Structural Biochemistry/Neurons

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The neuron is a cell that transmits information via electrical and chemical signaling
throughout the nervous system. There are many different neurons of various sizes and
function.

Contents
 1 Components
 2 Classification
 3 Neuron Classification
 4 Neuron Degradation
 5 Synapse
 6 Axonal Transport
 7 Information Processing
 8 Chemical Signaling
 9 Glial Cells
 10 Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

 11 References

Components

Neuron Structure: 1-Dendrites, 2-Axon, 3-Node of Ranvier, 4-Axon Terminal, 5-

Schwann's Cell, 6-Cell Body, 7-Nucleus
All the brain and nervous system are based on communication among nerve cells, known
as neurons. Each neuron is like any other cell in the body. Each neuron is surrounded by a
membrane and filled with liquid and has a nucleus containing its genetic material.
Neurons are specialized to receive and transmit information. All of the neurons gather
information either from other cells of the body or from the environment. They transmit
information to other neurons and/or other kinds of cells. A typical neuron has an enlarged
area, which is the cell body. The cell body contains the nucleus. Neurons have branches
or nerve fibers. The branches on which information is received are known as dendrites.
The dendrites are a branched structure that receives signals from other cells. Each neuron
has a longer taillike structure, or axon. The axon transmits information to other cells.
Axons can be branched at the tips. The axons of many kinds of neurons are surrounded
by a fatty, segmented covering called the myelin sheath. The covering acts as a kind of
insulation and improves the ability of axons to carry nercous system signals rapidly. A
single neuron may be capable of receiving messages simultaneously on its dendrites and
cell body from several thousand different cells. Most neurons usually have a soma,
dendrites, axons, and a terminal button. The soma is the cell body of the neuron, and it
contains the nucleus and is responsible for many of the processes of the cell.

Classification
Classification can categorize neurons based on their number of extensions from the cell
body and their function:

Sensory neurons receive sensory signals from sensory organs. These signals are then
sent to the central nervous system via short axons. These neurons are also called Pseudo-
unipolar neurons due to their short extension that divides into two branches. One of
these two branches functions as an axon, while the other functions as a dendrite.

motor neurons are neurons that control motor movements of the body. It takes
commands from the cortex and sends the signal to the spinal cord, or to the spinal cord to
the muscles. These neurons are also called multlipolar neurons due to its one long axon
and their short dendrites extending from the cell body.

Interneurons also called, associated neurons, are neurons that interconnect various
neurons within the brain or spinal chord. Majority of these neurons are seen in the brain,
connecting to one another tightly. These neurons are used for relaying information and
conducting signals between other neurons. Interneurons may also be called bipolar
neurons due to their two main extensions. These extensions have a similar length bipolar
neurons that have two main extensions of similar lengths
Interneurons can be either efferent neurons or afferent neurons.

Neuron Classification
Neurons can be organized in two ways: 1) based on their anatomy and 2) based on their
function in the brain. Neurons can be Pseudounipolar, bipolar, anaxonic or multipolar.
Pseuounipolar neurons have a single axon and their soma are off to the side. Bipolar
neurons have axons extending off both sides of the soma. Anaxonic neurons have no
obvious axon but have a soma and dendrites. Multipolar neurons do not have long axons,
but have extremely branched dendrites. Pseudounipolar and bipolar neurons are sensory
(or afferent) neurons. Anaxonic and multipolar neurons are interneurons within the
Central Nervous System. Multipolar neurons also function as efferent neurons.

Neuron Degradation
Phagoptosis of neurons in the brain is specifically detrimental due to the fact of the brains
limited capacity to replace neurons. Viable neurons are phagocytosized by
lipopolysaccharide or LPS. Microalgia is responsible for the eating of viable neurons, but
it is also responsible for eating apoptopic neurons which may be beneficial because it
may reduce debris and inflammation. Inflammation in the brain can cause microalgia to
eat viable neurons, however this can be blocked by blocking phagooptic signaling.
Microalgia also kills developing neurons in the protein in the cerebellum and
hippocampus.

Synapse
The synapse is a junction between the terminal button of an axon of one neuron and the
dendrite of another neuron. In this junction, one neuron sends information to another
neuron via electrical or chemical signaling. The process for sending information is called
action potential where electrical impulses are sent down an axon of a neuron.

Also, synapse is a small gap, or commonly referred to as a connection, between two cells
that allows for the first cell (the presynaptic cell) to communicate with the second cell
(the postsynaptic cell) through a chemical signal. These chemical signals are called
neurotransmitters, and once they are released by the presynaptic cell, they act on the
postsynaptic cell through specialized protein molecules called neurotransmitter receptors.

A synapse is a connection which allows for the transmission of nerve impulses. Synapses
can be found at the points where nerve cells meet other nerve cells, and where nerve cells
interface with glandular and muscular cells. In all cases, this connection allows for the
one-way movement of data. The human body contains trillions of synapses, and at any
given time, huge numbers of these connections are active.

Axonal Transport
Axons lack ribosomes and an endoplasmic reticulum and because of this, the cell body
must synthesize proteins and send them through the axon via axonal transport. There are
two main types of axonal transport: slow and fast. Slow axonal transport is used for
moving proteins through the axon that are not used up quickly by the cell, such as
enzymes and cytoskeletal proteins. Fast axonal transport is used for moving proteins
down the axon that are needed much more quickly in the cell, such as organelles.

Microtubules and Their Role in Axonal Transport

Microtubules provide a crucial role in fast axonal transport systems that supply synaptic
vesicles with vital chemical messengers by providing the long cells with highways for
material to be transported through. Two families of proteins, Dynein and Kinesin, are in
charge of vesicle transportation through microtubules. With Dynein being charge of
retrograde transport and Kinesin being in charge of ante-retrograde transportation, their
combined proportions provides the axon with variability in transport velocity as well as
the potential for intentional halts in vesicle transport.

Information Processing
[1]

Information processing is the brain's process of interpreting the receiving information and
knowledge. There are three stages in information processing: sensory input, integration,
and motor input. There are also different types of neurons in the information processing.
They are sensory neurons, interneurons, motor neurons, and neurons coming out of the
brain. Sensory neurons transmit information from sensors like the ears that detect stimuli
like sound. Interneurons are neurons that make up most of the neurons in the brain. Motor
neurons are the ones transmit signals to muscle cells so that they can contract. Lastly,
neurons that come out of the brain are nerves that instigate the reaction or motor output.
In addition, there are two main nervous systems that help to interpret the information.
They are the central and peripheral nervous systems. Central nervous system consist of
the brain and the nerve cord where the neurons that are in charge of integration are here.
And the peripheral nervous system consists of neurons that receive sensory input and
result in the motor output.

Information processing

Chemical Signaling
Chemical signaling is the physical chemical interchange that takes place in the synaptic
cleft. Vesicles containing neurotransmitters are released by an incoming axon and
received by receptors on opposing ends to induce a response on the recipient neuron.
Chemical signaling via molecules secreted from the cells and moving through the
extracellular space. Signaling molecules may also remain on cell surfaces, influencing
other cells. Chemical signaling can involve small molecules (ligands) or large molecules
(cell-surface signaling proteins). This signaling can be received either on the surface of
cells by receptor proteins or within the interior of cells but also by receptor proteins. An
example can be within-cell reception of signals is of steroid hormones. Signals also can
be intentionally provided, such as is the case of hormones, or instead can be present for
reasons that are not specifically for the purpose of providing a signal. The example can be
carbon dioxide levels in blood.

The movement of neurotransmitters in a synaptic cleft

Glial Cells
Glial cells are not neurons. They significantly outnumber neurons and are therefore vital
to the role of the nervous system. It was previously thought that Glial cells merely aided
with physical support within the nervous system. However, Glial cells actually
electrically communicate with neurons and provide important biochemical support to
them. Common types of Glial cells include 1. oligodendrocytes 2. astrocytes 3. microglia
and 4. ependymal cells, all of which are found in the Central Nervous System. Glial cells
found within the Peripheral Nervous System include 5.Schwann Cells and 6. satellite
glial cells.

1. Oligodendrocytes

Oligodendrocytes are one of the types of the neuroglial cells that is mainly
responsible for myelinating central axons in central nervous system. Myelination
refers to the act of oligodendrocytes wrapping around the axon with myelin sheath
that is made of lipid and protein. Myelination of the oligodendrocytes have crucial
effects on the transmission of neural signals by increasing the speed at which
 action potentials are conducted along axons. This action allows the neural signal
to travel long distance with short energy and time.

Astrocytes stained for GFAP, with end-feet ensheathing blood vessels

2. Astrocytes

Astrocytes constitute 20-50% of the volume in most brain areas, especially in the
central nervous system. It is mainly responsible for the physical and metabolic
support of the brain. It has many other functions including generating numerous
proteins such as N-CAM, laminin, fibronectin, growth factos as ell as cytokines,
which is responsible for signaling proteins involved in the immune system.

3. Microglia

Microglia is one type of the neuroglial cells that is mainly responsible for acting
as macrophages. Microglia takes up about 5-20% of the mammal brains that act as
mediators of immune response. Microglia cells constantly move around within the
central nervous systems analyzing for damaged neurons, plaques, and infectious
agents.

4.Ependymal cells

Epedymal cells aid in separating the fluid components of the Central Nervous
system by creating an epithial layer and are also a source of neural stem cells.
Epedymal cells in the ventricular system of the brain form capillaries that form
chroid plexus in each ventricle of the each hemisphere of the brain. Chroid Plexus
then produces cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). 60-80% of CSF comes from chroid
plexus and rest from extrachrodial sources.

5.Schwann cells

Schwann cells' functions are very similar to oligodendrocytes. They myelinate

neurons within the peripheral nervous systems instead of the neurons in the
 central nervous system. The main difference is that schwann cells are about 100
micrometres long that only covers the portion of the axons individually whereas
one oligodendrocytes can mylinate multiple axons by stretching out their
dendrites.

6. Satellite glial cells

Satellite glial cells are a type of glial cells that ocver the exterior side of neurons
in the peripheral nervous system. Satellite glial cells' functions are similar to
astrocytes in the central nervous system. Although there is still ongoing research
to discover the specific functions and mechanisms, it is so far discovered that the
satellite glial cells supply nutrients to the peripheral neurons as well as regulating
neurotransmitter by uptaking and inactivating the neurotransmitters.

Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

Cerebrospinal fluid(CSF) is bodily fluid that circulates around the nervous system and
throughout body that is produced in choroid plexus of each ventricle system of the brain.
It is commonly used for diagnostic information about the normal and pathological states
of the nervous system.

Funtions of CSF:

1. It provides buoyancy and support to brain and chord that protects against rapid
movements and trauma.

2. The fluid delivers nutrition for both neurons in both CNS and PNS and for other glial
cells.

3. It functions like lymphatic system and removes wastes out from the nervous system.

4. It controls homeostasis of the ionic composition of the local microenviroment of the

cells of the nervous system.

5. It acts as a transport system for releasing factors, hormones, neurotransmitters,

metabolites.

6. The fluid controls H+ and CO2 concentrations (pH levels) in the CSF that may affect
both pulmonary ventilation and cerebral blood flow.

7. The fluid is essential in medical fields in which it provides diagnostic information

about the nervous system.
References
Gorazd B. Stokin and Lawrence S.B. Goldstein, "Axonal Transport and Alzheimer's
Disease". Annual Review of Biochemistry Vol. 75: 607-627 (Volume publication date
July 2006) Print

Silverthorn, D. (2012) Human Physiology: An Integrated Approach, 6th edition. Prentice

Hall.

Purves, Dale, Principles of Cognitive Neuroscience, Sinauer Associates, Inc., 2008.

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Astrocytes.jpg

Dubuc, Bruno.
<http://thebrain.mcgill.ca/flash/a/a_01/a_01_cl/a_01_cl_ana/a_01_cl_ana.html>

1. ↑ Campbell, Neil and Reece, Jane. (2007). Biology 8th Edition.Benjamin-

Cummings Publishing Co. ISBN 978-0321543257