Stone Masonry (Training Element and Technical Guide For SPWP Workers Booklet 3)

United Nations International Labour
Development Programme Organisation
LABOUR-INTENSIVE SPECIAL PUBLIC WORKS PROGRAMMES
Training element and technical guide

for SPWP workers
Booklet No. 2
STONE MASONRY
RECEIVED
1 0 FEV. 1992
International
Labour Office
I L O BIBL B I T
38815
International Labour Office, Geneva

Copyright © International Labour Organisation 1991
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22, Switzerland. The International Labour Office welcomes such applications.
ISBN 92-2-106465-4
Price: 15.-Swiss Francs.
First published 1991
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Layout, Illustrations and printing: International Training Centre of the ILO, Turin, Italy
SPWP TRAINING ELEMENT Booklet Page
STONE MASONRY
THEMES COVERED IN THE TRAINING ELEMENT

Notes on organising and carrying out training in stone masonry
I. Introduction
1. Necessity for training 3

2. Who, in the project, needs training? 4
3. For what jobs does training need to be given? 5
II. How will training be carried out?
1. Suggested training programme 7

2. Training materials 10
3. General advice to trainers on carrying out training 11
4. Evaluating your training course 13
STONE MASONRY
STONE MASONRY
1. Masonry
1.1 Definition 14
T)
1.2 The purpose of masonry 15
1.3 Stone masonry 17
2. Selection of materials
2.1 Stones 21
2.2 Sand 25
2.3 Binding agents 32
2.4 Water 35
3. Selection and care of tools
3.1 Types of tools required for masonry 36

3.2 Stone-working tools 37
3.3 Masonry tools 40
3.4 Care of the tools 44
4. Preparation and execution of the work
4.1 Organisation of the building site 48

4.2 Preparation of the mortar 50
4.3 Foundations 64
4.4 Wall construction 68
4.5 A few rules of masonry 74
5. Upkeep of masonry
5.1 Before the rainy season 82

5.2 After the rainy season 83
STONE MASONRY
NOTES ON ORGANISING AND CARRYING OUT

TRAINING IN STONE MASONRY
I. INTRODUCTION
This booklet is concerned with the design, construction and maintenance of ma-
sonry^. The booklet can be used in many ways: as a simple reference manual or field guide
for technical personnel or as a training booklet to be used as part of a training course. This
section is intended to advise a trainer on how to use the booklet during such a training course.
The tasks involved in design, construction and maintenance are, of course, quite
different and they will be carried out by different categories of workers. Chapters 1, 2 and 3
fall under the broad heading of design while Chapters 4 and 5 treat the more operational
aspects of construction and maintenance.
The booklet need not, and indeed usually should not, be taught cover to cover. Rather,
training sessions should be tailor-made for the particular training needs faced by your
programme. Therefore, before beginning any training programme using this booklet, you
should first of all - as a trainer - ask yourself three simple questions:
1. Why is training in stone masonry necessary?
2. Who, in the project, needs training?
3. For what jobs does training need to be given?
1. Necessity for training
Carrying out training takes up valuable time, and costs the project money. Before
undertaking training you should first make sure that it is necessary. Training should be carried
out in response to a particular problem faced by your project. The "problem" may simply be
the fact that project personnel have never before been involved in stone masonry - and that
training is required to acquaint them with this new and unfamiliar activity.
"Problems" may also be encountered once a project is already underway. They can take
many forms. For example, cracks may appear in walls and joints and need to be repaired; or
workers may be unable to dress the stones properly or may damage the equipment.
W 777/s booklet focuses mainly on the masonry used for small village structures such as cattle troughs,
public water points, stone walls, small buildings and structures for soil and water conservation which lend
themselves to labour-intensive methods of construction. Furthermore, the collection and dressing of stones for
such structures adapt well to labour-based methods.
STONE MASONRY
Whatever the problem you are facing, you should always keep in mind that correcting
this problem is the goal of your training. You should train personnel in order to solve a problem.
You should not waste your time in carrying out training for training's sake.
This booklet therefore needs to be adapted to fit those training needs you yourself have
found in your project. Feel free to leave out those sections which do not apply to your particular
situation, and include new material which is not contained in this booklet that may be required
for your particular training needs.
2. Who, in the project, needs training?
This booklet can be adapted to fit different categories of trainees, each one concerned
with a particular aspect of stone masonry. Before embarking on training, you should have a
clear view of who you are going to train. This means knowing not only what particular jobs
and tasks your personnel will be required to carry out, but also discovering what they already
know, including their knowledge of basic skills and type of work experience.
Generally speaking, the booklet can be adapted for use with either site engineers or site
foremen, as well as with various categories of intermediate technical personnel.
For project engineers, emphasis will usually be placed on the selection of materials;
site selection; the dimensions of the structure and supervision of the works.(1) However,
engineers should also have a thorough understanding of the various tasks involved in
masonry since they will be required to train their site personnel accordingly.
Worksite foremen will be primarily concerned with the items covered in Chapter 4, on
preparation and execution of the work. Even if they will not be designing masonry structures,
Chapter 2 on the choice of materials and location of construction materials, and the part of
Chapter 4 covering foundations will also be useful to them. Although it may be helpful for site
foremen to understand on what basis a site was selected and how a structure was designed,
clearly this should be left to personnel with appropriate prior qualifications. The training for
site foremen, therefore, should omit altogether those sections of the booklet which are not
appropriate for this category of project personnel.
Finally, training carried out with the aid of this booklet will, it is hoped, benefit skilled and
unskilled workers who are the key target groups in most labour-intensive infrastructure
programmes. While the booklet is not designed for the direct training of these groups, trainers
should encourage site foremen to pass on their acquired skills and thereby create a greater
awareness among the local community particularly concerning maintenance and utilisation
of masonry structures.
(1) Selection of materials and precise calculations should not be undertaken by beginners. In most cases,
specialist advice is required. This booklet covers those key issues most likely to arise in a labour-based works
programme. The information contained herein is not sufficient for complete training of project engineers.
STONE MASONRY
3. For what jobs does training need to be given?
Once you have clearly identified your programme's training needs, and the category
and level of personnel to be trained, you should determine the specific tasks which will have
to be carried out by the trainees in your particular project.
Certain sections of this booklet not directly concerned with planned activities may
nevertheless be included in your training programme in order to create a greater awareness
and job satisfaction for your personnel. However, your training should be planned around the
required jobs - both in the interest of saving time and resources, and in order to make sure
that new skills learnt as a result of training will be put to immediate use.
The various tasks set out in this booklet, particularly those involved in masonry, are
those most commonly encountered in simple local-level infrastructure schemes. However,
as a trainer you will need to adapt the booklet to fit those specific tasks to be undertaken in
your project. Remember, your role is not to lecture trainees on the principles of masonry.
Rather you are training technical personnel to get a particular job done - and to do so, you
need to study that job carefully and design your training accordingly.
STONE MASONRY
II. HOW WILL TRAINING BE CARRIED OUT?
Once you have decided who you are going to train, and what you are going to train
them to do, you should begin planning your training sessions.
These sessions can be carried out in a classroom or nearby community centre, or even
in a calm, shaded spot outdoors close to the project worksite.
Below we propose a plan for a five-day training course covering all tasks presented in
this booklet. You should modify this schedule to fit your training needs and the category of
personnel you are training. In all likelihood, your training needs will require that more time be
given to each training subject - and that the contents of this booklet be divided into several
training courses interspersed with periods of on-the-job training.
Training sessions should include field visits and numerous practical exercises. The
exercises provide the bridge between "classroom" training sessions and the job your
personnel is being trained to do.
The trainee should visit at least two building sites, one new site and one under
construction. If time permits, several sites presenting different characteristics should be
included in the training programme. Visits to stone and sand quarries, and lime pits could
also be organised.
SPWP TRAINING ELEMENT Booklet Page ,
STONE MASONRY
1. SUGGESTED TRAINING PROGRAMME
1st day Subject: Description of masonry and the way in which stones
are collected and prepared (Chapters 1 and 2.1)
Objective: At the end of this session, the trainee should be able to:
• explain the usefulness of masonry for village development
• identify and describe different types of stone laying and their
advantages
• list the materials used in stone masonry
• describe how stones are collected
• identify a stone suitable for use in masonry.
Schedule: Morning: Training session: presentation and discussion

Afternoon: Visit masonry constructions and a stone quarry.
2nd day Subject: Description of the substances used in making mortar

(Chapters 2.2, 2.3 and 2.4)
Introduction to the necessary tools and their maintenance

(Chapter 3)
Objectives: At the end of this session, the trainee should be able to:
• assess the quality of sand
• sift, measure out and wash sand
• describe the role and uses of lime and cement
• recognise water suitable for use in construction
• classify tools according to their use in masonry
• maintain and properly store tools.
Schedule: Morning: Training session: presentation and discussion
Afternoon: Visit to a sand quarry, a lime kiln or a builder's yard.
STONE MASONRY 8
3rd day Subject: Execution of the work (Chapter 4)
Site organisation and the preparation of mortar

(Chapters 4.1 and 4.2).
• describe the organisation of a work site
• gauge the quantities of inputs required for a given amount
of mortar
• select the composition of a mortar according to its end use
• calculate the cost of a quantity of mortar
• compare the advantages of lime mortar; cement mortar
and hybrid mortar
• prepare a batch of mortar and check its plasticity.
Schedule: Morning Indoor lessons with practical exercises

and (to be prepared in advance by trainer) on sifting and
Afternoon: washing of sand; gauging and mixing of at least two
types of mortar; stone dressing; and cleaning and
storage of tools.
4th day Subject: Foundations and wall construction (Chapters 4.3 and 4.4)
Rules of masonry (Chapter 4.5)
• mark out and excavate foundations
• choose a type of foundation suited to the structure
• lay stones with or without courses
• repoint stone work
• protect masonry during the hardening of the mortar
• detect errors in the work
Schedule: Morning: Lesson in the field (marking out and stone laying)
Afternoon: Visit a site to observe the way in which it

is organised, types of tools used, preparing and
laying stones.
STONE MASONRY
5th day Subject: Maintenance of masonry and revision of masonry terms

(Chapter 5 and throughout the manual)
• inspect and repair masonry damaged during the rainy season
• correctly identify tools; material;
construction details; and work stages.
Schedule: Morning Visit work sites and evaluate the work

Visit and identify damaged masonry structures.
Afternoon: Training session: presentation and discussion.
Final evaluation of training programme.
For trainees to demonstrate their ability to carry out any or all of these operations
satisfactorily would require considerably more time than that available in a single-day
session. However, the training programme should be modified, if necessary, to
include sessions where the trainees actually carry out the operations described in
this booklet. If the training is oriented towards worksite foremen, the course should
concentrate almost exclusively on practical exercises.
STONE MASONRY 10
2. TRAINING MATERIALS
Before starting the course, the trainer must collect the following material:
1. For writing and drawing:
a blackboard
board dusters, coloured chalk
flipcharts and easel, if available
felt pens or crayons
this training booklet and a training session notebook for noting information
and decisions
2. Samples of material:
• samples of stones, sand, cement, lime

• a clean board and a cloth
• glass jars and a graduated measuring jar, if possible
3. Stone masonry tools:
• tools in good condition in or next to the tool box

• broken or damaged tools and the items needed to repair them.
• The prices of the tools and materials and the cost of transport in the region should
be obtained before the start of the course.
STONE MASONRY 11
3. GENERAL ADVICE TO TRAINERS ON CARRYING OUT TRAINING
A. ENCOURAGE ACTIVE PARTICIPATION BY TRAINEES: DON'T LECTURE
There is sometimes a tendency in training courses for the trainer to act like a teacher
in school, and to read or lecture from training booklets. This tendency should be avoided.
Trainees will remember information better if they participate actively in discussion and if there
is a free exchange of views and of questions between everyone involved in the training
course.
B. GUIDE THE DISCUSSION
There are times during a discussion when everyone wants to speak at the same time.
Should this situation arise, the trainer must insist that the group listen to one person at a time.
If one speaker holds the floor for too long, the trainer should interrupt him or her, reminding
the trainee that other people would also like to speak.
C. LISTEN ATTENTIVELY
Equal attention should be paid to each speaker. You should listen attentively and let the
trainee understand that his/her ideas and opinions are both interesting and important. It is
sometimes useful to take a brief note of participants' suggestions while they are speaking,
jotting them down on a flipchart or blackboard. A summary of these notes may prove useful
for later discussions.
D. EMPHASISE THE MOST IMPORTANT POINTS
Each time a participant makes an important point or expresses an interesting opinion,

the trainer should draw the group's attention to it by repeating the idea in simple terms which
will be understood by the majority of the trainees.
E. PREPARE THE SESSIONS
When trainees only listen to a description of how a particular job has to be done, they
are apt to forget what they have heard. If, however, they actually carry out the task concerned,
they will remember how to do it.
For this reason, every effort should be made to include as many practical exercises and
demonstrations as possible, whether they are carried out on the worksite or in the training
room. Practical sessions should always be carefully planned in advance.
STONE MASONRY 12
F. RECAP
A discussion is more than just a conversation. A subject is discussed keeping an aim

in mind. It may occasionally be worthwhile to recap the topic being considered, recalling the
aim of the discussion. This can be done by intervening from timeto time and giving a brief
summary of the main points dealt with up till then.
G. QUESTION
An important role of the trainer is to ensure that the atmosphere during training is
sufficiently relaxed to allow participants to speak freely.
Questions set by the trainer should not be regarded as tests by the trainees. Often there
will be no strictly "right or wrong" answer to a question. Questions should simply give trainees
the opportunity to put forward their individual points of view.
STONE MASONRY 13
4. EVALUATING YOUR TRAINING COURSE
Make sure that trainees have really learned how to carry out the jobs you are training
them for. For this reason, you should frequently evaluate how effective training has been.
This evaluation can be done in different ways.
• Sometimes, you may simply ask questions in order to be sure the presentation has
been understood. The trainer should prepare additional questions drawn from the
trainees' own experience and your particular project.
• The best way to evaluate training is by asking trainees to carry out a particular task.
Such a task could be marking out, measuring out the constituents of a mortar, or
cutting the stones for a given structure.
• Explanations with demonstrations, and the use of a limited vocabulary restricted to

masonry, will help the trainees to learn more quickly.
• Remember, the real test of whether your training course has been worthwhile or not
is the trainees' ability to do their job at the end of the course - not their ability to recite
an answer to any particular question.
• Evaluation should be carried out frequently, during as well as at the end of each
training session. In this way, you will avoid beginning a new subject before trainees
have learned the material already presented. Be sure all of your trainees are "with
you" before beginning a new subject.
• In evaluating your training, you should refer to the objectives of each session. You
may use the objectives outlined in the suggested Training Programme above (see
11.1) - or you may draw up your own training objectives. A training objective is the
job that trainees should be capable of doing as a result of following a training session.
STONE MASONRY 14
MASONRY
1.1 Definition
Masonry is the term used to cover all MASONRY BLOCKS

construction work involving the laying of:
• bricks,
• cement blocks, Bricks
• or rough or dressed stone.
These are joined together using mor-

tar.
This booklet is concerned with the last,

namely stone masonry, although many of
the skills presented also apply to masonry
using bricks or cement blocks.
Masonry using rough or dressed stone

is generally more resistant to rain and to Cement blocks
loads than other types of masonry.
Rough or dressed stone
Ask trainees to list the masonry materials used in their villages
Distinguish between:
— local materials, including traditionally-collected materials or village products

(sand, earth, lime, clay bricks, stone...)
— imported materials from the town (cement, lime, clay bricks...).
STONE MASONRY 15
1.2 The purpose of masonry

USES OF MASONRY
Buildings
In villages and towns, many construc-
tions are built in masonry. These include:
a) buildings
• house foundations
• walls of houses and other buildings

h=nq Foundations E
• arched roofs or other curved struc-
tures.
Arches
Silos
Small structures
b) small structures
• cattle troughs
• water points
• silos
Water point Cattle troughs
• well headwall and apron.
Well headwall and apron
Ask the participants to draw up a list of all the masonry constructions which exist in
their villages (distinguish between structures made of wood, packed earth, and
concrete).
• Point out that these structures help improve the standard of living in a village.
STONE MASONRY 16
c) earth retaining structures

USES OF MASONRY
• retaining walls and stone facing Earth retaining structures

(protection of embankments)
• small sanitation and drainage

structures, e.g. drains around
buildings, culverts, drainage dit- Stone facing
ches alongside roads
• protection of irrigation canals

(lining)
• protection of river banks against

erosion due to the current
• small dams, spillways, weirs or

water intake structures.
Retaining or
supporting wall
Culvert River or dam embankment
O. . -oO.
STONE MASONRY 17
1.3 Stone masonry
Many different types and colours of stones can be used in masonry. Stone is a good
construction material because it is solid and durable, and usually readily available.
Stone masonry can be assembled in different ways: dry (without mortar); or with mortar,
either using different sizes and types of rock or using cut pieces and laying them in regular
lines.
Dry masonry
For simple structures bearing little load, the stones can be laid without using mortar: for
example boundary walls; small retaining walls; slope protection.
Stones with a regular shape should be selected. They are wedged tightly together with
stone chips in order to reduce the amount of space between the stones.
This solution is economic but requires a lot of skill.
DRY MASONRY
Stone chip/
Spall
Stone
• Ask for the dates of construction of stone masonry in the region. Draw attention to
their resistance.
• Compare the qualities of different stones from the region.
Complementary information
A masonry wall is also known as a drystone wall. The type of stones best suited to dry
masonry are limestone and shale.
STONE MASONRY 18
Masonry using mortar
Mortar is used to bind stones together and to increase the masonry's resistance. Mortar
is a mixture of cement, sand and water. It can also simply be a mixture of earth, lime and
water. The cost of the masonry varies according to the composition of the mortar.
Stone laying
• Irregular or random laying allows

the use of blocks of all sizes. The
joints are large and irregular.
• Laying in courses means the

stones have to be cut so that they
can be placed beside each other to
form a horizontal line.
STONE LAYING
1 course
'J
y:..
):CZ3
1. Irregular or random laying 2. Laying in courses
Laying stones in courses is more expensive than irregular laying because:
• stone dressing is time-consuming;
• a lot of stone is wasted;
• stone laying takes more time.
However, much less mortar is used, and the joints are small and regular.
STONE MASONRY 19
DIFFERENT TYPES OF
LAYING IN COURSES
Laying of round stones

(pebbles from the river or the sea)
Decorative laying.
Laying in non-aligned courses

(stones roughly cut).
*-"••'•TJji"-^-t• j—"Tj•"•'•" TJ*•'••-
Laying in regular courses

(stones semi-dressed).
Laying of dressed stones

(sones of the same dimensions). Vi n
*-/..>•:•;::;•.•.*,•••:-.-.•;• : v ' - : . ' . . •
M
1 1 1 1
1 1\rll: :t.:<r. ;\-W: :•:<.•::• ^•.'v'.ft.:'
:
\
:"-V.vV :•• •'•'•!•
.-.;•
1•••••'" : " f i 4 ' ii iiii
* i p—
r-
• Compare the sketches with the types of laying already used in the area.
STONE MASONRY 20
2. SELECTION OF MATERIALS
Materials used in stone masonry are: stones and mortar.
The strongest mortar is made of a mixture of sand, binding agent and water.
Binding agents include cement, lime or a mixture of lime and cement.
STONE MASONRY
MATERIALS
Stones +
Mortar Sand
Binding Agent Cement and/or
Water
Present stones, sand and binding agents from the area.
Explain that concrete is prepared from gravel, sand and cement mixed together with
water.
STONE MASONRY 21
2.1 Stones
Stones may come from quarries, or be dug up from the ground.
• Quarry stones are worked by specialists using specialised tools which are expensive.
• Stones extracted from the ground are in great demand because dressing them
requires little work.
Stone collecting:
The stones are picked up off the ground or dug up with a hoe or pick-axe. A fork or
shovel can be used when the earth is soft.
Stone collecting can be organised as follows:
• Workers dig up the stones and place them in even-sized piles at the side of the road
or path.
• The stones are then loaded into carts, tractors, trailers or lorries and transported to
the construction site.
STONE COLLECTING
• (P) (Q)
• Ask how the transport of stones is organised in the surrounding villages.
• In this manual, only the use of extracted stones is described and not stones from
quarries.
STONE MASONRY 22
Workers can be paid on a piecework basis, that is,according to the number of piles of
stones they have collected. Other types of remuneration are also possible: montly, daily, or
task rate.
Sites for piling the stones should be chosen where the road is wide enough to enable
the tractor - trailer or lorry to draw up alongside the piles and remain parked until they have
been loaded.
STONE PILES
1)
Staking out the site
Road
-ga?—
The tractor - trailer or lorry -p\\
l.oo m Wooden stake
2)
The stone are stacked in layers
o.5m
The volume of the pile is 1 m 3
i m
• The regular shape and size of the stone piles makes piece rate payment easier and
prevents theft.
• The price of a pile of stones can be estimated according to how many stones a
worker can collect in a work-day. Mention types of remuneration: monthly, daily,
task-rate, piece-rate.
• Ask the trainees to make a pile of stones measuring 1 m x 2 m x 0.5 m with four
stakes and a folding rule. (Explain the calculation: 1 x 2 x 0.5 = 1 m3).
STONE MASONRY 23
Appropriate stone sizes and shapes
The ideal shape of a stone is that of a cube.
Stones which are too long, too flat or too round are difficult to use in construction, even
in irregular laying.
Large stones are more difficult to work with but require less mortar.
STONES
Look for stones shaped like a cube or parallelpiped
Cube Parallelpiped
• Show the trainees examples of appropriately-shaped stones, and of those that

should be rejected.
• The length of the stone should not exceed 4 to 5 times its height.
• The average size of a masonry stone is 45 x 22 x 18 cm (18" x 9" x 7") but for easier
working, smaller stones can be used.
• When stones are stratified (formed in parallel layers), they should always be laid so
that their layers remain horizontal, not vertical. Stones have more resistance when
they are laid with their layers horizontal.
STONE MASONRY 24
A good stone should be hard. It should be possible to dress a stone without it

crumbling.
In humid climates, porous stones are less resistant and allow water to seep into the wall.
During construction more mortar needs to be used in order to better protect the stones.
BBS.
3_3t_JL If the wall is constructed with

porous stones, water from the
ground can permeate the wall
moist earth
• Hit a resistant rock and a soft rock with a hammer.
• Show the trainees a porous stone. Compare this stone to a dry sponge absorbing
water.
Complementary information:
Sandstone and limestone are often porous. (Empty volume can sometimes correspond
to more than 15% of the total volume of porous stones! The physical phenomenon of water
being absorbed into the small fissures in a rock is known as capillarity.)
STONE MASONRY 25
2.2. Sand
Sand collecting
Sand can be obtained from rivers, quarries and the sea.
The quality of the sand is very important for the solidity of the masonry. It is better,
therefore, to pay to transport good quality sand than to use a poor quality sand available near
the building site.
COLLECTING SAND
Pay transport costs
Good quality sand - * - Distance Worksite
Good quality sand is made up of different sized grains. It should be clean, i. e. not contain
any earth, leaves, mud or salt.
• River sand is the best type. Its grains of various sizes are washed naturally by the
river's current. However, sand collected from slow moving or stagnant parts of a river
is likely to contain mud or earth full of plant matter.
• Quarry sand is often of good quality but it can contain clay or decomposing plants.
• Sea sand is of poor quality. It is too dirty and too fine. The salt hinders the adhesion
of the grains to each other within the mortar. If fine sand has to be used, the quantity
of cement must be increased.
• Make an inventory of the sand sources in the region.

STONE MASONRY 26
How to test whether sand is clean
When one is not sure if sand is clean, it is a good idea to carry out three tests before
the sand is transported to the building site.
TESTING THE PURITY OF SAND

1st test
1) Spread the sand on 3) If the cloth is very
a clean surface dirty, the sand
should not be
2) Rub a piece of used with cement
white cloth over
the sand
2nd test
Rub some sand between your
fingers. If the sand does not
stick to the skin, it can be used
for construction
3rd test
1) In a clean glass jar put: 4) Measure the depth of the
7 cm (3 in.) sand impurities which collect on top
(without packing it) of the sand layer. If this layer is
and 5 cm (2 in.) water more than 5 mm (0.2 in.) thick,
SpP^^S^S
2) Cover and shake the jar for the sand must be washed or
a few seconds replaced.
3) Let stand for 1 hour
Carry out the three tests with sand samples containing vegetable matter, mud (and
salt, if necessary).
The result of the third test should be examined at the end of the lesson. Use a ruler
to measure the depth of the impurities.
STONE MASONRY 27
Cleaning sand of impurities
If there are no clean sources of sand in the area, impure sand can be washed in a trough
with at least an equal quantity of water. This operation is time-consuming, costly and difficult;
however, it is necessary.
CLEANLINESS OF SAND
Dirty sand
Impurities: mud, vegetable

matter or salt
Sand storage
The sand should be stored on a clean surface, free of vegetation in order to keep it
clean.
Do NOT store sand under trees or where it can become mixed

with dirt or vegetable matter.
JM_ o <&W_
• Show the trainees a clean site where sand could be stored.

STONE MASONRY 28
Sand grain size
A good quality sand should contain fine grains, medium-sized grains and a lot of large
grains.
GOOD SAND TYPE POOR SAND TYPES
0 O 2?
KJ'Q\JO
oy-o
Grains of different sizes: large, Lack of large grains Lack of fine grains
medium, fine
When the grains are of different sizes, the spaces between them are small, regular and
easily filled by the binding agent. The binder can then correctly glue the grains of sand to
each other. This allows good quality mortar to be made which is economic in its use of binding
agent.
The dimensions of the grains should vary between 0.6 mm to 5 mm. This is known as
wide grading.
GRADING RANGE
0.6 mm 5 mm
&>m°°8go^Q
• Show the trainees examples of sand from the region. Get them to rub the sand in
their hands in order to feel the difference in the size of the grains and to be able to
choose the best sand.
It is possible to adjust the size of the grains of a particular sand either by sifting or
by mixing with a different sand.
STONE MASONRY 29
Sieving
Sieves can be used to get rid of grains which are too large (more than 5 mm) or too fine
(less than 0.6 mm), depending on the size of mesh used.
SAND SIEVING
To remove grains which are
too large
5 mm sieve
Usable sand
use a 5 mm mesh
Do not use: grains are larger
To remove grains which are than 5 mm
too small
Sand to use
use a 0.6 mm mesh Small

masonry
sieve
•'»:..• •:-J,
Do not use: grains too fine
Small masonry sieves, with varying sized meshes, are used to prepare small quantities
of mortar for use in maintenance of masonry or repointing, for example. One should choose
a sieve with the correct mesh size for each task.
• Give a demonstration of sand sieving using different sizes of mesh.

STONE MASONRY 30
Grade correcting
By mixing one sand with another, it is possible to add grains of the size which are
missing.
The two lots are carefully mixed using a shovel.
To correct unacceptable grain size:
Large grain sand Fine grain sand Good sand
•••^xygi
To reduce the amount of clay:
&v
6% clay 0% clay 3% clay
If the sand contains a lot of clay (river or quarry sand which does not bind well with
cement) you can decrease the clay content by mixing it with another sand that has less clay
in it (3% clay is acceptable).
Add fine and medium-grained sand to large-grained sand. (Use different coloured
sands to make it easier to see the proportions.)
STONE MASONRY 31
SAND: SELECTION AND IMPROVEMENT OF QUALITY

QUALITI ES POSSIBLE
SAND
GRAINS PURITY IMPROVEMENTS
- Good sand - Vegetable - Mix with other

- Often contains matter or clay sand (to reduce
grains of clay content)
different sizes - Sieve
RIVER SAND -Wash
RIVER SAND
Very good sand Possibility Mix with other
of mud sands
Often contains
(in stagnant
grains of Sieve (rarely
water) or
<****- different sizes of vegetable satisfactory)
matter • Wash (rarely
(where the satisfactory)
current
erodes the
riverbank)
- Poor sand Salt - Sieve and add

- Often too fine large-grained
sand
- Wash thoroughly
with fresh water
- Increase amount
of cement
To check whether the trainees have assimilated the information given on sand, copy
the table onto the blackboard and ask them to fill in the details.
STONE MASONRY 32
2.3 Binding agents
Binding agents used in masonry are cement, lime or a mixture of the two. When they
are mixed with water, they bind the grains of sand together.
The binding agent is chosen according to the load to be borne by the construction. If
the masonry is, or will be, in contact with water, it is better to use cement rather than lime.
Do not use plaster: it does not resist and cannot be mixed with cement.
Cement: A CEMENT SACK
It is made in a factory and sold in sacks

of 50 Kg. Cement which is properly stored Type of cement
and used in the correct quantity has a very
high resistance. For example, Portland ce- Compressive
ment P.300 has a compressive strength of strength 300 Kg/cm2
300 Kg/cm 2 after 28 days of hardening.
P.300 cement has a lower compressive Manufacturer
strength than P.400 (400 Kg/cm2).
• Ask trainees about different uses of binding agents in the area: cement, lime, plaster.
• Read the inscriptions on two bags of cement of different quality and origin. (Explain
the idea of compressive strength by crushing an object with an increasing load.)
Complementary information:
Binding agents are baked calcium carbonates. The manufacture of cement requires a
lot of energy and high temperatures (1,500°C). Baked calcium carbonate is known as "clinker".
STONE MASONRY 33
Lime
Lime, used as a binding agent in construction, is produced by artisans or in factories by

heating limestone to a temperature of at least 900° C in special kilns. The powder which
results is known as quicklime.
To be used for construction, quicklime must be slaked, that is, mixed with water. On
contact with water, quicklime boils, giving off a lot of heat, and doubles in volume.
If the slaking process is done at the worksite, safely precautions, including wearing
gloves and protective clothing, must be observed. Skin contact with the lime during slaking
can result in serious burns.
In simple construction it may be worthwhile to replace the cement by lime: lime is slightly
less resistant but it is cheaper.
1) Water is poured onto lumps 2) Slaked lime is stored as a

of quicklime damp.paste in a trough
Often, lime is slaked as part of the production process, and is therefore sold in "slaked"
or "hydrated" form. Usually, quicklime or hydrated lime is available in sacks of 25 kg.
• Compare the cost of cement with that of lime. Are there small-scale lime producers
in the area? (See table in Chapter 4.1.)
• Slake a small quantity of quicklime in front of the trainees (taking all the necessary
precautions).
STONE MASONRY 34
Storing binding agents
A binding agent which has absorbed water is no longer usable for construction. A whole
stock of cement or hydraulic lime can be lost because it comes into contact with rain, fog or
even humid air. Since there is a risk that they may have already lost their binding qualities
and have picked up water during transport or storage, it is preferable to buy binding agents
in small quantities.
Cement is stored in dry hangars on wooden palettes which prevent it from absorbing
misture from the ground. The sacks should be stacked according to date of purchase so that
the oldest cement is used first.
Good roof
Ventilation
Storage in a dry place
-i Palettes
Date of purchase: Date of purchase:

10/3/92 9/4/92
Binding agent is stacked by
date of purchase
TJ D" a—•—•—D"
use first use second
Where and how are stocks of lime and cement stored in the village? In the shop? At
the contractor's?
STONE MASONRY 35
2.4 Water
Water used for making mortar should be clean, clear and odourless. Water which
contains salt, particles of earth or vegetable matter, or soap is unsuitable for use in mortar.
WATER FOR MORTAR
Good source of water:
• clear river water
Unsuitable sources of water:
• sea water;
• swamp water;
• water from shallows;
• water used for washing up

dishes or laundry (soap)
Pond
Observe the source(s) of water generally used in the village for drinking, washing,
masonry...
STONE MASONRY 2 36
3. SELECTION AND CARE OF TOOLS
3.1 Types of tools required for masonry
Stone masonry requires two sorts of tools:
Tools for preparing the stones:
• for collecting: - shovel

- pickaxe
-hoe
-fork
- machete (for cutting stakes)
• for breaking up large blocks: -sledge-hammer
- crowbar
• for dressing: - club hammer
- mason's hammer
-toothed bush hammer
- cutting tools
- gloves and eye goggles
• for cleaning : - wire brush (carding)
- sponge and water
Traditional masonry tools:
• For preparing and transporting -shovel,
the mortar: - sieve,
- bucket,
- wheelbarrow,
- gloves
• For carrying out the masonry - mortar box,
(stone laying): - stone-laying trowel,
- pointing trowel,
- bucket and sponge,
- wooden mallet.
• Precision tools: - plumb bob,
- rope and pegs,
- large wooden square,
- metal mason's square,
-spirit level,
- ruler,
- metre rule.
• Ask the participants to guess what each tool is used for. Show them the tools as and
when appropriate.
STONE MASONRY 37
3.2 Stone-working tools TOOLS USED IN STONE

EXTRACTION
For stone extraction
Shovel
The round-pointed shovel is made of

high-quality steel and has a long wooden
Shovel
handle. It is used for clearing loose earth
around stones.
Pickaxe
The head of a pickaxe is forged of
high-quality carbon steel and the handle is
made of wood. It is used for digging up Pickaxe
stones from hard or heavy soils.
Hoe
The blade of a hoe is steel and the
handle is wooden. It is used for digging up
stones from soft ground.
Fork
The fork has four prongs made of carb-
on steel and a wooden handle. It is used for
digging up stones from soft ground. Fork
Sledge-hammer
The sledge-hammer has a forged
head and wooden handle. The handle is
approximately 1 metre long. The sledge-
hammer weighs 3.5 - 4.0 Kg. It is used with
the crowbar to break up large stone blocks. Sledgehammer
Crowbar
The crowbar is made of steel and is
approximately 1.5 metres long. It is tapered
to a squared point at one end. It is used with
the sledge-hammer to break up large stone
blocks, or as a lever to raise large blocks. Crowbar
Show the trainees how the tools are used, particularly the less well-known ones, the
most delicate and the most dangerous. Demonstrate the precautions to take to
decrease the risk of accidents.
STONE MASONRY 38
For stone dressing:

STONE DRESSING TOOLS
Club hammer
A mason's club hammer should weigh
between 1 and 2 Kg. The short handle is
made of wood and the head, of steel or iron,
is in the form of a parallelpiped with slightly
rounded edges and 2 flat striking surfaces. Club hammer
The club hammer is used to strike metal-
handled chisels.
Mason's hammer
The mason's hammer has a wooden
handle and steel head, and should weigh
approximately 800 gr. The square face can
be used to shatter stone; the concave,
sharper end can be used for biting into or
cutting stone.
Stone mason's hammer
Toothed bush hammer
The head of the bush hammer is made
of forged alloy steel. It is interchangeable
with heads having a varying number of
teeth. The toothed bush hammer is used to Toothed bush hammer
crush stone. The stone is hit squarely with
this hammer.
Cutting tools
Cutting tools, including the large var-
iety of chisels mentioned below, are de-
signed to be hit with the club hammer. They
are made of very resistant steel and often
also have special impact resistant heads. &
Changing the angle at which a chisel is held Cold chisel Bolster chisel Claw
to the stone will change the depth to which
the chisel burrows into the stone. Among the
cutting tools there are:
Cold chisel
The cutting end of a cold chisel is
pointed. It is used to chip off small superflu-
ous bits of stone. The punch, with a squared Punch Pitcher Patent tool
tip, is used for the same purpose.
Mushroom-shaped heads
should be filed off
STONE MASONRY 39
Bolster chisel
The bolster chisel, with its wide head,
can be used for splitting stones to specific
sizes when squared edges are desired. The
pitcher, similarly shaped but with a bevelled
blade, can be used for various cutting and
smoothing jobs.
Toothed chisels
The patent tool's or claw's row of small
teeth bites into stone leaving a series of lines
with a decorative effect.
Safety gloves and eye goggles

The stone chips removed during stone
dressing can cause serious injury to the
unprotected worker. Minimum protection re-
quires the use of goggles to protect the eyes
and work gloves to protect against chips,
and shocks and vibrations as well.
Filing cutting tools Safety goggles and gloves

When the heads (hit ends) of cutting
tools become flattened or "mushroom
shaped" they must be filed and smoothed to
prevent dangerous metal chips or splinters.
Keeping cutting tools sharp

Cutting tools are only useful and safe
when they are kept in good condition. Chi-
sels should be kept sharp.
For stone cleaning:

A wire brush or carding is used to
remove dirt from the surfaces of a stone. A
stone must be dampened with a sponge and
water before it is used.
Carding or hard wire brush

STONE MASONRY 40
3.3 Masonry tools TOOLS FOR MAKING

MORTAR
For production and transport of mortar:
Shovel
Shovel
A round -or square- pointed shovel is

used to mix sand, binding agent and water
to prepare mortar.
Sieves
Depending on the mesh size chosen,

sieves are used to remove sand grains
which are too large or too small.
Bucket
The usual capacity for a bucket used Sieves

in masonry is 10 litres. It is used to transport
and/or measure water, sand and binding
agent.
Wheelbarrow
A wheelbarrow generally has a capac-

ity of about 60 litres. In masonry it is used ;.:*¥mm&*~
to transport materials, but overloading can
damage the handles or wheel and must be
avoided. The wheelbarrow is also used to
measure out sand or binding agent. Proper
care of the wheelbarrow includes washing it
out at the end of each day. It should then be Bucket
left to dry standing up.
Wheelbarrow
STONE MASONRY 2 41
MASONRY TOOLS
For masonry:
Mortar box _ ^ ^ ^ " ^ T - . . •. >.;.'..' ; .
A mortar box can be made of steel or \^ ' i ' mil*1"'""' f
of heavy plastic or rubber. It is used to hold

the mortar, ready for use, within reach of the
mason. The mortar box must be cleaned Mortar box
out, washed and dried, after each use.
Stone-laying trowel
^ ^ ^ Trowel
The stone-laying trowel is used to
place and spread mortar. It has a broad steel
blade and a wooden handle.
J ^
Pointing trowel
The pointing trowel has a narrow /^s. Pointing trowel

pointed steel blade and can be used to place
mortar where the stone laying trowel is too
large. It is also used to remove excess mor-
tar and in jointing work to place mortar di-
rectly into joints.
Bucket and sponge ^ — ^
All stones are somewhat porous. Be-

fore they are placed by the mason, stones
must be dampened with clean water to pre- \ / (' °A
vent them from "drinking" the water from the V 1 [' • ' o \
mortar. Bucket and sponge
Wooden mallet ->
The mason uses the wooden mallet to

compress the mortar surrounding a stone
5s£=."5l
once the stone has been laid. <. > Wooden mallet
• Talk about scaffolding: boards laid on oil cans; 4-legged ladders, etc., and about the
risk of accidents.
• Discuss safety equipment: helmets; gloves; closed, non-slip shoes; tools attached
to belts; non-baggy clothes; eye goggles; first aid kit.
STONE MASONRY 42
Measuring and precision tools:

Folding rule
Folding rule
The folding rule is used for measuring

short lengths: it should be folded carefully to
avoid damage.
Decameter (measuring tape)
The measuring tape - (10 metres), and

double decameter (20 metres) facilitate
measurement of large distances. The knob
should be turned gently, and worn-off
measures should be re-engraved.
The plumb bob

Decameter
The plumb bob is used to indicate the (measuring tape)
vertical line. The string is held between two iiii
fingers, with the wooden distance plate
square against the surface whose verticality
is being checked. Depending on the way the
plumb bob hangs, the wall's verticality can
be checked. In the first diagramme, the wall
is not vertical, as shown by the large space
between the plumb bob and the wall. In the
second diagramme, the wall is not vertical
Plumb bob
either, as the plumb resting against the wall
shows. Only in the third diagramme, where
the plumb bob hangs, still, just along the
surface of the wall is the wall vertical.
Wall incorrectly laid Wall correctly laid

STONE MASONRY 43
Spirit level
MEASURING AND
The spirit level can be used to check PRECISION TOOLS
both horizontality and verticality. Using a
spirit level for vertical surfaces can be more
accurate and efficient than using a plumb
bob. The vials of a level indicate the horizon-
tality or vertical ity of a surface depending on
the position of the air bubbles inside them. Spirit level
THE VIALS OF A SPIRIT LEVEL

7/
y
A
The bubble is centered, The bubble is not in the centre of
so the surface being measured is its marks, indicating that the surface
level or plumb. is not horizontal or vertical.
Obviously, a spirit level must be accur-

ate and from time to time adjustements may Mason's rule
be necessary. These should be done by the
instructor.
Square mason square

(metal)
The square is used to measure right-
angles. For marking out the foundation a uares
large wooden set square is used, while a
small steel square is used to check the
right-angles of walls or the squareness of
dressed stones.
Rope with pegs (mason's line)
The rope, stretched between two pegs

driven into the wall, helps the mason to Rope with pegs (mason's line)
follow a horizontal line when laying the
stones. When foundation trenches are
being prepared, the rope indicates which
sections are to be dug out.
Show the trainees how to verify the right-angle of the set square by placing it on a
horizontal line and tracing the vertical line, then turning it over on the same horizontal
line and checking that the vertical line is the same.
Show how to check the spirit level by turning it over on a flat surface. Adjustment of
the spirit level should be done by the instructor.
STONE MASONRY 44
3.4 Care of the tools
Time spent taking care of the tools is not wasted time. It is important that the workmen
are equipped with good quality tools.
Well-made tools which are properly used and regularly maintained enable the worker
to:
• carry out the work in less time, with less effort, and with greater safety;
• carry out good quality work.
Before beginning work, the appropriate tools must be carefully chosen: a tool should
always be used for the task for which it was intended. By selecting atool for a specific purpose,
accidents can be avoided and there is less likelihood of bad workmanship and destruction of
the material. Hard stones should not be worked with tools intended for soft stones.
A tool should be examined to see whether it is in good condition before it is used. A

badly secured hammer or pickaxe handle can cause serious accidents; a level that isn't
accurate is useless.
A tool which is regularly maintained and kept in a dry place will last longer; it will also
be more pleasant to use.
• Show some examples of tools damaged due to their poor quality, incorrect use or
lack of maintenance (rust, etc.). What improvements could be made?
• Give exam pies of accidents caused by defective tools. What precautions could have
been taken to avoid them?
• It is recommended that a first-aid kit is kept in the storage hangar.

STONE MASONRY 45
How to care for the tools
Cleaning
At the end of every working day, each tool should be washed and dried. Clean the mortar
hods and trowels by brushing off dried mortar with a wire brush.
Putting away
At the end of every day, the tools are stored in a shed, on racks or in pigeon holes to
protect them from humidity.
Each mason can store his small tools in a tool box. Shovels, pickaxes and sledgeham-
mers should have a specific place in the worksite store.
A tool box is usually made of wood, measures 60 x 40 x 40 cm, and weighs about 25
Kg. The tools are stored carefully by putting heavier ones at the bottom and precision and
small tools in the upper tray.
Putting away the tools allows the workman to check the condition of the tools quickly
and prevents time being spent looking for them.
Repairing
Damaged tools must be repaired as soon as possible: tightening or replacement of

handles, adjustment of measuring instruments, fighting rust...
TOOL STORAGE
(JV\
Rack for storage

Stone mason's tool box of large tools
STONE MASONRY 46
Maintenance of tools
Tools with handles
Remove splinters which could injure the hands. If the handle does not fit tightly into the
metal part of a tool, soak it in water until the wooden handle swells. Change handles which
are too short or too thin. The eye of the metal section should be tapered to a conical shape.
TOOL MAINTENANCE AND

CHANGING OF HANDLES
Immerse
handles in
water in order
to swell
the wood remove splinters
conical-shaped eye
metal drum
To change the handle:
• of a hammer: The new handle is tapped on hard ground to press on the metal head,
then it is fixed with the aid of a metal or wooden wedge.
• of a trowel: The thread is heated and driven into the handle which is held in place
with a metal ring grip.
Changing the head of a hammer Changing the handle of a trowel
wedge
tOz. heat the thread handle
\ \[ '/ metal grip

tap to press drive in wedge
down head
Demonstrate how to change the handle of a tool.

STONE MASONRY 47
Metal tools
Humidity attacks metal and causes rust. After they have been used, metal tools should
always be washed and dried. They are to be oiled once a week. They should be stored in a
dry place to prevent rust. Saws should be kept in their protective covers.
To remove rust, the loose layer of rust is rubbed off with sand paper. If necessary, the
tool is soaked in diesel fuel. Then the tools are wiped, and oiled with motor oil.
In order to prevent accidents, the head of cutting tools should be tempered. A head
distorted by the impact of the hammer can break up into tiny splinters of metal. Rough
edges are removed with a file.
Cutting edges are sharpened with a file, a granite grinding stone or a piece of
sandstone. In order not to damage the metal, hold the tool at the appropriate angle, and
carefully rub it against a piece of sandstone with some water in a to-and-fro motion. Cutting
edges should be protected in their cover or sheath to prevent accidents.
PROTECTION AND CARE OF METAL

Removing rust
Rough
edges
should be
removed
with a file 2. Diesel
1 .Sand paper 3. Motor oi
fuel and rag
Protective covers should be

used for storage
• Demonstrate how to clean and oil a rusted trowel.
Sharpening stone-cutting tools is the work of specialists.

STONE MASONRY 48
4. PREPARATION AND EXECUTION OF THE WORK
4.1. Organisation of the building site
A well-organised worksite makes working easier for everyone.
The site foreman is responsible for this organisation. He applies the technical instruc-
tions and observes the time schedules set for the construction.
• He supervises the ordering of tools and materials.
• He coordinates the different activities and selects the different teams of masons and
workmen.
• He gives precise technical instructions and supervises the setting out of the work,
stone dressing, the mixing of mortar and the execution of the masonry.
• He makes a daily entry in the site register, noting what work was carried out, the
names of the workers employed and any other events.
ORGANISATION OF WORK POSTS (1)
&&,-•
Ordering and storing of tools, materials, water.
I .' . r
T5MT a
XXX E_E
i C i EL
:S3 E_L
Dressing the stones preparation of the mortar masonry
Ask the participants if they have ever worked on a building site. How were they
organised?
Specify the qualities required by a site foreman.

STONE MASONRY 49
The storekeeper stores the tools and supervises their maintenance.
• He warns the site foreman of imminent shortages.
• He keeps the key of the storage hangar.
• He records each delivery and use made of the tools and equipment in a register.
ORGANISATION OF WORK POSTS (2)
• » * - > • - * * •*-
Stock/storekeeper Site manager
JZI
r~iT
r&
1~T
1 1 1
1n1 1 1
_£_X
Technician Site foreman Masons and

workers
The site foreman and the storekeeper should always be present on the building site.
They can delegate some of their work to team leaders.
Both take advice from the site manager and the technicians who examine the work and
check the daily site records.
The site manager regularly checks, by examining the work and the site register, the
progress of the work; whether work plans are being respected and the amount of money
spent. He draws up a work plan for the following weeks with the site foreman.
STONE MASONRY 50
4.2 Preparation of the mortar
The purpose of the mortar
Mortar binds the stones together and increases the construction's stability. It transforms
masonry into a solid block which cannot be deformed and is load resistant. It is also used to
produce exposed joints which often make buildings more attractive. It can be used as a
coating to protect the stonework against weather and to increase its resistance to water.
USES OF MORTAR
Increases the stability and

resistance of masonry 7=BF^m • Binds the
• stones
Q together
N <*~k
^
, r
Tttttttttttttttt
Protects and decorates a wall

A coat of
mortar
« / / / / / / / ' protects the
Iz'/////// stones
y from r a i
/// // O, n
Conspicuous/decorative joints
STONE MASONRY 51
Choosing materials for mortar
Sand and binding agents should be chosen according to their costs, and to the
resistance required of the mortar.
Choosing good quality sand is of great importance. We have seen that it is worth paying
for the transport of a good quality sand (grains 0.6 mm to 5 mm) rather than collecting (near
the worksite) sand which is too fine, or of poor quality for other reasons, and requires a lot of
cement.
THE COST OF 1 m d OF MORTAR
1) Good quality sand 6 bags
5,000 cost for transport 15,000 cost + 3,000 cost 23,000 cost
for cement for water and for good mortar
labor
2) Fine sand 8 bags
2,000 cost for transport 20,000 cost + 3,000 cost 25,000 cost
for cement for water and for average
labor quality mortar
Calculate the cost of 1 m of cement using prices paid in the village. The proportions
of the mixture could be, for example, 6 sacks of cement per 1 m of sand.
STONE MASONRY 52
Choosing between cement and lime
Cement has the advantage of being very resistant, impermeable and fast-drying.
However, laying it is a bit difficult and there is a risk that cracks will appear if it dries too quickly.
It is expensive and delivery may take some time if it isn't available locally.
Lime, although less resistant than cement, particularly if it comes into contact with water,
has the advantage of being cheap and easy to use. It is often available in villages.
For ordinary construction work, it is more economical to use lime, but cement should be
chosen when the construction is in contact with water.
Hybrid mortar, a mixture of cement and lime, is an intermediate solution. Usually, an

equal quantity of cement and lime is used.
MEASURING OUT A HYBRID MORTAR

1) Most economical option and easiest to use:
more lime less cement
+ CEHEHT
2) More expensive option with high resistance:

less lime more cement
+ CEHEUT
3) Intermediate solution in terms of cost and resistance:

lime cement
-]- CEHEWT
STONE MASONRY 2 53
COMPARISON BETWEEN CEMENT AND LIME
CEMENT MORTAR
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Resistance and workability

• Very resistant
• Sets rapidly
• Water resistant (with a lot of cement) S
• Difficult to use (not very plastic or malleable)
• May crack or shrink (if too much water is used)
Purchase
• Expensive (foreign currency required)
• Expensive to transport (from nearest large town)
• Long delivery delays S
LIME MORTAR
Resistance and workability

• Fairly resistant
• Sets very slowly / S
• Not water resistant but allows the wall to breathe / s
• Easy to use (malleable) /
• Shrinks very little S
Purchase
• Cheap to buy (local currency) S
• Cheap to transport (produced locally) S
• Short delivery delays (produced locally) /
HYBRID MORTAR (mixture of cement and lime)
Advantages and disadvantages of both
• Get the trainees to work out the advantages and disadvantages. Use the blackboard.
STONE MASONRY 54
Choosing the right proportions
If sand and the binding agent are used in the correct proportions, less binding agent is
necessary but the masonry will still have good resistance.
The proportions vary according to the work to be carried out, which is why it is important
to make sure that the proportions of sand, cement and lime are respected.
Measuring units:
The site foreman usually gives the mason measuring units which are easy for him to
use, such as, for example, the number of wheelbarrows full of sand to mix with one sack of
cement.
A bucket, a wheelbarrow or a can are useful measures for mortar. Their capacity should
be verified beforehand by the site foreman or the engineer.
In order to work out the measures corresponding to the amount of mixture required, the
site foreman should follow the quantity tables (1 and 2) that follow and make conversions, if
necessary.
MEASURING UNITS OF SAND
1 m 3 of sand (1000 litres) 20 50 - litre wheelbarrows -full 100 10-litre buckets - full
Show the trainees the various containers; get them to estimate, then measure, their
capacity.
Get the trainees to practise converting various numbers of wheelbarrows full of sand
into m 3 .
STONE MASONRY 55
A mortar mixed at 250 indicates that 250 Kg of binding agent are mixed with 1 m of
sand.
Calculation:
250 Kg of cement = 5 sacks of cement of 50 Kg each (250 + 50)

1 m 3 of sand = 20 wheelbarrows full of sand of 50 litres each (1000 + 50)
250 Kg of cement/m of sand = 5 sacks of cement/20 wheelbarrows full of sand

= 1 sack of cement/4 wheelbarrows full of sand
MIXING LARGE QUANTITIES OF MORTAR
Mixture of 250 Kg/m 3

or 4 wheel barrows-ful 1/1 sack
CEMENT
4 wheelbarrows-full of sand 1 sack of cement
• Carry out the calculation for a mix of 400 Kg/m"

STONE MASONRY 56
QUANTITY DETERMINATION OF MORTARS

(REFERENCE TABLE No. 1)
TYPE OF
CEMENT
SAND LIME MASONRY
50 Kg sack
WORK
2 sacks 200 Kg repointing
6 sacks
wall
construction
1 m of sand
3 sacks 175 Kg
or
20 50 litre 7 sacks
wheelbarrows- foundations
full and
5 sacks 100 Kg buried parts
*?=»'••'. Q> . : P ' ;
8 - 1 0 sacks
or clinker
no lime underwater ^KL*v
•••:• ; # «
The proportions used to make mortar are determined according to:
• its intended use; the weight it is going to support
• the type of binding agent and sand to be used (if the sand grains are very fine, the
amount of cement should be increased by about 25%)
• whether the structure will be in permanent contact with water (abutments, piers;
these, for instance, are built using mortar which has a very high proportion of
cement).
STONE MASONRY 57
QUANTITY DETERMINATION OF MORTARS

(REFERENCE TABLE No. 2)
(using the same unit of measure for all ingredients)
TYPE OF
CEMENT
SAND LIME MASONRY
50 Kg sack
WORK
1/2 repointing
0
wall
construction
1/2 1/2
1 to 1 1/2
foundations
and
buried parts
2 or 3 1 no lime underwater
or clinker
STONE MASONRY 58
EXAMPLES OF QUANTITY DETERMINATIONS

OF CEMENT MORTAR FOR STONE MASONRY
Masonry Amount of mortar
Foundations of a building
5-7 sacks/m3
3-4 wheelbarrows-full/sack
;v*'.''.i':"--:'-J,'?v'rc6>v->
Headwall, lining and apron of a well 1) Headwall of a well:
sand + CEMENT
Headwall of a well
6 sacks/m3
3.5 wheelbarrows 2) Lining:
full/sack
sand + CEMENT!
3) Apron:
Lining/well shaft Apron 5 sacks/m"
8 sacks/m 3 4 wheelbarrows
2.5 wheelbarrows full/sack sand + CEMENT I
full/sack
• Get the trainees to work out the proportions for mortar for a house wall.
STONE MASONRY 59

7 sacks/mv
3 wheelbarrows-full/sack
1^%
sand + CEMENT
foundation
Lined irrigation canal
6 sacks/m3
3.5 wheelbarrows-full/sack
sand + CEMENT
STONE MASONRY 60

Stone facing
5 sacks/m 3
4 wheelbarrows-full/sack
sand + CEMENT
Box culvert or small bridge
sand + CEMENT
&:;* 1/2
8 sacks/m
2.5 wheelbarrows-full/sack
Booklet Page
SPWP TRAINING ELEMENT
STONE MASONRY 61
Mixing the mortar
After the sand and binding agent have been measured out, the mortar is mixed for a
long time on a flat, hard and perfectly clean surface.
A BATCH OF MORTAR PREPARING A BATCH
1.- 2. Spread out the sand to a 10 cm thick

layer and sprinkle it with the cement
or lime.
3. Mix together by shovelling the pile to

and fro several times.
Cement
4.- 5. Make a well in the centre of the heap
and carefully pour in the water, mixing
progressively to break down the walls
of the heap.
Sand-cement mixture
Water 4
Sand-cement mixture
5
STONE MASONRY 62
Using a machine
A cement mixer allows quick mixing of mortar
1. Read the operating instructions and CEMENT MIXER

check that the electric or petrol motor
is working properly.
2. Fill up the machine before switching Sand +

it on with, in the following order: cement +
Tipping
water
wheel
— sand;
drum - * — motor
— cement (preventing it from
(other side)
touching the sides);
— water. mortar
Let the machine operate for a few

minutes without touching the mortar In this model, the drum is at an
or the tipping wheel.
angle when cement is mixed.
Turn out the mortar onto a board
placed at an angle and transport it to
the masonry site in wheelbarrows.
Clean the machine after each batch.

Fill the tank with the stones and
water, let it turn, then empty it. Wipe
out the body of the mixer.
Safety precaution!
Keep away from the machine
when it is running.
Identify which models of cement mixers are used in the village in order to specify
technical details.
STONE MASONRY 63
Checking the plasticity of the mortar
Mortar should be firm and plastic, like a stiff paste: the cement perfectly binds the grains
of sand together.
To check whether the amount of water in the mortar is sufficient, two tests are carried
out:
1 st test: A ball of mortar kneaded in the hand should not stick to the skin.
If it does stick, the mortar is too wet.
2nd test: Drop a ball of mortar 15 to 20 cm from the ground.
It should not splatter or break.
MORTAR PLASTICITY TEST
\
<tf4^
Too much water Not enough water
(mortar splatters) (mortar breaks apart)
• Carry out these two tests with mortar which is too dry; then of the right consistency;
then too wet.
• On the building site, who checks the plasticity of the mortar? The mason? The site
foreman? The workforce? The storeman? The technician? (The technician with the
site foreman, then the mason).
To make work easy, masons tend to add more water to cement mortar. If the mortar
contains too much water, there will be some shrinkage and cracking as the mortar dries,
reducing the masonry's resistance. (Don't forget to spray the masonry with water during drying
to prevent cracking).
STONE MASONRY 64
4.3 Foundations
The entire construction rests on foundations. This is why they are buried to a depth of
up to 50 cm, preferably down to the hard layer.
Foundations are generally twice as wide as the wall they are to support in order to
distribute the load of the wall over as large a surface as possible within the ground.
The engineer or building site technician carefully studies where they should be placed
and their shape, because the presence of ground water (the water table), old backfill or soft
or muddy soils can make the construction unstable.
FOUNDATIONS
Foundations twice as large as

the wall
#&• i^n
7/
v
=1M X wall gradually
widening stepped
foundations foundation foundation
^m
J- L L average poor/weak ground
ground
i * - * v, base of
/êxcavation
yÂYO^T ^ \ y ^ v N | ^ V \ ^ r A " /
idI 30
\
small structures
(shelters, fountains)
large structures
good/strong ground (houses)
• The depth of the hard layer can be estimated by hammering a cold chisel or a pick
into the base of the excavation. Special tools are used to measure precisely the
resistance of the soil.
The resistance should be much greater than the weight of the materials resting on
the foundations (measured in Kg/cm2 or Ibs/sq.in.).
When the ground is a solid layer of rock, it is better if the first course is laid using
blocks 1 m long and 30 cm thick.
STONE MASONRY 65
Foundation on sloping ground
Foundations are always horizontal, therefore on sloping ground they are built in steps.
The steps reduce the depth of the foundations and restrict the pressure of earth which
could make the construction unstable. This is why, when building on a slope, a stable
construction should not have very deep foundations.
It is advisable to drain away water to prevent it running down the foundations.
FOUNDATIONS ON SLOPING GROUND
pressure
of slope
Wall
Drainage
Foundations
weight of
masonry
Step ^••'••'••'••••••i
The sloping ground puts
• ' ' ' ' ' ' ' • • '1 pressure on the masonry. This
pressure can destabilize
foundations built too deep (the
vector should always remain
within the masonry).
STONE MASONRY 66
Marking out and excavation
The corners of the construction are marked in the ground with small posts. Measure-
ments are made and checked with a decametre (10-metre measuring tape) and a square
(masons square/large square). On the outside of the posts.iarge squared-off boards are
nailed to form cross-pieces to which string or cord is tied. The stretched strings show the
mason the width of the foundations.
A trench with very straight, clean sides is dug out between the lines.
MARKING OUT AND EXCAVATION
nail
Before starting to dig, the site foreman checks the orientation of the lines, the dimensions
and the right-angles using a decametre and a square.
• Mark out on the ground a square with sides of 3 m and foundations 40 cm wide.
• Use the decametre, square, cord, small and large posts, boards, the club ham-
mer.nails, and the wooden mallet.
• Show the trainees the tools used for excavation: pickaxe, hoe, shovel.
STONE MASONRY 67
Masonry work for foundations is carried out with particular care, skill and patience so
that it will be able to support a heavy load and protect the walls against moisture rising from
the ground.
The base of the trench is usually filled with concrete to a depth of about 5 cm, or with
reinforced concrete if the ground consists of soft soil.
Rough stones are wedged against each other in order to reduce the number of holes
to be filled in with mortar. To properly fill these holes, mortar is laid where and when necessary
rather than poured over the stones.
The mason should find a place for each stone before the masonry work is carried out.
FOUNDATIONS - THE MASONRY
Good match of stones
Stones poorly matched:

(1) avoid large spaces
The stones are regularly

matched, the joints are (2) stones laid without bond;
interspersed. The correct danger of the wall breaking
arrangement of stones is called apart
"bonding"
• Demonstrate with different-shaped stones how to match up stones for the founda-
tions.
STONE MASONRY 68
4.4 Wall construction
The mason's worksite
The mason keeps the following tools near his worksite:
• for finishing off stone preparation: a mallet, club hammer, various chisels, wire
brush and a bucket of water.
• for masonry: mortar hod, trowel, pointing trowel.
• for measuring: folding rule, plumb bob, square, rope and pegs, spirit level,
mason's rule.
A labourer hands him the tools as they are required. He fills up the hod with part of the
batch of mortar while the mason selects the stones and finishes off the dressing. The labourer
brushes off, with a wire brush, any remaining traces of earth on the stones and wets them
before handing them to the mason.
STONE PREPARATION
1) finishing off dressing 2) dirt and dust removal with a 3) wetting the stones before
wire brush placing
Removing dust and wetting the stones prevents them from "drinking up" the mortar.
• Name, with the participants, the tools needed for construction.
• Get the participants to describe masonry worksites that they have already observed.
Have them mime the scenes and comment on the movements and arrangement of
the materials and tools.
If a stone is dry and partly covered with earth, the mortar will not stick and it will crack,
allowing water to seep in, causing progressive decay of the masonry.
STONE MASONRY 69
Laying the stones
The technique of laying stones in regular courses is as follows:
The mason mixes the mortar in the LAYING STONES IN

hod and checks it for plasticity. REGULAR COURSES (1)
He then applies a coat of mortar 2-3
cm thick, using the rope which is
stretched horizontally a little higher,
as a guide.
The mason lays the dampened stone

with the most even face turned to-
wards the exterior, embedding the 1) Apply a 3 cm thick layer of
other side in the layer of mortar. He mortar
taps the stone gently with the mallet
or the handle of the trowel in order to
fix it in place and pack down the mor- \\W^
tar.
Using the plumb bob, he checks that

the outside face of the stone is
straight.
2) Put the stone in position
Any correction necessary is made by
tapping the stone gently.
<iW^-
3) Check the verticality with the

plumb bob or spirit level
STONE MASONRY 70
4. He then gets rid of any smears or LAYING STONES IN

balls of mortar by scraping the stone's
REGULAR COURSES (2)
surface with the trowel.
5. He checks the overall alignment of

the masonry with the cord stretched
horizontally.
6. Last, he fills in the joints and

smoothes them with a pointing trowel.
4)Remove any smears of

mortar
5) Check the alignment of the

masonry with the rope
LAYING STONES IN
For masonry made from irregular- IRREGULAR COURSES
shaped stones, the technique used is the
same except that before removing any ex-
cess mortar, the mason wedges the blocks
with small chips of rock. The cord is put in
place before each course is laid even if the
courses are not regular.
STONE MASONRY 71
Setting time of mortar
After one hour cement mortar hardens and is no longer malleable.
In order to prevent mortar from being wasted, it is advisable to be sure that all the tools
and stones are ready for use before mixing, and to prepare mortar in small batches. Never
try to add water to make the mortar more plastic; cracks will appear when it dries.
Lime mortar takes longer to set (3-4 hours) and allows a slower working pace.
SETTING TIME
Cement mortar Lime mortar
mixing mixing
1 hour 3-4 hours
working working
time time
Cement is considered to be hard 28 days after laying while the resistance of lime is
considered optimal 90 to 120 days after laying.
STONE MASONRY 72
Protection of masonry during the hardening period
During the first few days, while the binding agent is hardening, the joints are fragile and
should be protected.
• Sun evaporates the water in the mortar and the binding agent no longer adheres to
the grains of sand. The mortar cracks and loses its solidity.
It is advisable to spray the construction 2-3 times during the first week:
PROTECTING THE
MASONRY AGAINST THE SUN
Damp matting
• Rain washes away the mortar and hollows out the joints.
The tops of walls can be protected by jute sacking, plastic sheeting, tree branches,
matting, etc.
PROTECTING THE
MASONRY AGAINST THE RAIN
/
/ —
Leaves and matting , / / ' / // /
/ / / ',;/ ,v
••F.
Ask the participants which means of protection are used in their area.
STONE MASONRY 73
Repointing
Repointing not only makes a wall more attractive to look at but above all it protects it
against the wind and the rain.
There are three types of joints:
• projecting joints are used to finish off masonry laid without courses;
• flush joints and keyed joints are generally used with stones laid in courses.
Flush joints are best.

TYPES OF JOINTS
T V ^ ^ r . ' . ......,'..'.•
Projecting joint Flush joint Keyed joint
The mortar used for repointing is very fine. The sand should be sifted to obtain grains
less than 3 mm. The quantity of binding agent should be between one and two times the
amount of sand.
DOSAGE OF MORTAR FOR REPOINTING
Example
\IM + ilf / ml ml
Sand Cement and/or hydraulic lime
The steps for repointing are:
• scrape out the joint to a depth of 4 cm;
• clean and dampen it;
• insert mortar into the hole;
• smooth the joint with a pointing trowel;
• rub with a rag or brush as the mortar starts to set.

STONE MASONRY 74
4.5 A few rules of masonry
Vocabulary VOCABULARY
Stone chip
The facing of a stone is the face on Bond stone

the visible side(s) of the wall.
To reinforce a narrow stretch of ma-

sonry, stones which are as wide as the wall
itself are laid crosswise at intervals along
it. These are called bond stones.
Stone chips can be placed on the

interior or non-visible sides of the wall to fill
spaces (and save mortar). Facing of the wall
REINFORCE A WALL USING BOND STONES
Bond stones
Stone chips
Use dressed stone for the facing of the wall

STONE MASONRY 75
USING PRECISION TOOLS

Plumb bob
Spirit level
ZL
Correct
1. The load should descend evenly in a vertical line throughout the masonry. Use precision
tools and measures - a metre rule, plumb bob, a level, a ruler and the cord.
It is dangerous to construct without precision tools or with damaged tools.
LAY THE STONES AS THEY WERE FOUND LAYING IN THE GROUND
=30cm maximum
Correct
2. The height of a stone should be the same as, or smaller than length or width. It should not
be greater.
Stones which were laying in horizontal beds are no longer resistant when laid vertically.
There is a risk of them cracking (except in the case of lintels).

STONE MASONRY 76
DO NOT USE STONES WHICH ARE TOO LONG
l=4h maximum
3. The length of a stone should not exceed 4 times its height.

A good stone measures 45 x 22 x 18 cm.
KEEP A CONTINUOUS PATTERN EVEN FOR WIDE WALLS
Correct
4. Do not put small stones in the centre of the wall. When laying a wall do not think only
about edging and facing stones.
STONE MASONRY 77
LAYING BOND STONES
Bond stone
Incorrect Correct
5. Lay a bond stone from time to time in order to make the construction stronger.
Put as many bond stones as possible: lay one course in every two using them.
REINFORCING THE CORNERS
Incorrect Correct
6. Reinforce the corners by using large stones. Their height can measure up to two courses.
Do not put small stones at the corners.

STONE MASONRY 78
ALTERNATE VERTICAL JOINTS
M 10 cm
2nd course I 10 cm ;;S2:

1 st course
T * . . ••• »• J .
J
Incorrect Correct
7. No rising joint should cross more than two courses (danger of rupturing).
Each rising joint should be overlapped by a distance of at least 10 cm.
ALLOW A MAXIMUM OF 3 INTERSECTING JOINTS
'.;v^.•.^î^^,•^vy•^.^^•^^V,^^v'^îA3^^^^^,îy>?7?
yr
Incorrect Correct
8. The joints should be in staggered rows. Do not have more than three joints at one place,
even in the centre of the masonry. Never have an intersection of four to five joints at the
same place. Such areas have low resistance.
STONE MASONRY 79
LEAN THE JOINTS TOWARDS THE INTERIOR
[
( :' .)
COD
J. /<_
Incorrect Correct
9. Choose horizontal joints, or incline them towards the interior of the masonry.
Joints which lean towards the exterior encourage slippage of the stones.
LEAN THE COURSES TOWARDS THE INTERIOR
Incorrect Correct
10. The courses should be laid horizontally or inclined towards the interior in order to centre
the load towards the middle of the masonry. If not, there is a danger that the stones will
slip towards the outside.
STONE MASONRY 80
AVOID LETTING STONES TOUCH EACH OTHER

(IN MASONRY WHERE MORTAR IS USED)
UA
Avoid large CD
empty spaces
cz......
Incorrect Correct
11. The mortar should evenly envelope each stone to ensure an equal distribution of the load.
Avoid letting the stones touch each other and spaces between stones where there is no
mortar.
FILL IN BEHIND SUPPORTING WALLS WITH GRAVEL OR STONES
Clay or
Gravel and
earth
Incorrect Correct
12. One face of a supporting wall is in contact with the slope. The back of the wall should be
filled in with stone chips or large gravel and not with clay or another type of earth which
have the tendency to retain water.
STONE MASONRY 81
5. UPKEEP OF MASONRY
Everything needs to be kept in good condition. If something is neglected it deteriorates
sooner than envisaged and can become unsafe.
We have already spoken of the upkeep of tools.
In the same way, masonry needs to be checked and repaired regularly. Even though
this work requires time and money, it is the only way to avoid serious erosion, expensive
repairs and accidents.
Maintenance should be taken care of well before serious problems arise.
It is better to protect the construction than to repair it later. This is why maintenance is
said to be preventive - one prevents serious accidents.
The state of the masonry should be inspected regularly.
Water is the principal agent responsible for the decay of masonry. Before construction,
it is very important to look at the slope of surrouding ground and to understand how the water
will run off during the rainy season. Construction sites should be chosen outside of runoff
areas as often as possible.
The construction of drains and gutters reduces the damage that can be caused by water.
• Ask for examples of decay of buildings due to water.
• What maintenance is carried out in the village? Why is this carried out?
STONE MASONRY 82
5.1 Before the rainy season
It should be checked that water can freely flow in all the canals, culverts and irrigation
ditches.
If the water is blocked by sediment it will attack the masonry.
UPKEEP OF MASONRY STRUCTURES WHICH DRAIN OFF WATER
If the passage is not clear, Remove rubbish, mud and

water will attack the masonry. sediment which obstruct the
flow of water.
•e
«
8-'\: 35
If structures intended to drain off water are not kept free of debris, mud and sediment,
the water's passage will be restricted. It will therefore flow at a much greater speed than it
would if the passage was clean. A strong current of water can contribute to rapid erosion of
the masonry. The drainage structure (culvert, for example) should therefore be cleaned before
the beginning of the rainy season.
STONE MASONRY 83
5.2 After the rainy season

Heavy rains carry earth which piles up around the masonry and hollows out the joints.
After the rainy season, the state of all constructions should be examined and any
damage promptly repaired.
PROMPTLY REPAIR JOINTS
Fill in joints before

the next rains
Water has overflowed and Fill in joints before
attacked the masonry the next rains
% - ^ ; j g n
^~~."-u—t
. ..II. I.I . ' III! 1
Canal partly blocked

(clay deposits)
Bridge
Check the state of the joints
Water has eaten away at the

ground and can attack the
masonry. This must be
repaired.
TITLES IN THE SERIES
OF TRAINING ELEMENTS AND
TECHNICAL GUIDES FOR SPWP WORKERS
Number Title
1 Anti-Erosion Ditches
2 Stone Masonry
3 Gabions
4 Gully Correction
5 Small Earth Dams
6 Tree Nurseries
7 Planting techniques
8 Stone Paving
Also available:
• Community Water Supply : A Community Participation Training Element

for SPWP User Beneficiaries
• Standardised Procedures for the Presentation of Work Plans

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United Nations International Labour

Development Programme Organisation

LABOUR-INTENSIVE SPECIAL PUBLIC WORKS PROGRAMMES

Training element and technical guide

International Labour Office, Geneva

First published 1991

THEMES COVERED IN THE TRAINING ELEMENT

1. Necessity for training 3

II. How will training be carried out?

1. Suggested training programme 7

3. Selection and care of tools

3.1 Types of tools required for masonry 36

4. Preparation and execution of the work

4.1 Organisation of the building site 48

5.1 Before the rainy season 82

NOTES ON ORGANISING AND CARRYING OUT

1. Why is training in stone masonry necessary?

2. Who, in the project, needs training?

3. For what jobs does training need to be given?

1. Necessity for training

2. Who, in the project, needs training?

3. For what jobs does training need to be given?

II. HOW WILL TRAINING BE CARRIED OUT?

1. SUGGESTED TRAINING PROGRAMME

Schedule: Morning: Training session: presentation and discussion

2nd day Subject: Description of the substances used in making mortar

Introduction to the necessary tools and their maintenance

3rd day Subject: Execution of the work (Chapter 4)

Site organisation and the preparation of mortar

Schedule: Morning Indoor lessons with practical exercises

Afternoon: Visit a site to observe the way in which it

5th day Subject: Maintenance of masonry and revision of masonry terms

Schedule: Morning Visit work sites and evaluate the work

1. For writing and drawing:

• samples of stones, sand, cement, lime

3. Stone masonry tools:

• tools in good condition in or next to the tool box

3. GENERAL ADVICE TO TRAINERS ON CARRYING OUT TRAINING

A. ENCOURAGE ACTIVE PARTICIPATION BY TRAINEES: DON'T LECTURE

B. GUIDE THE DISCUSSION

D. EMPHASISE THE MOST IMPORTANT POINTS

Each time a participant makes an important point or expresses an interesting opinion,

E. PREPARE THE SESSIONS

A discussion is more than just a conversation. A subject is discussed keeping an aim

4. EVALUATING YOUR TRAINING COURSE

• Explanations with demonstrations, and the use of a limited vocabulary restricted to

Masonry is the term used to cover all MASONRY BLOCKS

• cement blocks, Bricks

• or rough or dressed stone.

These are joined together using mor-

This booklet is concerned with the last,

Masonry using rough or dressed stone

Rough or dressed stone

Ask trainees to list the masonry materials used in their villages

— local materials, including traditionally-collected materials or village products

1.2 The purpose of masonry

• walls of houses and other buildings

Well headwall and apron

c) earth retaining structures

• retaining walls and stone facing Earth retaining structures

• small sanitation and drainage

• protection of irrigation canals

• protection of river banks against