rn ieee { \ hes alae ee a Mee eA te ee af Sl ri al i Toulidbullas Webchat Coli B Scr ela Re fy tar orn y nel Ur Cire a) Racy by aC es Cece a 4 ghTOOLS OF PERSUASION: The Art of Sacred Books Elena Pakhoutova and Agnieszka Helman-Wazny r0ss-cultural exhibitions that explore artistic expressions, of different religious traditions usually focus on thematic aspects of the faiths related to the content and meaning of their respective scriptures. A new exhibition, ‘Illuminated: The Art of Sacred Books’, at the Rubin Museum of Art (6 April-3 September 2012), by way of contrast, addresses the aesthetic and creative aspects of the objects presented: in this instance, examples of decorated sacred books of Buddhist, Jain, Hindu, Christian and Muslim cultures. This article introduces the exhibition and discusses some examples of illustrated Tibetan manuscripts in the context of the ‘material culture, as objects that were thoughtfully created, used, appreciated and handed on and which, directly or by implication, were designated as sacred and acknowledged for their value as objects of art as well as devotion. ‘The exhibition explores the diverse formats of these manuscripts and printed books, book covers and their decorations, the lavish use of gold, silver, indigo and other rich colours, and the intricate relationships between the text and image. Decorative programmes found within include calligraphic texts which are images, embellished or ornamented letters and words, illuminated text, and illustrations that fill an entire page with a pictorial narrative. ‘The visitors are also invited to look at the earliest means of the mass production of the sacred books shared by all literary religious cultures using carved and inked wooden blocks pressed onto paper sheets, which were often decorated as well. While addressing differences in media, the exhibition communicates that preferences for particular materials were often determined by regional availability, as well as by functional and practical considerations. As a whole, the exhibition calls attention to some parallels between aesthetic expression and sacred signification implied by the material and technological aspects apparent among the various religious traditions that share ‘the culture of the book’, ‘The types of decoration found on handwritten books vary between cultures but generally can be grouped as (a) miniatures, or small pictures incorporated into the text, sometimes occupying a whole page or part of its border: (b) initial letters containing cither painted miniature scenes (historiated initials) or elaborate omamental decoration; and (c) borders, which may consist of miniatures but more 124 often are composed of decorative motifs and are sometimes just simple sketched frames. The characteristics of these ‘miniatures, together with the outlined text, reflect the period when the book was made and the tradition to which it belongs. Tibetan sacred books have exceptional characteristics closely related to the history of the book in Inner Asia, as well as historical developments in the Tibetan language and literature inspired by later Indian Buddhist culture, The content and form of Tibetan religious books (T: pecha, dpe cha), are directly informed by traditional Indian palm-leat books called grantha or later pustaka, which are described as being long, narrow rectangular leafs held together by fa string that runs through holes in the middle and is then bound around two wooden covers. This format is generally known as pothi. ‘The text was drawn on the surface of the leaf with 2 sharp tool; ink rubbed on the leaf remained in the scored depressions, Tibetan books, however, were not written ot palm leaves but on birch bark and later on paper. Although they retained a basic format ~ loose long rectangular leafs held between two covers ~ their size, media, decoration and even structural configuration differed from those of their Indian precursors. Use of paper allowed for larger-size folios and decorations; there was no need for drawstring holes within manuscript pages since Tibetan books were wrapped in cloth, which bound all the leaves together. The two empty circles preserved in some early Tibetan manuseripts were often left without practical purpose and later were replaced with continuous Lines of text. That being said, even while creating books in the new medium of paper and in a slightly altered format, the Tibetans greatly appreciated the Indian palm-leaf ‘manuscripts. The manuscripts found in Tibet show thei further development. Sometimes colophons contain, rededications of the manuscripts. Such inscriptions shed light on how the illuminated manuscripts travelled, changed hands and were used, in addition to serving their evident purpose as doctrinal and ritual texts. ‘One such example is in the Rockefeller Collection atthe ‘Asia Society Museum (museum number 1987.01). It has ‘Sanskrit and Tibetan colophons that describe the history ofits ownership. According to the two Sanskrit inscriptions, the manuseript was produced in 1073 at Nalanda monastery by Ananda, a “reciter of doctrine’, although its donor Naesutasohasitta was probably a foreign visitor (Huntington and Huntington, 1990, pp. 185-189; Kim, 2006, p. 67). Its two Tibetan colophons are written in cursive script: the first one translates the Sanskrit colophon; the second states that the manuscript was once owned by the renowned Kashmiri scholar Shakya Shri, who taught in Tibet from 1204 to 1213, Thereafter, it was in the possession of Butén Rinchen Drup (bu ston rin chen grub; 1290-1364), the famous Tibetan scholar and editor of the first Tibetan canon. The last Tibetan inscription, ina taller cursive seript, documents the dedicatory use of this book for the benefit of one Kunga Geleg Wangchug (kun ga’ dge legs dbang phyug) (Leidy | and Lee, 1994, p. 66; Huntington and Huntington, 1990, |p. 187), These inscriptions ofthe continuous record of its ‘ownership and restoration suggest that this manuscript was treasured object, its individual ownership was important to those who passed it down, as it indicated the teacher-student relationships in a lineage that can be traced back to Indian and Tibetan teachers. At the same time, it also served a meritorious dedicatory purpose prompted by its the original owners and continued by its subsequent keepers. Ox distinct way of producing and embellishing the Tibetan manuscripts that began during the so-called Tibetan Renaissance (10th-13th century) involved writing, them in gold on a dark background and illuminating the title and several other folios. Although this specific aesthetic convention was not invented by the Tibetans, they produced gold manuscripts in great numbers. Museums, libraries and private collections around the world keep several examples of such manuscripts and individual folios. It is notable that in discussions of these objects, the aesthetic appeal (Fg. 1) Volume 2 of The Calected Work of achen Gyueme Dechen Uo chen yur med bde chen] “Tibet, 17 century sik thread and wood with acgvet Height 93cm, wid 3.5m, Purchased from the Collection of Navia Kura, New York (2008311) (Photography by Bruce White, courtesy othe Rubin Museu of At} Gold and pigments on paps sk of the decorated pages draws the attention and supplants the notion of them as components of a manuscript, Often, the illuminations are considered primarily as examples of painting rather than integral parts ofa larger whole: the book itself. A traditional Tibetan book comprises two outer covers, usually made of wood, which hold numerous unbound folios written in calligraphic scripts that make up the text The title page serves as an inner cover and is always richly calligraphed and often decorated, Such a volume, as a unique expression of literary and religious culture of a specific time is valuable not only in its content but in its physical form as well (Fig, 1). Often neglected aspects worthy of further consideration are the use of silver and gold inks on specially treated paper, the use of glue or particular binding clips that secure written and painted sides of a folio together, as well a8 mounting of the painted illuminations within the layout of a page, the text and the structure of the book. However, cumulative and developing studies of various examples of ‘Tibetan decorated manuscripts reveal that the most important facilitating factor in their production was the provision of resources by patrons or donors for artists’ work and, often, decisions on the particular form and quality of @ book ‘Two decorated parts of the Tibetan manuscript of the Perfection of Wisdom Sutra (Prajnaparamita; V. Sherabkyi Paréltu Chinpa) from the Herbert Johnson Museum of Art at Cornell University testify to the characteristic conventions for illustrating this sutra in West Tibet during the 15th century (Figs 2a and 2b). Numerous female figures are depicted with hair omaments and costumes typical of West Tibet. The colour palette and stylistic elements of the paintings, such as the red line drawings and outlines, the proportions of the figures, representations of local architecture, chariots with bolts of fabrics, horses and floral formaments are comparable to the mural paintings in the temples of Tsaparang in West Tibet, The miniatures are 1sextensive and well executed, and their subject-matter, the story of the bodhisattva Sadaprarudita (T. tag au ngu, “Always, weeping”), seems to conflate personages in the story with wishful representations of the donors, who are shown with lavish offerings, accompanying the main protagonist on his, journey to the palace of the bodhisattva Dharmodgata (T. cchos ‘phags, “Exalted in Dharma’) to receive the teachings. This folio is closely comparable to the published 15th century West Tibetan manuscript of the Prajnaparamita Sutra from the R. R. E, Collection (Figs 3a and 3b). The n and structure of the frontispiece are very similar to that of the Johnson Museum folio: the upper register desi shows five figures seated on lotuses, three lines of text cupy the central section of the page, two square sections of the miniatures depicting architecture are positioned on the right and left of the page, and the lower register shows processions on chariots. Inscriptions on the R. R. E. Collection folio identify the scenes and the main characters of the illustrations, It is curious that the merchant is shown, as a Tibetan lay religious master wearing a red hat and displaying the teaching mudra and his daughter is shown wearing regional attire and hair ornaments. The story is represented in a different convention from that of its depictions in Indian and Nepalese manuscript illum One important factor that might have contributed to the di manuseripts is that their produetion was largely a means for accumulation of merit by their Tibetan donors. Even though inetive decoration of these Tibetan Prajnaparamita the eastern Indian manuscripts brought to Tibet shared this funetion, the Prajnaparamita manuscripts produced in Tibet appear to reflect the local environment, depicting the aspirations of their donors quite literally. The frontispieces illustrated in Figures 2b and 3b accompany the volumes’ inner covers, or title pages, which are also lavishly painted and calligraphed in gold ink. The Johnson Museum's cover has a green silk ‘curtain’ that drapes over and protects the paintings when the manuscript is closed (see Fig. 2a). The miniatures are painted on an additional layer of black-coloured paper with a cut-out frame to accommodate the text lines written on the layer below, This ground layer is made of many-layered leaves of blac coloured paper clipped together, to which the illuminated layer is attached. Special clips stitch the ground and the upper layer together. This treatment of folios is common in Tibetan blue- and black-ground manuscripts. The R. R E, Collection inner cover is even more elaborate in its gol calligraphy. The large letters that spell the title of the book are themselves decorated with floral motifs and outlines in a manner similar to that of the ‘raised gold” technigus, whereby the lett of the page (see almost appear in relief against the surface 3a), ‘The paper was glued into layers with starch paste and painted with black ink. Fibre composition analysis of the Johnson Museum manuscript indicates a handmade paper (Figs 23 and 25) Cover and frontpiece from a Praneparomita sue [a] Height 29.1 cm, nth 699 er 8) Height 178 ‘George and Mary Rockwell Fund [200602534 (Photograhe courtesy ofthe Heber Fs ‘Museum of At coral Unie Bhan Te aa 126Ris Soa ann with paper mulberry fibres (Broussoneria sp.). While examples of such paper can be found in East Tibet and earlier at Dunhuang, it is usually associated with Chinese paper and with Tibetan books produced in China. This implies that such fine paper was probably imported for the production of this manuscript. Conversely, the Tibetan manuscript from the R. R. E, Collection was produced on a specific paper made of fibres of the Stellera chamagjasme species (T. re Icag pa) and typ Tibet (Trier, 1972, p. 56). This plant grows in relatively dry altitudes in Central Asia, Iran, parts of Tibet and along the Himalayan range and can be used to point to a manuscript’s in Central and West conditions in hig sal be oer ph) Sea Ge sacred book complete with nal carved and decorated wood covers, y thro gold ighout and numerous illuminations is the volume from The Collected Writings of Lochen Gyurme Dechen (lo chen ‘gyur med bde chen) shown in Fi urme Dechen (1540-1615) was a teacher of Tibetan Buddhist tradition, and this book entaries on several of the practices of this tradition. One of its most attractive aspects, though, is its physical form and decoration, The vol of several texts and includes twelve miniatur led both an illumination as well as illustration, as it expressly decorates pages of the text dispersed throughout. Each miniature can be ated to its depicted subject{Fig 5) Decorated page ofthe folio in Figures 4a and 45 "het aucahiet Resource Center (Photoe (6 Decorated page fhe fon Fires aa Twin But Rescues Cotr (Photarh courtesy of Tintn deh Resource Center The layout of the illustrated pages within the volume has its own logic. The beginning folio of one text is painted with three miniature images one in the centre and one at each end of the page — on the reverse of the side that contains the texts title Figs 4a and 4b). The following folio is also decorated with miniature paintings, but this time at either ends of the front side page (Fig. 5). Towards the very end of the text, single image is painted in the eentre of the front side page ofthe last folio ofthe text (Fig. 6). Similar placements of miniatures within the other texts confirm the thoughtfully structured organization of the whole volume. All paintings are inscribed and are framed by gold outlines, and the folios Z have silk curtains that protect the painted sides. A frame stitched with coloured silk threads around the periphery of the folio serves to protect the outer edges (Fig 7), It also makes the painted folios thicker and works much as a matte in a framed picture, so when the pages are put together, the painted surface, already protected by the silk curtain, does not rub against the surface ofthe adjacent (a. 7) Dea of Figure ab, showing the miltur (Photography by Bruce White, courtesy ofthe Rubin Museum of At) It is remarkable how different the Tibetan book is from that of earlier ‘Nepalese examples. These Tibetan folios with miniatures are decoration of this Indian and some essentially treated in the same way as would be a Tibetan scroll painting, or thangka, which has a silk covering ané frame and is painted on a specifically prepared ground However, the sum total of the decorated folios together with those that contain only text tells more. This is only one of several decorated volumes that contain writings and orl instructions of this particular master of the Shangpa Kagyd tradition. The decorative programme of the miniatures ~ their layout within the folios and the special way in which they are treated within the book ~ have parallels with other, generously decorated books produced in Tibet, such as the copy of the Tibetan canon now in London, the so-called eZ BH Selkar Kangyur (sce Ulrich Pagel and Séan Gaffney, Location List to the Texts in Microfiche Edition of the S'el dkar (London) Manuscript bKa" ‘ur (Or. 6724). Catal Codicum Tibetanoram 996) 1, London, 1 In fact such extensively ‘ornamented books were either volumes of the Tibetan canon or Prajnaparamita manuscripts in ils various versions, the 8,000 and 100,000 Apart from pairing onthe left verses.Fle. 8) Sue of numerable Meanings (Mur) Japon, dates (Photography by Ken Howe, courtesy of Phoenix Art Museum) this sutra was often produced as part of elaborate Postmortem rituals for amassing great merit on behalf of @ teacher or lineage master as well as the deceased. Although the writings of Lochen Gyurme Dechen were not part of the canon, comparable resources were required to produce these decorated volumes of his collected works. They represent an exceptional way of honouring and preserving his words in a tangible form, The combination of gold or silver on a blue or black ground is not exclusive to the Tibetan culture of manuscript production. The contrast of the gold on blue is not only a very attractive match of colours it also makes the written text stand out, especially in the I ight, Different cultures employed various methods to achieve similar aesthetic results, Tibetans developed and retained specific skills and recipes for creating the blue or black ground on which gold and silver calligraphic texts are written. They involve pressing several layers of paper together using a paste made of boiled wheat flour, then applying colour medium to the paper's surface, and smoothing it with a stone, In one recipe, the blue dye 's prepared with the use of myrobalan juice, the medicinal plant thar mu, sour wheat beer, purified black vitriol (T. nag imisur) and borax (T. tsa la), According to one Chinese method paper was coloured blue by applying an extract of wheat beer, round cardamom (T. za 1i), and burned and ground white cowry shell (T. indron bu) and then sprinkling it with myrobalan juice. Paper can also be made blue by dyeing it with indigo or painting it with a brush dipped in indigo, or using a combination of both methods. The Japanese Suira of Amida Buddha illustrated in Figure 8 is an example of indigo-dyed paper, Indigo was ako used for dyeing vellum, an exceptional example being the famous “Blue Qur'an’ (Fig. 9). Dyed vellum was used in ihe production of sacred books in the West. It is generally accepted that the materials used to treate an object shape its individual quality. At the same lime, the conscious choices of the materials used to create (8.9) Fol rom The ue Quran Tunisia, alrawan late Sth OR cetary ‘Manuscript at ndgo dyed parchment with eld Height 28'S em, with 38.2 cm of Sotheby's London) (Photography courte an object further enhance its aesthetic characteristics. While introducing the visitor to Tibetan sacred books, the exhibition at the Rubin Muscum also invites the viewer to look for aesthetic parallels and attitudes towards ereation of sacred books across cultures. Elena Pakhoutova is Assistant Curator atthe Rubin Museum of Art, New York. Agnieszka Helman-Wazny is a Research Associate at Hamburg University Selected bibliography Eva Allinger, “Narrative Paintings in 12h-13¢h Century Manus An Examination of Photographs Taken by Rahula Sankrty the Ne 01-15. Inne Broos, “Text and image is Monastery, Tibet’, in Journal of Bengal Art 6, 2001, pp Tibetan Books and The Huminations’ Circle of Tibetan and Himalayan Studies, School of Orient African Studies, London’, in Orientations, April 2005, pp. Sheila Canby, Maryam Ekhtiar et al Department of Islamic Artin the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, 2011 Amy Heller, Hidden Treasures of the Him ngs and Seulpnures of Dolpo, Chicago, 2009 Susan L. Huntington and John C, Huntington, Leaves from the Bodhi Tree: The Art of Pala India (8th-12th Centuries) and ks International Legacy, Dayton, Ohio, 1990, Jinah Kim, “Unorthodox Practice: Rethinking the Cult of ustated Buddhist Books in South Asia’, PRD dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 2006, Denise Patry Leidy and Sherman E Asia Society’ Mr: and Mrs New York, 1994, emiah P.Losty, The Art ofthe Book in India, London, 1982. Pratapaditys Pal and Julia Mecch-Pekatk, Busihist Book Mluninato New York and Hurstpierpoint, 1988, Pratapaditya Pal, ed,, Himalayas: An Aesthetic Adv Chicago, 2003 Valrae Reynolds ct al, Catalogue of the Tibetan Collection of The Newark Museum, vol 3, Newark, 1986, Kurtis R. Schaeffer, The Culture ofthe Book tn Tibet, New York, 2009. Jasper Trier, Ancient Paper of Nepal: Result of Ethno-Techn Feld Work on is Manufacture, Uses and History, with Tech Analyses of Bast, Paper and Manuscripts, Jutland Archaeolo Society Publications Volume X, Copenhagen, 197 Masterpieces from the avas: Tibetan Manusrips, Pain Lee, Treasures of Asian Art: The Job D. Rockefeller 3nd Collection, ogical