path. As
discussed earlier during our presentation of circular interpolation, this motion type is used to generate radii
during machining. All feed rate related points made during our discussion of straight line motion still apply.
Two G codes are used with circular motion. G02 is commonly used to specify clockwise motion
while G03 is used to specify counter clockwise motion. To evaluate which to use, you simply view the
movement from the same perspective the machine will view the motion. For example, if making a circular
motion in XY on a machining center, simply view the motion from the spindle's vantage point. If making a
circular motion in XZ on a turning center, simply view the motion from above the spindle. In most cases,
this is as simple as viewing the print from above.
Additionally, circular motion requires that, by one means or another, the programmer specify the
radius of the arc to be generated. With newer CNC controls this is handled by an "R" word that simply states
the radius. With older controls, directional vectors (specified by I, J, and K) tell the control the location of
the arc's center point. Since controls vary with regard to how directional vectors are programmed, and since
the R word is becoming more and more popular for radius designation, our examples will show the use of
the R word. If you wish to learn more about directional vectors, refer to your control manufacturer's manual.
Source: Lynch, M. (na). Key cnc concept #3- understanding cnc motion types. Retrieved from
https://www.mmsonline.com/articles/key-cnc-concept-1the-fundamentals-of-cnc

3.4 Control of NC Machine Tools

 Open Loop Control
 Stepper motor system
 Current pulses sent from control unit to motor
Advantages:
 Less complex, Less costly, and lower maintenance costs
Limitations:
 Control unit “assumes” desired position is achieve
 No positioning compensation
 Typically, a lower torque motor

 Closed Loop Control

 Variable DC motors Servos
 Positioning sensors Resolvers: Feedback to control unit ,
position information compared to target location, location errors corrected
Advantages:
 DC motors have the ability to reverse instantly to adjust for
position error
 Error compensation allows for greater positional accuracy (.0001”)
 DC motors have higher torque ranges vs.. stepper motors
Limitation:
 Cost

Source:
Champaneria, S. (2010, February 1). NC Machine. Retrieved from
https://www.slideshare.net/satyenrc/nc-machine

3.5 CNC Machine Tools

The concept of computer numerical control (CNC) incorporates a wide range of machines that
perform various functions. These CNC machines are designed with precisely crafted tools to aid in the
production process. Here is a basic overview of some common tools that are involved in CNC machining:

CNC Cutting Tools

The majority of CNC machines utilize some types of cutting tools. These tools perform precise cuts
on metal, wood, steel, aluminum, and a variety of other materials. Multi-axis cutting tools can move in many
directions, enabling the most precise cuts possible on the materials at-hand. Plasma cutting tools and water
jet cutting tools offer unique ways to cut materials that are different from the traditional sharp-ended cutter.
These tools use plasma and water to cut through a desired material, which can be extremely effective in
certain cases.

CNC Drilling Tools

 Drill bits and other drilling tools allow CNC machines to drill through any type of material that a user
wants to manipulate. Drilling tools can be very high-powered, which allows a machine to drill through most
materials of any size and thickness. For instance, if you’re looking to drill 4 holes in a slab of metal, this can
be done quite easily with CNC drilling tools.

CNC Router Bits

CNC router bits are the cutting implement that are found at the end of a spindle on a CNC router.
CNC router bits have the capability to cut materials like aluminum, brass, copper, and a variety of non-
ferrous metals. They can also cut fiberglass, plastic, PVC, tiles, and wood.

CNC EDM Wires

Some CNC machining processes use electrical discharges to manipulate materials. The desired
shape of a material can be obtained by using electrical discharges – or sparks. Wires within a CNC electrical
discharge machine are designed to produce these sparks. The unnecessary material can be removed from
a work piece using a series of rapid current discharges that occur between two electrodes. These electrodes
are separated by a dielectric liquid, and they endure an electric voltage to obtain the desired effect on the
material at-hand.

The Vast Array of CNC Tools

Thanks to technological advancements, there are so many different kinds of both CNC machines
and, in turn, CNC tools. These tools are made with extreme precision to work at certain angles – and with
specific overall intentions in terms of manipulating a piece of material. With a CNC machine that is equipped
with all the right tools, nearly any kind of production can be performed with the utmost precision because
of the computer programming that is the driving force behind how these tools function.

Source:
ComputerNumericalControl. (na). What types of tools are used in cnc. Retrieved from
http://www.cnc.com/what-types-of-tools-are-used-in-cnc/

3.6 Input Units

The input devices used in the CNC system are (1) Floppy disk Drive, (2) USB flash drive, (3)
Serial communication, (4) Ethernet communication, and (5) Conversational programming.

Floppy disk Drive

It is a small magnet; additionally it acts as a storage device for CNC inputs. In 1970 it provides
most collective storage medium like transferring data, data handling, read and write ability, storage size
etc. For proper programming of the data the floppy disk is easily edited to provide the better result. The
floppy disks are sensitive because of the large magnetic field. On the shop floor scratches and dust
particles are occurred.

USB Flash Drive

USB Flash drive is a hard drive with compact size and having high storage size when compare
with the floppy disk.it is a removable and rewritable hard drive. It is used to transfer the data from one
place to the other place. Data which is stored in the flash drive are resistant to the scratches and the dust
particles. For read and write date in the computer the USB flash drives are used for support. We can
observe the USB flash drives in the computer numerical control unit.

Serial Communication
With the help of the serial communication port an individual can transfer the data from the
computer system to, the computer numerical control machine tool. We can understand the international
standards in the serial communications, and the information can be exchanged in order wise. The
common interface used between the computer and the computer numerical control is ELA standards RS-
232. But when coming to the natural ones like personal computer, plus the computer numerical control is
RS 232 port and for the connection of the cable standard type of the cable, must be preferred for the
connection of the computer and the computer numerical machine. The data transfer is considered to be
done in an undependable manner. The part program must be downloaded and temporarily uploaded in
the computer storage system.

Ethernet Communication
With the help of the Ethernet connection we can transfer the part program from computer to the
computer numerical control machine. In the storage and transmission of the part programming, the media
depends more on the Ethernet communication, to make it capable for transmission of data. For the direct
communication with the LAN the machine tools provides an Ethernet card option.

Conversational Programming
With the help of the keyboard the input part program must be controlled. In the system there is an
option of in built software to permit the operator to enter the data step by step.

Source:
MechGrid. 2018. Computer numerical control. Retrieved from
http://www.mechgrid.com/computer-numerical-control.html

3.7 Program Format

The Four Kinds Of Program Format:
For machines that have the ability to perform operations with several tools, there are four kinds of
program format: program startup format, tool ending format, tool startup format, and program ending format.
The programmer will begin every program with program startup format. Then come the cutting operations
with the first tool. When finished cutting, the programmer will follow the format to end the tool (tool ending
format), then the tool startup format to begin the second tool. The programmer will then toggle among
cutting information, tool ending format and tool startup format until finished cutting with the last tool. At this
point, the programmer will follow the format to end the program.
For an example of the four kinds of program format, refer to the program given during our discussion of tool
length compensation. This program uses two tools and follows the strict format we are now discussing.
Let's determine what commands are related to each kind of format.
The first four commands (beginning with the program number) make up the program startup format.
At the completion of line N015, the tool is ready to begin machining. Lines N020 and N025 make up the
cutting commands for the first tool. (In line N030, the feed rate should be considered part of program startup
format.) Lines N030 and N035 form the tool ending format. Lines N040 through N055 are tool startup format.
(In line N060, the feed rate should be considered part of tool startup format.) Lines N060 and N065 are the
cutting commands for the second tool. And lines N070 and N075 are program ending format. Note that
there are only four commands that do any cutting in this program. The bulk of the program is just format.
By breaking up the program in this manner, you can see just how much of it is nothing more than
standard format that can be copied from one program to another. Of course, certain word values like spindle
speeds, feed rates, axis positions, and tool station and offset numbers will change with each program. But
the basic structure can be copied, keeping you from leaving out important information.

Source:
Lynch, M. (na). Key cnc concept #5- the importance of program formatting. Retrieved from
https://www.mmsonline.com/articles/key-cnc-concept-5the-importance-of-program-formatting

3.8 Features of CNC Systems

Non Stop
One of the leading reasons for the rise in demand of CNC machining in Perth and other parts of
Western Australia is because of its ability to provide services 24 hours a day without fail. At its fullest, the
CNC machines can be made to work for the whole year round with only a few stops for machine
maintenance in between.

Continuity
One of the most important features of CNC machining is their ability to have design patterns
programmed. This allows continuity in the CNC machining in Perth with the machine being able to produce
hundreds and thousands of the same designs over and over again. This can also be aided by the ability of
the machines to be updated. High quality CNC machining in Perth will allow the users to be able to get
identical products each time.

High Quality
CNC machines have become popular amongst a large number of people, with people wanting high
quality work increasingly turning to CNC machining services. CNC machining is one of the safest and most
high quality services available in the machining industry. CNC machining uses up-to-date machines and
top-of-the-line software technology which allows it to maintain a high level of quality in its work production.
The use of machining is usually done in places where quality and time are important factors. The
commitment of the CNC machining to fast and high quality services has aided the services in their rise.

Professional
A large number of customers are now using professional firms to make sure that their CNC
machining is done properly. This is important since any variation in machining can leave a product less
effective for use and in extreme cases even worthless. Keeping this is mind, employing a professional CNC
machining service will allow the company to ascertain a desirable level of quality and cost. While you may
have to pay a little extra for professional CNC machining, the quality makes it worth the price.

Source:
WebEngineer. (2016, February 26). Important CNC machining features. Retrieved from
http://futureeng.com.au/cnc-machining-perth/important-cnc-machining-features/

3.9 Part Programming (Manual Part Programming & Computer Assisted Part
Programming)

a. Manual Part Programming

The processing instructions are documented on a form called a part program manuscript.
The manuscript is a listing of the positions of the tool relative to the workpiece that the machine
must follow in order to perform the processing. The listing may also include other commands
such as speeds, feeds, tooling, and so on. A punched tape is then prepared directly from the
manuscript.
 b. Computer Assisted Programming
The programmer prepares the set of processing instructions in a high-level computer
language. For complex jobs, this computer language is much easier to use than the lower-level
coding required in manual part programming. The high-level language commands are interpreted
by the computer, and the required calculations and data processing are accomplished to prepare
the NC program for the tape reader (or other input device).

Source:
Das, V. (2017, February 12). NC part programming. Retrieved from
https://www.slideshare.net/VemulapalliDas/nc-part-programming