The Bernoulli-Euler
Beam
4–1
Chapter 4: THE BERNOULLI-EULER BEAM 4–2
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
§4.1. INTRODUCTION 4–3
§4.2. THE BEAM MODEL 4–3
§4.2.1. Field Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4–3
§4.2.2. Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4–4
§4.2.3. The SF Tonti Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4–4
§4.3. THE TPE (PRIMAL) FUNCTIONAL 4–5
§4.4. THE TCPE (DUAL) FUNCTIONAL 4–7
§4.5. THE HELLINGER-REISSNER FUNCTIONAL 4–9
EXERCISES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4–12
4–2
4–3 §4.2 THE BEAM MODEL
§4.1. INTRODUCTION
From the Poisson’s equation we move to elasticity and structural mechanics. Rather than tackling
the full 3D problem first this Chapter illustrates, in a tutorial style, the derivation of Variational
Forms for a one-dimensional model: the Bernoulli-Euler beam.
Despite the restriction to 1D, the mathematics offers a new and challenging ingredient: the handling
of functionals with second space derivatives. Physically these are curvatures of deflected shapes.
In structural mechanics curvatures appear in problems involving beams, plates and shells. In fluid
mechanics second derivatives appear in slow viscous flows.
The beam under consideration extends from x = 0 to x = L and has a bending rigidity E I , which
may be a function of x. See Figure 4.1(a). The transverse load is q(x) in units of force per length.
The unknown fields are the transverse displacement w(x), rotation θ(x), curvature κ(x), bending
moment M(x) and transverse shear V (x). Positive sign conventions for M and V are illustrated in
Figure 4.1(b).
Boundary conditions are applied only at A and B. For definiteness the end conditions shown in
Figure 4.1(c) will be used.
z, w(x) q(x)
(a) x
A B
Beam and
EI(x)
applied loads
L
+M
(b)
Internal forces
(c) +V
^ ^
+w +MB Prescribed bending
Prescribed transverse A
displacement w and moment M and
^
rotation θ at left end A. +θA transverse shear V
Note sign conventions B ^ at right end B.
A +VB
Note sign conventions
Figure 4.1. The Bernoulli-Euler beam model: (a) beam and transverse load;
(b) positive convention for moment and shear; (c) boundary conditions.
4–3
Chapter 4: THE BERNOULLI-EULER BEAM 4–4
dw d 2w
θ= = w , κ= = w = θ . (4.1)
dx dx2
where θ is the rotation of a cross section and κ the curvature of the deflected longitudinal
axis. Relations (4.1) express the kinematics of an Bernoulli-Euler beam: plane sections
remain plane and normal to the deflected neutral axis.
(CE) Constitutive equation:
M = E I κ. (4.2)
This moment-curvature relation is a consequence of assuming a linear distribution of strains
and stresses across the cross section. It is derived in elementary courses of Mechanics of
Materials.
(BE) Balance (equilibrium) equations:
dM dV
V = = M , − q = V − q = M − q = 0. (4.3)
dx dx
(P BC) at A (x = 0) : w = ŵ A , θ = θ̂ A
(4.4)
(F BC) at B (x = L) : M = M̂ B , V = V̂B
REMARK 4.1
Note that a positive V̂B acts downward (in the −z direction) as can be seen from Figure 4.1(b), so it disagrees
with the positive deflection +w. On the other hand a positive M̂ B acts counterclockwise, which agrees with
the positive rotation +θ.
1 In those courses, however, +q(x) is often taken to act downward, leading to V + q = 0 and M + q = 0.
4–4
4–5 §4.3 THE TPE (PRIMAL) FUNCTIONAL
w^ w
A PBC: q
^θ θ = w'
A w = w^A
θ = θ^ A
at A
BE: M ''− q = 0
KE: κ = w''
The Strong Form Tonti diagram for the Bernoulli-Euler model of Figure 4.1 is drawn in Figure 4.2.
The diagram lists the three field equations (KE, CE, BE) and the boundary conditions (PBC, FBC).
The latter are chosen in the very specific manner indicated above to simplify the boundary terms.2
Note than in this beam model the rotation θ = w and the transverse shear V = M play the
role of auxiliary variables that are not constitutively related. The only constitutive equation is the
moment-curvature equation M = E I κ. The reason for the presence of such auxiliary variables is
their direct appearance in boundary conditions.3
Select w as only master field. Weaken the BE and FBC connections to get the Weak Form (WF)
diagram of Figure 4.3 as departure point. Choose the weighting functions on the weak links BE,
FBC on M and FBC on V to be δw, δθ w and δw, respectively. The weak links are combined as
follows:
L
w
w w
w
δ
= (M ) − q δw d x + (M − M̂) δθ − (V − V̂ ) δw = 0. (4.5)
0 B B
Why the different signs for the moment and shear boundary terms? If confused, read Remark 4.1.
2 In fact 24 = 16 boundary condition combinations are mathematically possible. Some of these correspond to physically
realizable support conditions, for example simply supports, whereas others do not.
3 In the Timoshenko beam model, which accounts for transverse shear energy, θ appears in the constitutive equations.
4–5
Chapter 4: THE BERNOULLI-EULER BEAM 4–6
ŵ A PBC: w
Master q
θ̂ A θ = w
w
w = ŵ A
at A
θ = θ̂ A
L
BE: [(M w ) − q] δw d x = 0
KE : κ w = w 0
Slave Slave
CE: Mw M̂ B
w
κ w w V w=(M w )
M = EIκ FBC: V̂B
(M w − M̂ B ) δθ w = 0 at B
(V M − V̂B ) δw = 0
L
Next, integrate 0 (M w ) δw d x twice by parts:
L L B
w
(M ) δw d x = − (M w ) δw d x + (M w ) δw
0 0 A
L B B
w w w (4.6)
= M δw d x + (M ) δw − M δw
0 A A
L
= M w δκ w d x + V w δw − M w δθ w .
0 B B
This is called the Total Potential Energy (TPE) functional of the Bernoulli-Euler beam. It was used
in Introduction to Finite Element methods to derive the well known Hermitian beam element. For
many developments it is customarily split into two terms
[w] = U [w] − W [w], (4.9)
4–6
4–7 §4.4 THE TCPE (DUAL) FUNCTIONAL
ŵ A PBC: w
θ̂ A Ignorable q
w = ŵ A θ = w
w
θ = θ̂ A
at A
L BE : M − q = 0
KE : 0
(κ − κ ) δ M = 0
M w
Slave Master
CE: M FBC: M̂ B
κM
κ M
= M/E I V =M
M V̂B
M = M̂ B
V = V̂B
at B
in which
L L
2
U [w] = 1
2
E I (w ) d x, W [w] = qw d x + M̂ B wB − V̂B w B . (4.10)
0 0
Here U is the internal energy (strain energy) of the beam due to bending deformations (bending
moments working on curvatures), whereas W gathers the other terms that collectively represent the
external work of the applied loads.4
REMARK 4.2
Using integration by parts one can show that if δ
= 0,
U = 12 W. (4.11)
In other words: at equilibrium the internal energy is half the external work. This property is valid for any
linear elastic continuum. (It is called Clapeyron’s theorem in the litearture of Structural mechanics.) It has a
simple geometric interpretation for structures with finite number of degrees of freedom.
4 Recall that work and energy have opposite signs, since energy is the capacity to produce work. It is customary to write
= U − W instead of the equivalent
= U + V , where V = −W is the external work potential. This notational
device also frees the symbol V to be used for transverse shear in beams and voltage in electromagnetics.
4–7
Chapter 4: THE BERNOULLI-EULER BEAM 4–8
Integrate w δ M d x by parts twice:
L L B
w δM dx = − w δ M d x + w δ M
0 0 A
L B B
(4.13)
= w δM dx + w δM − w δM
0 A A
L
= w δ M d x − θ̂ δ M + ŵ δV M .
0 A A
The disappearance of the boundary terms at B results from enforcing strongly the free-end boundary
conditions M = M̂ B and V = V̂B , whence the variations δ M B = 0, δV M = δ M B = 0. Because of
the strong BE connection, M − q = 0, δ M vanishes identically in 0 ≤ x ≤ L. Consequently
L
M
w δ M d x = −θ̂ δ M + ŵ δV . (4.14)
0 A A
L
M2
TCPE [M] = 1
2
d x + M θ̂ A − V M ŵ A . (4.17)
0 EI
This is the TCPE functional for the Bernoulli-Euler beam model. As in the case of the TPE, this is
customarily split as
[M] = U ∗ [M] − W ∗ [M], (4.18)
where L
∗ M2
U = 1
2
d x, W ∗ = −M θ̂ A + V M ŵ A . (4.19)
0 EI
4–8
4–9 §4.5 THE HELLINGER-REISSNER FUNCTIONAL
ŵ A
θ̂ A
L
KE : (κ M − κ w )δ M = 0
0
Slave Master
CE: M
κM
κ M = M/E I V =M
M
Here U ∗ is the internal complementary energy stored in the beam by virtue of its deformation, and
W ∗ is the external complementary energy that collects the work of the prescribed end displacements
and rotations.
Note that only M (and its slaves), θ̂ A and ŵ A remain in this functional. The transverse displacement
w(x) is gone and consequently is labeled as ignorable in Figure 4.4. Through the integration
by parts process the WF diagram of Figure 4.4 collapses to the one sketched in Figure 4.5. The
reduction may be obtained by invoking the following two rules:
(1) The “ignorable box” w, θ of Figure 4.4 may be replaced by the data box ŵ A , θ̂ A because only
the boundary values of those quantities survive.
(2) The data boxes q and M̂, V̂ of Figure 4.4 may be removed because they are strongly connected
to the varied field M.
The collapsed WF diagram of Figure 4.5 displays the five quantities (M, V M , κ M , ŵ A , θ̂ A ) that
survive in the TCPE functional.
REMARK 4.3
One can easily show that for the actual solution of the beam problem, U ∗ = U , a property valid for any linear
elastic continuum. Furthermore U ∗ = 12 W ∗ .
4–9
Chapter 4: THE BERNOULLI-EULER BEAM 4–10
Master fields
ŵ A PBC: w
q
θ̂ A w = ŵ A θ = w
w
at A
θ w = θ̂ A
KE : κ w = w
L
BE: (M − q) δ M = 0
w
κ 0
L
(κ w − κ M ) δ M = 0 Slave fields
0
CE: M FBC: M̂ B
κM V = M
M
κ M = M/E I V̂B
(M γ− M̂ B ) δθ w = 0
at B
(V M − V̂B ) δw = 0
Figure 4.6. The WF diagram for deriving the Hellinger-Reissner (HR) functional.
as shown in the figure. The two curvature boxes are weakly connected, expressing that the equality
w = M/E I is not enforced strongly.
The mathematical expression of the WF, having chosen weights δ M, δw, δw = δθ w and −δw for
the weak connections KE, BE, moment M in FBC and shear V in FBC, respectively, is
L L
w w
δ
[w, M] = (κ − κ ) δ M d x +
M
(M − q) δw d x + (M − M̂) δθ − (V − V̂ ) δw .
0 0 B B
L (4.20)
Integrating 0 M δw twice by parts as in the TPE derivation, inserting in (4.20), and enforcing the
strong PBCs at A, yields
L L
δ
[w, M] = (w − κ ) δ M + M δw
M
dx − q δw d x + V̂ δw − M̂ δθ w , (4.21)
0 0 B B
L
M2
HR [w, M] = Mw − − qw d x + V̂B w B − M̂ B θ Bw . (4.22)
0 2E I
4–10
4–11 §4.5 THE HELLINGER-REISSNER FUNCTIONAL
REMARK 4.4
If the primal boundary conditions (PBC) at A are weakened, the functional (4.22) gains two extra boundary
terms.
REMARK 4.5
The Mw = Mκ w term in (4.23) may be transformed by applying integration by parts once:
L L L L
Mw d x = Mw − M w dx = M̂ B θ Bw − M A θ̂ Aw − M w d x (4.24)
0 0 0 0
to get an alternative form of the HR equation with “balanced derivatives” in w and M. Such transformations
are common in the finite element applications of mixed functionals. The objective is to exert control over
interelement continuity conditions.
4–11
Chapter 4: THE BERNOULLI-EULER BEAM 4–12
EXERCISE 4.1
[A:25] An assumed-curvature mixed functional. The WF diagram of a two-field displacement-curvature
functional
(w, κ) for the Bernoulli-Euler beam is shown in Figure E4.1.
ŵ A PBC: w
w = ŵ A Master q
θ̂ A θ = w
w
θ = θ̂ A
at A
KE: κ w = w
Slave
Slave CE:
κw w w
Mw
M = EIκ
L L
MM: κ w
(M − M ) δκ = 0 BE : (M κ ) − q δw = 0
0 0
Slave
Master Mκ FBC: M̂ B
κ CE:
κ
M = EIκ V κ= (Mκ)' V̂B
(M γ− M̂ B ) δθ w = 0
at B
(V M − V̂B ) δw = 0
L L L
κ w κ
(w, κ) = 1
2
M κ dx + (M − M ) κ d x − qw d x + V̂ w − M̂θ w . (E4.1)
0 0 0 B B
EXERCISE 4.2
[A:15] Prove the property stated in Remark 4.2.
4–12
4–13 Exercises
ŵ A PBC: w
Master q
θ̂ A w = ŵ A θ = w
w
θ = θ̂ A
at A
κ w = w
L
κw BE: (M − q) δ w = 0
0
L
KE : (κ − κ w ) δ M = 0
0
Slave
Master
Mκ
CE:
κ κ
M = E I κγ
L
MM: (M κ − M ) δκ = 0
0
Master
M FBC: M̂ B
V M = M V̂B
(M γ− M̂ B ) δθ w = 0 B
at
(V M − V̂B ) δw = 0
Figure E4.2. Starting Weak Form diagram to derive the three-master-field Veubeke-
Hu-Washizu mixed functional, which is the topic of Exercise 4.3.
EXERCISE 4.3
[A:30] The most general mixed functional in elasticity is called the Veubeke-Hu-Washizu or VHW func-
tional. The three internal fields: displacements w, curvatures κ and moments M, are selected as masters and
independently varied to get
L
1 κ w
L
w
[w, κ, M] = 2
M κ + M(κ − κ) d x − qw d x − M̂θ − V̂ w . (E4.2)
0 0 B B
Derive this functional starting from the WF diagram shown in Figure E4.2.
EXERCISE 4.4
[A:35] (Advanced, research paper level) Suppose that on the beam of Figure 4.1, loaded by q(x), one applies an
additional concentrated load P at an arbitrary cross section x = x P . The additional transverse displacement
under that load is w P . The additional deflection elsewhere is w P φ(x), where φ(x) is called an influence
function, whose value at x = x P is 1. For simplicity assume that the end forces at B vanish: M̂ B = V̂B = 0.
The TPE functional can be viewed as function of two arguments:
L
2
L
[w, w P ] = 1
2
E I (w + w P φ ) d x − q + Pδ(x P ) (w + w P φ) d x, (E4.3)
0 0
4–13
Chapter 4: THE BERNOULLI-EULER BEAM 4–14
where w = w(x) denotes here the deflection for P = 0 and (x P ) is Dirac’s delta function.5 Show that if the
beam is in equilibrium (that is, δ
= 0):
∂U [w, w P ]
P= . (E4.4)
∂w P
This is called Castigliano’s theorem on forces (also Castigliano’s first theorem).6 In words: the partial derivative
of the internal (strain) energy expressed in terms of the beam deflections with respect to the displacement under
a concentrated force gives the value of that force.7
5 This is denoted by (.) instead of the usual δ(.) to avoid confusion with the variation symbol.
6 Some mathematical facility with integration by parts and delta functions is needed to prove this, but it is an excellent
exercise for advanced math exams.
7 This energy theorem can be generalized to arbitrary elastic bodies (not just beams) but requires fancy mathematics. It
also applies to concentrated couples by replacing “displacement of the load” by “rotation of the couple.” This result is
often used in Structural Mechanics to calculate reaction forces at supports. Castigliano’s energy theorem on deflections
(also called Castigliano’s second theorem), which is w Q = ∂U ∗ /∂ Q in which U ∗ is the internal complementary energy,
is the one normally taught in undergraduate courses for Structures. Textbooks normally prove these theorems only for
systems with finite number of degrees of freedom. “Proofs” for arbitrary continua are usually faulty because singular
integrals are not properly handled.
4–14