W A T E R A C O U S T I C S,
SONAR ENGINEERING AND
SIGNAL THEORY
INSTITUTE OF
W A T E R A C O U S T I C S,
SONAR ENGINEERING AND
SIGNAL THEORY
INSTITUTE OF
W A T E R A C O U S T I C S,
SONAR ENGINEERING AND
SIGNAL THEORY
INSTITUTE OF
W A T E R A C O U S T I C S,
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SIGNAL THEORY
Assignment 1:
Develop a Matlab program for determining the function
c 1449.2 4.6 T 0.055 T 2 0.00029 T 3
(1.34 0.01T )( S 35) 0.016 z.
Furthermore, to investigate the dependence of c on T, S and z
visualize c versus z for various sets of T and S, i.e.
T = 5 °C : 5 °C : 30 °C and S = 10 ppt : 5 ppt : 35 ppt,
in appropriate diagrams and discuss the results obtained.
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The USC of the second kind extends from the bottom depth
z = h up to the depth z = zc, where the sound speed equals ch.
USC’s of the first kind, i.e. c0 < ch, occur in deep water areas,
whereas USC’s of the second kind, i.e. c0 > ch, are more likely
in regions of shallower water.
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where A1, A2,… and B1, B2,… indicate the shadow zones.
b
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Remark:
For a point source in a homogeneous waveguide one observes
– spherical spreading in the near field, i.e. r d
– cylindrical spreading at long range, i.e. r >> d
– transition region from spherical towards cylindrical spreading in-between
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Remark:
It is not possible to distinguish between absorption and scattering effects
in real ocean experiments. Both phenomena contribute simultaneously to
the sound attenuation in sea water.
Schulkin and Marsh formula (valid for 3 kHz < f < 0.5 MHz)
S A fT f 2 Bf 2
w 8.686 10 2 3
(1 6.54 10 4 P) [dB/km]
fT f
2
fT
where
A 2.34 10 6 , B 3.38 10 6 , S in [ppt], f in [kHz],
the relaxation frequency
f T 21.9 10 6 1520 / (T 273 ) with T in [C] for 0 T 30 C
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Francois and Garrison Formula (valid for 100 Hz < f < 1 MHz)
A1 P1 f1 f 2 A2 P2 f 2 f 2
w 2 A3 P3 f 2 [dB/km]
f1 f 2
f2 f
2 2
pure water
B(OH)3 MgSO 4 viscosity
boric acid magnesium sulphate
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4
Thorp
10 Schulkin-Marsh
Francois-Garrison
2
10
Attenuation [dB/km]
0
10
-2
10
-4
10 2 3 4 5 6 7
10 10 10 10 10 10
Frequency [Hz]
2
10
Attenuation [dB/km]
0
10
-2
10
-4
10
-6
10 2 3 4 5 6 7
10 10 10 10 10 10
Frequency [Hz]
INSTITUTE OF
W A T E R A C O U S T I C S,
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Assignment 2:
Develop a Matlab program that calculates the sound
attenuation in seawater by means of the
– Thorp formula
– Schulkin & Marsh formula
– Francois & Garrison formula.
Display and compare the results of the three approaches.
For the Francois and Garrison formula
– investigate the dependence on the frequency f, salinity S and
temperature T for a depth of z = 50 m
– depict the attenuation versus frequency for a particular S, T
and z and specify the frequency regions where the different
attenuation processes dominate.
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Medium 1
1 1
1, c1
Medium 2 2 x
2, c2
transmitted wave
z
Chapter 1 / Fundamentals of Ocean Acoustics / Prof. Dr.-Ing. Dieter Kraus 30
INSTITUTE OF
W A T E R A C O U S T I C S,
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W A T E R A C O U S T I C S,
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Remarks:
Features of the reflection and transmission coefficient
a) If 1 tends to /2 then R and T tend independently of the
parameters of the media to 1 and 0, respectively.
b) At the angle of incidence 1 that satisfies
m2 n2
sin 1 , i.e. R 0
m2 1
the boundary will be completely transparent.
c) For sin 1 > n and n cos 2 j sin 21 n 2 the reflec-
tion coefficient can be expressed by
m cos 1 j sin 21 n 2 finiteness of refracted wave re-
R quires negative sign of the root
m cos 1 j sin 21 n 2
Chapter 1 / Fundamentals of Ocean Acoustics / Prof. Dr.-Ing. Dieter Kraus 34
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respectively.
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Si S r
1 1
Medium 1
1, c1 St
Medium 2 2 x
2, c2
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pt T A exp 0, k2, I r exp j t k1 sin 1 , k2,R r
T A exp k TA r exp j t k Tp r ,
where
k P sin 2,P , cos 2,P
T T
k P k1 sin 1 , k2,R
0, k k A sin 2, A ,cos 2, A
T T
kA 2, I
with
2
k P ( k1 sin 1 ) ( k2,R ) 2 k1 sin 21 Re
2
n sin 1
2 2
and
k A k2, I k1 Im n 2 sin 21 .
Chapter 1 / Fundamentals of Ocean Acoustics / Prof. Dr.-Ing. Dieter Kraus 43
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2,P
angle of
sediment refraction
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where
p( ) 2 k cos
denotes the so-called Rayleigh parameter,
2 c
k with
f
the wavenumber, the RMS (root mean square) roughness
and the angle of incidence.
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PN 0.341 10 5 v w5 (Pierson-Neumann),
where vw denotes the wind speed in [kn] (1 kn = 0.514 m/s).
The RMS roughness σ of an ocean seafloor is related to the
mean grain size of the sediment. The following table provides
the values of mean grain size and the RMS roughness for
various sediment types.
Chapter 1 / Fundamentals of Ocean Acoustics / Prof. Dr.-Ing. Dieter Kraus 48
INSTITUTE OF
W A T E R A C O U S T I C S,
SONAR ENGINEERING AND
SIGNAL THEORY
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Target
Back scattering from ocean bottom
Surface Backscattering
Because of its roughness and the occurrence of air bubbles
beneath it, the sea surface is a significant scatterer of sound.
Experiments indicate that the backscattering strength of the
sea surface varies with the
– grazing angle ( = / 2 with = angle of incidence),
– sound frequency and
– wind speed induced roughness,
Chapter 1 / Fundamentals of Ocean Acoustics / Prof. Dr.-Ing. Dieter Kraus 51
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vW 1
where SS represents the surface backscattering coefficient
in [dB/m2]. The parameters f, vw and denote the sound
frequency in kHz, the wind speed in knots and the grazing
angle, respectively.
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0 f = 50 kHz 0
f =100 kHz
-10 -10
f = 200 kHz
-20 f = 400 kHz -20
-30 -30
-40 -40 f = 50 kHz
f =100 kHz
-50 -50
f = 200 kHz
-60 -60 f = 400 kHz
-70 -70
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
grazing angle [deg] grazing angle [deg]
0 0
-10 -10
-20 -20
-30 -30
-40 f = 50 kHz -40 f = 50 kHz
f =100 kHz f =100 kHz
-50 -50
f = 200 kHz f = 200 kHz
-60 f = 400 kHz -60 f = 400 kHz
-70 -70
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
grazing angle [deg] grazing angle [deg]
Bottom Backscattering
The bottom acts, like the sea surface, due to its roughness as
an reflector and scatterer of sound, cf. figure on p. 46.
In section 1.4.3 the specular direction has been considered as
part of the sound propagation via the forward reflection loss.
Now, we are going to model the backscattering behavior of the
seabed. Experimental investigations have shown that the
backscattering strength of the bottom varies with the
– grazing angle ( = / 2 with = angle of incidence),
– sound frequency and
– bottom type induced roughness.
Furthermore, it could be observed that a Lambert’s law rela-
tionship between the backscattering strength and the grazing
angle fits to many experimental data satisfactorily accurate for
angles below 60°.
Chapter 1 / Fundamentals of Ocean Acoustics / Prof. Dr.-Ing. Dieter Kraus 55
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and
50
1 125 exp 2.64 (bt 1.75) 2 cot 2 ( ) ,
bt
Chapter 1 / Fundamentals of Ocean Acoustics / Prof. Dr.-Ing. Dieter Kraus 57
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0 0
-30 -30
-40 -40
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
grazing angle [deg] grazing angle [deg]
0 0
bottom reverberation [dB/m2]
-20 -20
bt = 1 bt = 1
-30 bt = 2 -30 bt = 2
bt = 3 bt = 3
-40 bt = 4 -40 bt = 4
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
grazing angle [deg] grazing angle [deg]
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0 0
bottom reverberation [dB/m2]
f = 50 kHz f = 50 kHz
f =100 kHz f =100 kHz
-10 f = 200 kHz -10 f = 200 kHz
f = 400 kHz f = 400 kHz
-20 -20
-30 -30
-40 -40
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
grazing angle [deg] grazing angle [deg]
0 0
bottom reverberation [dB/m2]
-10 -10
-20 -20
f = 50 kHz f = 50 kHz
-30 f =100 kHz -30 f =100 kHz
f = 200 kHz f = 200 kHz
-40 f = 400 kHz -40 f = 400 kHz
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
grazing angle [deg] grazing angle [deg]
Volume Backscattering
In section 1.3.2 we considered the frequency dependence of
the sound attenuation which is partly caused by scattering in
the water volume.
This also produces a backscattered sound field. However
most volume reverberation is thought to arise from biological
organisms and turbidity. The volume reverberation can be
modeled by the so-called volume reverberation coefficient.
SV Sp 7 log10 f ,
where f and Sp indicate the frequency in kHz and the
particle contribution in [dB/m3]. The particle contribution
parameter Sp is defined as follows
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W A T E R A C O U S T I C S,
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Sp 50 dB High
Sp 70 dB Moderate Particle density
Sp 90 dB Low
Assignment 3:
Develop a Matlab program for computing the surface, bottom
and volume reverberation coefficient.
Plot the coefficients SS and SB versus the grazing angle for
various sets of (f, vw) and (f, bt), respectively.
Plot the volume reverberation versus frequency for high,
moderate and low particle densities.
Explain the results.
Chapter 1 / Fundamentals of Ocean Acoustics / Prof. Dr.-Ing. Dieter Kraus 62
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W A T E R A C O U S T I C S,
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SIGNAL THEORY
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90
Level [dB]
90
Level [dB]
80 80
70 70
60 60
50 50
40 40
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
Frequency [KHz] Frequency [KHz]
Level [dB]
80 80
70
60
60
50
40
40
30 20
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
Frequency [KHz] Frequency [KHz]
Level [dB]
Level [dB]
80 80
70 70
60 60
50 50
40 40
30 30
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
Frequency [KHz] Frequency [KHz]
Level [dB]
Level [dB]
80 80
60 60
40 40
20 20
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
Frequency [KHz] Frequency [KHz]
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Assignment 4:
Develop a Matlab program for calculating the isotropic
ambient noise level. Plot the ambient noise level versus
frequency for wind speeds of 5:5:30 kn and where NLvessel,
NLrain and NLbio are set to –999 dB. Indicate the frequency
domains where either NLtraffic, NLturb, NLss or NLthermal
dominate.
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RS B S B ( f , bt , ) 10 log10 ( AB ),
where AB denotes the insonified bottom area.
c
AB 2 h R
2 cos
2 v with R (r r0 ) 2 ( z z0 ) 2
c
2 h
R c 2
AB
c (2 cos )
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2 v
c 2
R
2 h
V
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10 log10 100.1SL 10
0.1BPT , E
10
0.1BPR , E
100.2TLE 100.1TS
SL BPT ,E BPR ,E 2TLE TS
Chapter 1 / Fundamentals of Ocean Acoustics / Prof. Dr.-Ing. Dieter Kraus 78
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Assignment 5:
Develop a Matlab program for determining the SN(r,z) and
carry out calculations for the following parameters.
z / r: up to 50 m / 600 m bt: mud, sand, gravel vw: 5, 15, 25 knots
S: 33 ppt T: 15˚ c: 1480 m/s
SL: 220 dB re1µPa@1m f: 100 kHz τ: 100 µs
B: 10 kHz BPT: 0 dB (90˚) BPR: 0 dB (90˚)
DI: 30 dB 2h,R: 0.5˚ 2h,T: 90˚
2v,R: 180˚ 2v,T: 180˚ rs : 0m
zs : 5m
TS: 15 dB
Literature
[1] Brekhovskikh, L.M.; Lysanov, Y.P.: Fundamentals of Ocean
Acoustics, Springer, 2003
[2] Etter, P.C.: Underwater Acoustic Modeling, Spon Press, 2003
[3] Jensen, F.B: Computational Ocean Acoustics, Springer, 2000
[4] Lurton, X.: An Introduction to Underwater Acoustics, Springer, 2004
[5] Medwin, H.;Clay C.S: Acoustical Oceanography, Academic Press,
1998
[6] Tolstoy, I.; Clay C.S: Ocean Acoustics, AIP-Press, 1987