The Practical

Reference Guide for

 THE PRACTICAL
REFERENCE GUIDE
for
HARDFACING

Compiled/Edited by
Lee G. Kvidahl
Manager, Welding and Manufacturing Engineering
Ingalls Shipbuilding Operations
Northrop Grumman Corporation

This publication is designed to provide information in regard to the subject matter covered. It is made available
with the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in the rendering of professional advice. Reliance upon
the information contained in this document should not be undertaken without an independent verification of
its application for a particular use. The publisher is not responsible for loss or damage resulting from use of this
publication. This document is not a consensus standard. Users should refer to the applicable standards for their
particular application.

550 N.W. LeJeune Road, Miami, Florida 33126

 EDITOR NOTES

The editor would like to thank the AWS Product Development Committee for sponsoring this publication. A
special thanks, also, to Dr. Ravi Menon, Stoody Co., Bowling Green, Kentucky (a Thermadyne company) for
his suggestions.

Photocopy Rights
Authorization to photocopy items for internal, personal, or educational classroom use only, or the internal,
personal, or educational classroom use only of specific clients, is granted by the American Welding Society
(AWS) provided that the appropriate fee is paid to the Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive,
Danvers, MA 01923, Tel: 978-750-8400; online: http://www.copyright.com

© 2002 by the American Welding Society. All rights reserved.

Printed in the United States of America.

ii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page No.
Basic Safety Precautions ......................................................................................................................................... iv
Introduction................................................................................................................................................................1
Hardfacing Applications ..........................................................................................................................................1
Hardfacing Properties...............................................................................................................................................2
Selection of Hardfacing Materials ...........................................................................................................................2
Hardfacing Processes—the Effect of Welding Variables on Dilution................................................................7
Other Publications Available from AWS .............................................................................................................15

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page No.

1 Common Surfacing Processes and Materials...............................................................................................1
2 High-Speed Steel Filler Metals.......................................................................................................................3
3 Austenitic Manganese Filler Metals ..............................................................................................................3
4 Austenitic High Chromium Iron Filler Metals ............................................................................................4
5 Cobalt Base Alloy Filler Metals......................................................................................................................5
6 Copper Base Alloy Filler Metals ....................................................................................................................6
7 Nickel Chromium Boron Alloy Filler Metals...............................................................................................7
8 Tungsten Carbide Filler Metals......................................................................................................................8
9 Shielded Metal Arc Process Variables—Independent Effects on Key Surfacing Characteristics ........9
10 Gas Tungsten Arc Process Variables—Independent Effects on Key Surfacing Characteristics.........10
11 Gas Metal Arc Process Variables—Independent Effects on Key Surfacing Characteristics ...............11
12 Submerged Arc Process Variables—Independent Effects on Key Surfacing Characteristics.............12

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page No.

1 Different Impingement Angles ......................................................................................................................8
2 Calculation of Base Metal Dilution................................................................................................................9
3 Effect of Travel Speed on Dilution (Other Conditions Unchanged) ......................................................13
4 Basic Surfacing Oscillation Techniques and Bead Configurations.........................................................13
5 Uphill and Downhill Welding Flat Plate and Rotating Cylindrical Parts .............................................14
6 Map of Hardfacing Applications.................................................................................................................14

iii
 BASIC SAFETY PRECAUTIONS

Burn Protection. Molten metal, sparks, slag, and hot work surfaces are produced by welding, cutting, and
allied processes. These can cause burns if precautionary measures are not used. Workers should wear protec-
tive clothing made of fire-resistant material. Pant cuffs, open pockets, or other places on clothing that can
catch and retain molten metal or sparks should not be worn. High-top shoes or leather leggings and fire-
resistant gloves should be worn. Pant legs should be worn over the outside of high-top shoes. Helmets or
hand shields that provide protection for the face, neck, and ears, and a head covering to protect the head
should be used. In addition, appropriate eye protection should be used.
Electrical Hazards. Electric shock can kill. However, it can be avoided. Live electrical parts should not be
touched. The manufacturer’s instructions and recommended safe practices should be read and understood.
Faulty installation, improper grounding, and incorrect operation and maintenance of electrical equipment are
all sources of danger.
All electrical equipment and the workpiece should be grounded. The workpiece lead is not a ground lead. It
is used only to complete the welding circuit. A separate connection is required to ground the workpiece. The
workpiece should not be mistaken for a ground connection.
Fumes and Gases. Many welding, cutting, and allied processes produce fumes and gases which may be
harmful to health. Avoid breathing the air in the fume plume directly above the arc. Do not weld in a con-
fined area without a ventilation system. Use point-of-welding fume removal when welding galvanized steel,
zinc, lead, cadmium, chromium, manganese, brass, or bronze. Do not weld on piping or containers that have
held hazardous materials unless the containers have been inerted properly.
Compressed Gas Cylinders. Keep caps on cylinders when not in use. Make sure that gas cylinders are
chained to a wall or other structural support. Do not weld on cylinders.
Radiation. Arc welding may produce ultraviolet, infrared, or light radiation. Always wear protective cloth-
ing and eye protection to protect the skin and eyes from radiation. Shield others from light radiation from
your welding operation.
Ventilation During Welding. Five major factors govern the quantity of fume to which welders and welding
operators are exposed during welding:
(1) Dimensions of the space in which welding is done (with special regard to the height of the ceiling)
(2) Number of welders and welding operators working in that space
(3) Rate of evolution of fumes, gases, or dust, according to the materials and processes involved
(4) The proximity of the welder or welding operator to the fumes as they issue from the welding zone, and to
the gases and dusts in the space in which he is working
(5) The ventilation provided to the space in which the welding is done
Refer to the section entitled, “Ventilation” in American National Standard ANSI Z49.1, Safety in Welding,
Cutting, and Allied Processes for a discussion on the ventilation that is required during welding.
Special Precautions. In the following conditions when using thermal spraying:
(1) The main source of hazard during the thermal spraying operation is the intense heat produced by the
spray gun.
(2) The heat combines with other factors to produce additional secondary hazards. These include: dust and
mist; radiated light, infrared and ultraviolet; and high intensity noise.
(3) Grit blasting, performed for surface preparation, provides hazardous conditions: high velocity air and
grit stream, dust from blast impact, and loud noise.
Caution must be exercised in protective clothing, safety glasses and shoes, and eye and ear protection. AWS
recommends a personal copy of “Arc Welding Safely,” “Fire Safety in Welding and Cutting,” “Safety in Weld-
ing, Cutting and Allied Processes,” “Thermal Spray Manual,” “Arc Welding and Cutting Noise,” and “Lens
Shade Selector.” See Ordering Information under “Other Publications Available from AWS.”

iv
 Hardfacing

Introduction Hardfacing. A surfacing variation in which surfac-

Hardfacing is one category from the family of surfac-
ing processes. Surfacing is defined in AWS A3.0,
Standard Welding Terms and Definitions, as “The appli-
cation by welding, brazing, or thermal spraying, of a
layer, or layers, of material to a surface to obtain
desired properties or dimensions, as opposed to
making a joint.” The surfacing processes may be
grouped as surface cladding, buildup, buttering, and
hardfacing. These processes are defined as follows:
Cladding. A surfacing variation that deposits or
applies surfacing material usually to improve
corrosion or heat resistance.
Buildup. A surfacing variation in which surfacing
material is deposited to achieve the required
dimensions.
Buttering. A surfacing variation that deposits sur-
facing metal on one or more surfaces to provide
metallurgically compatible weld metal for the
subsequent completion of the weld.
ing material is deposited to reduce wear. (A non-
standard term for hardfacing is hard surfacing.)
Hardfacing Applications
In hardfacing applications, a layer of surfacing
metal is applied to reduce wear by increasing the
resistance of a metal surface to abrasion, impact,
erosion, galling, or cavitation. As with cladding, the
strength of hardfacing is not considered in the de-
sign of the component (see Table 1).
In addition to the characteristics of the surfacing
material and base metal, other important consider-
ations when choosing hardfacing applications are:
(1) Geometry of the part to be surfaced
(2) Cost of the material and labor
(3) Techniques to prevent cracks in the surfacing or
application-generated cracks
(4) Techniques to minimize distortion from the
thermal stresses of welding
(5) Quality of the deposit

Table 1. Common Surfacing Processes and Materials

Process Mode of Application Surfacing Metal Forms

Oxyfuel gas (OFW) Manual or semiautomatic Powder and bare cast and tubular rods

Shielded metal arc (SMAW) Manual Covered electrodes, solid cast electrodes,
and tubular electrodes

Flux cored arc (FCAW) Semiautomatic or automatic Composite electrode of metallic sheath
and powder core

Gas metal arc (GMAW) Semiautomatic or automatic Bare solid and tubular electrodes

Submerged arc (SAW) Automatic Bare solid and tubular wires and strip

Gas tungsten arc (GTAW) Manual or automatic Powder, bare solid and tubular wires, and
bare cast rods

Plasma arc (PAW) Automatic Powder and bare and tubular wires

Thermal Spray Processes

Flame spraying (FLSP) Semiautomatic or automatic Powder and bare and tubular wires

Plasma spraying (PSP) Semiautomatic or automatic Powder

Arc spraying (ASP) Semiautomatic or automatic Bare and tubular wires

High-velocity flame Semiautomatic or automatic Powder

AWS Practical Reference Guide 1

Hardfacing
Hardfacing Properties
Properties of the hardfacing process are as follows:
Hardness
• Macrohardness (gross hardness)
• Microhardness (hardness of individual constitu-
ents in a heterogeneous structure)
• Hot hardness (resistance to the weakening effect
of service at elevated temperature during short
time loading)
• Creep resistance (resistance to plastic deforma-
tion when loaded at elevated temperatures for
relatively long periods of time)
Abrasion Resistance
• Under low stress (scratching wear)
• Under high stress (grinding)
• Under high stress and impact (gouging)
Impact Resistance
• Resistance to plastic deformation under repeated
impact loading (related to yield strength and
fatigue strength)
• Resistance to cracking under impact loading (re-
lated to ductility but including work-hardening
considerations)
Heat Resistance
• Resistance to tempering (softening with time at
temperature)
• Retention of strength when hot (including hot
hardness)
• Creep resistance (time factor added to hot
strength)
• Resistance to oxidation or corrosion by hot gases
Corrosion Resistance
Metal-to-Metal Resistance
• Friction coefficients (relative ease of sliding)
• Galling tendency (localized welding)
• Surface films (oxide layers)
• Lubricity (slipperiness)
• Plasticity (ability to deform)
2 AWS Practical Reference Guide
Erosive Wear Resistance
• Under high-angle solid particle impingement
• Under low-angle solid particle impingement
• Under liquid droplet erosion
• Under cavitation conditions
Hardfacing Advantages
When compared with other surfacing processes,
hardfacing has the following advantages:
(1) Additional resistance to wear or corrosion
exactly where it is needed
(2) Ready application in the field
(3) Economical use of expensive alloys
(4) A hard surface layer to resist wear that is sup-
ported by a tough substrate to carry the load
Selection of Hardfacing Materials
Factors to be identified for selection of surfacing
materials (see Tables 2–8) includes:
• The type of abrasive to be encountered and its
characteristics (hardness, sharpness, particle
size, and toughness)
• The amount of impact to be encountered
• The amount of support provided to the deposit
• The levels of stress involved
• The nature of the stress (tensile, compression, or
shear)
• The operating temperature
• Other significant environmental conditions
Impact Resistance
Impact may be classified as light, medium, or heavy,
depending upon the result of the impact energy.
An example of a heavy impact application is a
hardfaced mill hammer. In light impact, kinetic en-
ergy is absorbed elastically. It is absorbed both elas-
tically and plastically in medium impact. In heavy
impact, the surface of even the strongest materials
must either deform or fracture.
 Hardfacing

Table 2. High-Speed Steel Filler Metals

Properties Characteristics

Hardness The Rockwell hardness of the undiluted filler metals, in the as-welded condition, is in the range of C 55 to C 60.

Hot Hardness At temperatures up to 1100°F (595°C), the deposited Rockwell hardness of C 60 falls off very slowly to
approximately C 47. At higher temperatures, it falls off more rapidly. At about 1200°F (650°C), the maxi-
mum Rockwell hardness is about C 30.

Impact These filler metals can withstand only medium impact without cracking in the as-welded condition. After
tempering, the impact resistance is increased appreciably.

Oxidation Resistance Because of high molybdenum content, these filler metals will oxidize readily. A non-oxidizing furnace
atmosphere salt bath or borax coating should be used to prevent decarburization when heat treatments
are required.

Corrosion Resistance The weld metal can withstand atmospheric corrosion, but it is not effective in providing resistance to liquid
corrosion.

Abrasion The high stress abrasion resistance of the materials, as deposited and at room temperature, is much bet-
ter than low carbon steel. However, they are not considered high abrasion resistance alloys. Resistance to
deformation at elevated temperatures up to 1100°F (593°C) is their outstanding feature, and this may aid
hot abrasion resistance.

Metal-to-Metal Wear Deposits are well suited for metal-to-metal wear, especially at elevated temperatures. They have a low
coefficient of friction and the ability to take a high polish and retain their hardness at elevated tempera-
tures. The compressive strength is very good and will fall or rise with the tempering temperature used.

Mechanical Properties Deposits are well suited for metal-to-metal wear, especially at elevated temperatures. They have a low
in Compression coefficient of friction and the ability to take a high polish and retain their hardness at elevated tempera-
tures. The compressive strength is very good and will fall or rise with the tempering temperature used.

Machinability After deposition, these materials often have to be annealed for machining operations. For machinability,
when thoroughly annealed, they are rated at 65—as compared to 1% carbon tool steel, which has a rating
of 100. Full hardness can be regained by heat treating procedures.

Identification In the hardened or as deposited condition, these materials are highly magnetic. When spark tested, they
give off a very small, thin stream of sparks approximately 60 in. (1500 mm) long. Close to the grinding
wheel, the spark is red; at the end, it is straw color.

Table 3. Austenitic Manganese Filler Metals

Properties Characteristics

Hardness The normal hardness of these weld deposits is 170 to 230 BHN. This may be misleading as these materi-
als work harden readily to 450 to 550 BHN.

Hot Hardness Reheating above 500°F to 600°F (250°C to 315°C) may cause serious embrittlement.

Impact These materials, as deposited, are considered the outstanding engineering material for heavy impact
service.

Oxidation Resistance These materials are similar to ordinary carbon steels in this respect and are not resistant to oxidation.

Corrosion Resistance These materials are similar to ordinary carbon steels in this respect and are not resistant to corrosion.

Abrasion Resistance to high and low stress abrasion is moderate against hard abrasives like quartz.

Metal-to-Metal Wear Metal-to-metal wear resistance is frequently excellent. The yield strength in compression is low, but any
compressive deformation rapidly raises it until plastic flow ceases. This behavior is an asset in hammer-
ing, pounding and bumping wear situations.

Mechanical Properties Metal-to-metal wear resistance is frequently excellent. The yield strength in compression is low, but any
in Compression compressive deformation rapidly raises it until plastic flow ceases. This behavior is an asset in hammer-
ing, pounding and bumping wear situations.

Machinability Machining is very difficult with ordinary tools and equipment; finished surfaces are usually ground.

Identification A clean ground surface is substantially non-magnetic and grinding sparks are plentiful in contrast to the
non-magnetic stainless steels.

AWS Practical Reference Guide 3

Hardfacing

Table 4. Austenitic High Chromium Iron Filler Metals

Properties Characteristics

Hardness The as-welded hardness for these materials, when deposited with an oxyfuel process will vary with
the carbon content. As dilution is not expected in normal oxyfuel welding applications, the principle
variable in carbon pick-up is flame adjustment. The average Rockwell hardness can be from C 51
to C 62.

Hot Hardness Hardness for these materials falls slowly with increasing temperatures up to about 800° F to 900° F
(425° C to 480° C), thereafter, it falls rapidly and also becomes strongly affected by creep. However,
the loss of hardness due to tempering is negligible in comparison with many martensitic alloys.
Very little is known about the resistance of these alloys to thermal shock and thermal fatigue.

Impact These deposits may withstand very light impact without cracking but cracks will form readily if blows
produce plastic deformation. These filler metals seldom are used under conditions of medium
impact and they are generally considered unsuitable for heavy impact.

Oxidation Resistance The high chromium content of these materials confers excellent oxidation resistance up to 1800° F
(980° C), and they can be considered for hot wear applications in which their hot plasticity is not
objectionable.

Corrosion Resistance The matrix chromium content is comparatively low and thus, not very effective in providing resis-
tance to liquid corrosion. These deposits will rust in moist air and are not stainless, but are more
stable than ordinary iron and steel.

Abrasion The resistance to low stress abrasion is outstanding and is related to the volume of the hard car-
bides. As stress on the abrasion increases, their performance declines. As deposited, the materials
are only mediocre under high stress grinding abrasion, and are not advantageous for such service.

Metal-to-Metal Wear
Low stress abrasion produces a good polish on these filler metals, with a resulting low coefficient of
friction. where the polish is produced by metal-to-metal wear, performance is also good. Resis-
tance to galling is considered better than for ordinary hardened steel because tempering from fric-
tional heat is negligible. Austenite alone is prone to gall, and its presence may lead to unfavorable
performance. Also, the hard carbides can stand in relief through wear of the austenite, and can cut
or cause excessive wear upon a mating surface. Therefore, metal-to-metal service should be
approached cautiously.

Mechanical Properties in
Compression
In compression, these materials are expected to have a yield strength of between 80,000 and
140,000 psi (551 to 965 MPa) with an ultimate strength ranging from 150,000 psi to 180,000 psi
(1034 MPa to 1930 MPa). They will show about one percent elastic deformation and tolerate from
0.5% to 3% additional plastic deformation before failure at the ultimate strength. Like other cast
irons, the tensile strength is low; therefore, tension should be avoided in designs for their use.

Machinability These deposits are considered commercially unmachinable with cutting tools, and they are also
very difficult to grind.

Identification The filler metals frequently can be identified by certain characteristics: (1) brittleness of the cast
welding rod; (2) nonmagnetic behavior; (3) a very dull, lifeless spark that is short and produced with
difficulty; and (4) sometimes the presence of fine needle-like Cr7C3 crystals on a fracture section.
A spot test for cobalt will distinguish it from the somewhat similar CoCr-C filler metals. The mag-
netic permeability is about 1.03 with a magnetizing force of 24 oersteds.

Austenitic steels containing 11% to 20% manganese are Heat Resistance

commonly used for resisting heavy impact due to their
work-hardening characteristics. Certain low-carbon co-
balt and nickel alloys also are excellent for impact resis-
tance. Other choices for impact resistance include
pearlitic steels and martensitic steels. In general, the im-
pact resistance of martensitic steels is inferior to that of
manganese-containing austenitic or pearlitic steels, but
the abrasion resistance of martensitic steels is better.
In general, resistance to thermal fatigue increases
with increasing thermal conductivity, ultimate ten-
sile strength, elongation at rupture, and Young’s
modulus. Resistance to thermal fatigue decreases
with increasing coefficient of expansion. Martensi-
tic stainless steels containing 5% to 12% chromium
are often used for resistance to thermal fatigue.

4 AWS Practical Reference Guide

 Hardfacing

Table 5. Cobalt Base Alloy Filler Metals

Properties Characteristics

Hardness The usual hardness ranges for these alloys are dependent upon the specific alloy selected. For
example, CoCr-A may range from C 38-47 when welded with the oxyfuel process and from C 23-47
when an arc welding process is used. Similarly, CoCr-B can range from C 45 to 49 with oxyfuel and
from C 34 to 47 with arc welding, and alloy CoCr-C may range from C 48 to 58 with oxyfuel and
C 43 to 58 with arc welding processes. The cobalt base alloys are exceptions to the norm in that
although they exhibit lower hardness while hot, they return to approximately their original hardness
upon cooling and can be considered immune to tempering.

Hot Hardness Elevated temperature strength and hardness are outstanding properties of CoCr filler metals.
These materials are generally considered superior to other surfacing alloys where these properties
are required above 1200° F (650° C). Additionally, at temperatures above 1000° F to 1200° F (540° C
to 650° C), weld deposits of these filler metals have greater resistance to creep than other available
surfacing alloys for which data is available. This distinction, and their hardness at 1200° F (650° C)
and above, are the primary reasons for their selection for use in many applications.

Impact Resistance to flow under impact increases with carbon content in CoCr filler metals. CoCr-C weld
deposits are quite brittle and crack readily when impact flow does occur. CoCr-A deposits, while
easily deformed, can withstand some plastic flow under compression before cracking.

Oxidation Resistance The presence of more than 25% chromium in CoCr filler metals promotes the formation of a thin,
tightly adherent protective scale under oxidizing conditions. Scaling resistance to combustion
products of internal combustion engines is also generally adequate, even in the presence of lead
compounds.

Corrosion Resistance CoCr filler metals are considered to be “stainless” and are frequently useful where abrasion and
corrosion are involved. They can be considered corrosion resistant in the less severe media, in
foods, and in air; and they even may have good resistance in some corrosives. However, an appli-
cation that involves corrosion should be confirmed by a field test.

Abrasion Carbon content has much to do with the response of CoCr filler metals to abrasion. At 1% carbon
(CoCr-A), the performance is inferior to that of carbon steel; at 2.5% carbon (CoCr-C), the resis-
tance to high stress grinding abrasion is good.

Metal-to-Metal Wear The CoCr filler metals are well suited for metal-to-metal wear because of their ability to take a high
polish and their low coefficient of friction.

Mechanical Properties in The compressive yield strength ranges from 64 to 76 ksi (441 to 524 MPa) for CoCr-A and 85 ksi to
Compression 110 ksi (586 MPa to 758 MPa) for CoCr-C. The ultimate compressive strength similarly ranges from
150 ksi to 230 ksi (1034 MPa to 1586 MPa) for CoCr-A and 250 ksi to 270 ksi (1724 MPa to
1861 MPa) for CoCr-C.

Machinability None of the deposits from CoCr filler metals are easily machinable, and the difficulty increases
along with the increased carbon content.

Identification These materials usually may be distinguished by their relative hardness and brittleness. They are
nonmagnetic. A spark test may be used to differentiate them from austenitic manganese steel.
However, the austenitic chromium irons are so similar that an acid test may be required to differen-
tiate between these materials.

An example of failure due to thermal fatigue is “fire
cracking” in continuous casting rolls in steel mills.
Metal-to-Metal Wear Resistance
The wear that results from metal-to metal contact is
due primarily to galling, i.e., the localized welding
of mating surfaces with subsequent ripping apart of
these welds. This in turn leaves a roughened sur-
face and produces additional wear. Resistance to
galling is greatly influenced by the type and stabil-
ity of oxide that is present on the surface. Tough
adherent films are desirable, because a ruptured
metal oxide film can become trapped and act as an
abrasive.
Subsurface fatigue is another mechanism leading to
metal-to-metal wear. In addition to the nature of the
surface oxide, materials that work harden or have
low stacking-fault energy offer good resistance to

AWS Practical Reference Guide 5

Hardfacing

Table 6. Copper Base Alloy Filler Metals

Properties Characteristics

Hardness Deposit hardness will vary with the welding process used and the manner in which the metal is
deposited. For example, deposits made with the gas metal arc or gas tungsten arc processes will
be higher in hardness than deposits made with the oxyfuel or shielded metal arc welding pro-
cesses. This is because lower losses of aluminum, tin, silicon, and zinc are encountered in the
remelting process due to better shielding from oxidation.

Hot Hardness The copper base alloy filler materials are not recommended for use at elevated temperatures.

Impact The impact resistance of CuAl-A2 deposits will be the highest of the copper base alloy classifica-
tions. As the aluminum content increases, impact resistance decreases markedly. CuSi weld
deposits have good impact properties. The CuSn filler metals, as deposited, have low impact
values due to the coarse grain structures and the lower strength inherent in these alloys. The
CuZn-E deposits have very low impact values.

Oxidation Resistance Deposits of the CuAl filler metals form a protective oxide coating upon exposure to the atmosphere.
Oxidation resistance of the CuSi deposit is fair, while that of CuSn filler metals is comparable to that
of pure copper.

Corrosion Resistance Copper base alloys are used rather extensively to surface areas subjected to corrosion from vari-
ous acids, mild alkalies, and salt water. The only exception is filler metal of the CuZn-E classifica-
tion. Filler metals producing deposits of higher hardness, that is, 120 to 200 BHN (3000 kg load),
may be used to surface areas subjected to corrosive action as well as erosion from liquid flow.

Abrasion None of the copper base alloy deposits are recommended for use where severe abrasion is
encountered in service.

Metal-to-Metal Wear The CuAl filler metals producing deposits of highest hardness, 130 BHN to 390 BHN (3000 kg load)
are used to overlay surfaces subjected to excessive wear from metal-to-metal contact. All of the
copper base alloy filler metals are used to deposit overlays and inlays for bearing surfaces, with the
exception of the CuSi filler metals. Silicon bronzes are considered poor bearing alloys. Slight poros-
ity in the deposit is sometimes acceptable for bearing service. In fact, CuZn-E, which is a leaded
bronze, was designed to produce a porous deposit in order to retain oil, primarily for additional
lubrication purposes in the overlay of locomotive journal boxes.

Mechanical Properties in Deposits of the CuAl filler metals have high elastic limits and ultimate strengths in compression
Compression ranging from 25,000 psi to 65,000 psi (172 MPa to 448 MPa) and 120,000 psi to 171,000 psi (827
MPa to 1174 MPa), respectively. The elastic limit of CuSi deposits is approximately 22,000 psi (152
MPa) with an ultimate strength in compression of 60,000 psi (414 MPa). The CuZn deposits will
have an elastic limit of 11,000 psi (76 MPa) and an ultimate strength of 32,000 psi (221 MPa). The
mechanical properties of the leaded bronzes, CuZn-E, are very low in compression, with an elastic
limit of about 5000 psi (34 MPa) and an ultimate strength of 20,000 psi (138 MPa).

Machinability All of the copper base alloy deposits can be machined.

Identification All of the copper base alloy deposits are nonmagnetic and non-sparking.

metal-to-metal wear. Low stacking-fault energy oc- Erosive Wear Resistance

curs in face-centered cubic alloys when there is great
separation between adjacent partial dislocations,
and it is a condition that favors a high rate of strain
hardening, a desirable characteristic.
The material selection obviously depends on the
mating metal. Commonly used alloys for galling re-
sistance contain carbides of such elements as tung-
sten, chromium, molybdenum, or vanadium in a
cobalt matrix, nickel alloys, tool steels, and austen-
itic manganese steels also are used.
In situations of solid-particle impingement, hard-
facing alloys with high carbide content are gener-
ally recommended for low-angle impingement (less
than 15°). Those with low carbide content or other
precipitates are preferred for high-angle impinge-
ment (greater than 80°). Figure 1 illustrates different
impingement angles.
Cobalt alloys are typically used for liquid droplet
erosion and cavitation resistance due to their inher-
ent properties in work hardening and fatigue

6 AWS Practical Reference Guide

 Hardfacing

Table 7. Nickel Chromium Boron Alloy Filler Metals

Properties Characteristics

Hardness The hardness of these alloys may range from Rockwell C 24 to C 62. Deposits of NiCr filler metals
work harden to a greater degree when considerable iron dilution is present (one layer arc weld)
than when there is less iron dilution (two-layer arc weld).

Hot Hardness The hardness of the deposits will soften at elevated temperatures. For example, an arc welded
deposit of NiCr-A may be reduced from Rockwell C 30 to C 24 at 1000° F (540° C) while an arc
welded deposit of NiCr-C may change from C 49 to C 39.

Impact Deposits of NiCr filler metal will withstand light impact fairly well. However, if the impact blows pro-
duce plastic deformation, cracks are certain to appear in the NiCr-C weld metal and less likely to
appear in the NiCr-A and NiCr-B deposits.

Oxidation Resistance NiCr deposits are oxidation-resistant up to 1800° F (980° C) because of their high nickel and chro-
mium contents. However, the incipient fusion may occur near this temperature, and use of these
filler metals above 1750° F (955° C) is not recommended.

Corrosion Resistance Deposits of NiCr filler metal are completely resistant to atmospheric, steam, salt water, and salt
spray corrosion. They are also resistant to the milder acids and many common corrosive chemicals.
However, if an application that involves corrosion is under consideration, general statements about
corrosion should be confirmed by a field test.

Abrasion The high carbon classification of these alloys, NiCr-C, has excellent resistance to low stress
scratching abrasion and is particularly valuable where such abrasion is combined with corrosion.
Abrasion resistance is expected to decrease with decreasing carbon content. These filler metals
are not recommended for high stress grinding abrasion.

Metal-to-Metal Wear NiCr deposits have excellent metal-to-metal wear resistance and acquire a high polish under wear-
ing conditions. They are particularly resistant to galling.

Mechanical Properties in Information on these properties is not available.

Compression

Machinability Deposits of NiCr filler metals may be machined with tungsten carbide tools by using slow speeds,
light feeds, and heavy tool shanks. NiCr filler metals also may be finished by grinding, using a soft
to medium vitrified silicon carbide wheel.

Identification NiCr deposits are nonmagnetic. When spark tested, they give off a short, dull, red spark without
bursting. They have a higher fluidity and lower melting point than the cobalt base alloy filler metals.

strength and their ability to absorb stresses. Certain
iron-chromium-manganese alloys also have shown
excellent cavitation resistance.
Hardfacing Processes—the Effect
of Welding Variables on Dilution
Most surfacing is performed by using one of the
consumable electrode arc welding processes. Dilu-
tion is the change in chemical composition of a
welding filler metal caused by the admixture of
the base metal or previous weld metal in the weld
bead. It is measured by the percentage of base
metal or previous weld metal in the weld bead
(see Figure 2).
Because of the importance of dilution, it is neces-
sary that the effect of each consumable electrode arc
welding variable be known. Many of the welding
variables that affect dilution, and therefore require
close control in surfacing, need not be controlled
when arc welding a joint (see Tables 9–12 and Figures
3 and 4).
Welding Variables Affecting Dilution
The welding variables are as follows:
Amperage
Increasing the amperage (current density) increases
dilution. The arc becomes stiffer and hotter, pene-
trating more deeply and melting more base metal.

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Table 8. Tungsten Carbide Filler Metals

Properties Characteristics

Hardness The hardness of the deposit is dependent upon the size of the carbide granules in the welding rod.
For example, a hardness of Rockwell C 30 can be obtained for a deposit of 10 mesh particles and a
hardness of C 60 can be obtained for a deposit of 100 mesh particles.

Hot Hardness The weld deposit retains its hardness up to 1000° F (540° C). Arc welded deposits exhibit better hot
hardness than oxyfuel deposit.

Impact Both the carbide granules and the weld deposits are relatively brittle and vulnerable to sudden ten-
sile stresses. They have high compressive strength and can withstand light impacts that do not pro-
duce compression stress above the yield strength. Impact blows faster than 50 ft/s (15.2 m/s)
should be avoided and the design should avoid tensile stress.

Oxidation Resistance Tungsten carbide has a low resistance to oxidation. Exposed granules of tungsten carbide will oxi-
dize to form voluminous yellow tungsten oxide at temperatures above 1000° F (540° C).

Corrosion Resistance Though the granules may be resistant to many media, the matrix of the standardized tube welding
rod is practically as vulnerable to rusting and corrosion as ordinary steel. These materials should
not be selected if corrosion resistance is required.

Abrasion Weld deposits made from these materials are appropriate for resisting low stress scratching or high
stress grinding abrasion. In either type, the matrix tends to abrade more rapidly, permitting the car-
bides to stand in relief. Arc welds have behavior related to granule size and welding current, while
oxyfuel gas process welds are usually higher in abrasion resistance and are more consistent.

Metal-to-Metal Wear Tungsten carbide deposits are not applicable for conditions of metal-to-metal wear.

Mechanical Properties in Deposits can be made by using high strength bonding alloys to give a deposit with high compres-
Compression sive strength; but the usual carbon steel binders give deposits that have a compression strength
about the same as a high carbon steel deposit.

Machinability Tungsten carbide deposits are considered commercially unmachinable.

Identification Tungsten carbide particles have the following properties: (1) nonmagnetic; (2) high density; (3)
insoluble in most acids; (4) readily form a yellow oxide when heated red hot in air; (5) high melting
point (practically impossible to melt in an oxyacetylene flame); and (6) very hard and quite brittle.

HIGH Electrode Size

ANGLE
Smaller electrodes mean lower amperages, as a
rule, and therefore lower dilution. In gas metal arc
welding, for a given amperage, larger electrodes
(and lower current densities) mean lower dilution if
LOW
the larger electrodes result in spray transfer. With
ANGLE SURFACE
other welding processes the results may vary.

Figure 1. Different Impingement Angles
Polarity
Direct current electrode negative (DCEN) give less
penetration and therefore lower dilution than direct
current electrode positive (DCEP). Alternating cur-
rent gives dilution that is intermediate between
DCEN and DCEP.
Electrode Extension
A long electrode extension decreases dilution (for
consumable electrode processes) by increasing the
melting rate of the electrode (I 2R heating) and dif-
fusing the energy of the arc as it impinges on the
base metal. Conversely, a short electrode extension
increases dilution, within limits.
Travel Speed
A decrease in travel speed decreases the amount
of base metal melted and increases the amount of

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Figure 2. Calculation of Base Metal Dilution

Table 9. Shielded Metal Arc Process Variables— Independent Effects on Key Surfacing Characteristics
Influence of Change on

Variable Change of Variablea Dilution Deposition Rate Deposit Thickness

Polarity AC Intermediate Intermediate Intermediate

DCEP High Low Thin
DCEN Low High Thick

Amperage High High High Thick

Low Low Low Thin

Technique Stringer High No effect Thick

Weave Low No effect Thin

Bead spacing Narrow Low No effect Thick

Wide High No effect Thin

Electrode diameter Small High High Thick

Large Low Low Thin

Arc length Long Low No effect Thin

Short High No effect Thick

Travel speed Fast High No effect Thin

Slow Low No effect Thick

Position Flat 4 No effect 4

Uphill 3 No effect 3
Downhill 4 No effect 4
Horizontal 2– 4 No effect 1 (Thickest)
Vertical-upb 1 (Highest) No effect 5 (Thinnest)
Vertical-upc 5 (Lowest) No effect 2

Notes:
a. This table assumes that only one variable at a time is changed. However, for acceptable surfacing conditions, a change in one
variable may require a change in one or more other variables.
b. The arc directed on work (forehand welding).
c. The arc directed on surfacing buildup (backhand welding).

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Table 10. Gas Tungsten Arc Process Variables— Independent Effects on Key Surfacing Characteristics
Influence of Change on

Variable Change of Variablea Dilution Deposition Deposit Thickness

Current type AC Average Average Average

DC Lower or higher Lower or higher Lower or higher

Polarity DCEN High High Thick

DCEP Low Low Thin

Shielding gas Argon Lowest Lowest Thinnest

Helium Highest Highest Highest

Amperage High High High Thick

Low Low Low Thin

Technique Stringer High No effect Thick

Weave Low No effect Thin

Bead spacing (pitch) Narrow Low No effect Thick

Wide High No effect Thin

Electrode extension Short No effect No effect No effect

Long No effect No effect No effect

Surfacing wire diameter Small High Low Thin

Large Low High Thick

Voltage High Low No effect Thin

Low High No effect Thick

Travel speed Fast High No effect Thin

Slow Low No effect Thick

Position Flat 4 No effect 4

Uphill 3 No effect 3
Downhill 4 No effect 4
Horizontal 2– 4 No effect 1 (Thickest)
Vertical-upb 1 (Highest) No effect 5 (Thinnest)
Vertical-upc 5 (Lowest) No effect 2

Auxiliary wire(s) Low High Thicker

Notes:
a. This table assumes that only one variable at a time is changed. However, for acceptable surfacing conditions, a change in one
variable may require a change in one or more other variables.
b. The arc directed on work (forehand welding).
c. The arc directed on surfacing buildup (backhand welding).

surfacing metal added, per unit time or distance;
thus it decreases dilution. This reduction in dilution
is brought about by the change in bead shape and
thickness and by the fact that the arc force is
expended on the weld pool rather than the base
metal.
Welding Position and Work Inclination
The position of welding in which the surfacing is
applied has an important bearing on the amount of
dilution obtained. Depending on the welding posi-
tion or work inclination, gravity will cause the pool
to run ahead of, remain under, or run behind the
arc. The more the pool stays ahead of or under the
arc, the less the penetration into the base metal and
the lower the dilution; thus, the pool acts as a cush-
ion, absorbing some of the arc energy before it can
impinge on the base metal. This absorption of arc
energy flattens and spreads the pool and also, the
weld bead. If the pool is too far ahead of the arc or
too thick, there will be insufficient melting of the
surface of the base metal and fusion will not take
place.

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Table 11. Gas Metal Arc Process Variables— Independent Effects on Key Surfacing Characteristics
Influence of Change on

Variable Change of Variablea Dilution Deposition Rate Deposit Thickness

Polarity DCEP High Low Thin

DCEN Low High Thick

Shielding Gas Argon Lowest Lowest Thinnest

Helium Highest Highest Thickest
Carbon dioxide Intermediate Intermediate Intermediate

Arc Transfer Spray 1 (Highest) 1 (Highest) 1 (Thickest)

Globular 3 3 3
Short circuit 4 (Lowest) 4 (Lowest) 4 (Thinnest)
Pulsed 2 2 2

Amperage High High High Thick

Low Low Low Thin

Technique Stringer High No effect Thick

Weave Low No effect Thin

Bead Spacing Narrow Low No effect Thick

Wide High No effect Thin

Electrode Extension Short High Low Thin

Long Low High Thick

Electrode Diameter Small High High Thick

Large Low Low Thin

Voltage High Low No effect Thin

Low High No effect Thick

Travel Speed Fast High No effect Thin

Slow Low No effect Thick

Position Flat 3 No effect 4

Uphill 2 No effect 3
Downhill 4 No effect 4
Horizontal 2– 4 No effect 1 (Thickest)
Vertical-upb 1 (Highest) No effect 5 (Thinnest)
Vertical-upc 5 (Lowest) No effect 2

Auxiliary Wire(s) Low High Thicker

Notes:
a. This table assumes that only one variable at a time is changed. However, for acceptable surfacing conditions, a change in one
variable may require a change in one or more other variables.
b. The arc directed on work (forehand welding).
c. The arc directed on surfacing buildup (backhand welding).

The order of decreasing dilution for work position The ranking represents the typical case. With spe-
is as follows: cialized procedures, the dilution obtained in a
given position can be significantly changed, with a
(1) Vertical-up (highest dilution) resultant change in the ranking.
(2) Horizontal
Most surfacing is performed in the flat position.
(3) Flat with incline, uphill Uphill or downhill welding can be achieved by
(4) Flat with no incline inclining the part to be surfaced or by placing the
arc off-center for rotating cylindrical parts (see
(5) Flat with incline, downhill (lowest dilution) Figure 5).

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Table 12. Submerged Arc Process Variables— Independent Effects on Key Surfacing Characteristics
Influence of Change on

Deposit
Variable Change of Variablea Dilution Deposition Rate Thickness

Power supply and connection AC Intermediate Intermediate Intermediate

DCEP Highest Lowest Thinnest
DCEN Lowest Highest Thickest

Amperage High High High Thick

Low Low Low Thin

Technique Stringer High No effect Thick

Weave Low No effect Thin

Bead spacing Narrow Low No effect Thick

Wide High No effect Thin

Electrode extension Short High Low Thin

Long Low High Thick

Electrode diameter Small High High Thick

Large Low Low Thin

Voltage High Low No effect Thin

Low High No effect Thick

Travel speed Fast High No effect Thin

Slow Low No effect Thick

Position Flat Intermediate No effect Intermediate

Uphill Highest No effect Thickest
Downhill Lowest No effect Thinnest

Process variations 1 electrode 2 5 (Lowest) 5 (Thinnest)

1 electrode & surfacing wire 3 5 4
1 electrode & hot surfacing wire 4 4 4
2 wire series 3 4 4
2 wire series & cold wire 4 3 3
Multiple wire 2 2 2
Strip electrode 1 (Highest) 2 3
Hot and cold strip 5 (Lowest) 1 (Highest 1 (Thickest)
Powder addition 4 3 3

a. This table assumes that only one variable at a time is changed. The table indicates only general trends and does not cover questions
of weldability or weld soundness. These factors may make it unwise to change only the indicated variable; the desired change in
dilution, deposition rate, or deposit thickness may not be achieved.

Arc Shielding (1) Helium (highest dilution)

(2) Granular fluxes without alloy addition
The shielding medium, gas or flux, has a significant
affect on dilution. It influences the fluidity and sur- (3) Carbon dioxide
face tension of the weld pool. These, in turn, deter- (4) Argon
mine the extent to which the weld metal will wet
the base metal and blend in along the edges of the (5) Granular fluxes with alloy addition (lowest
bead, forming a nicely shaped weld bead. The dilution)
shielding medium also has a significant effect on
the type of welding current that can be used. The Auxiliary Surfacing Metal
list below ranks, in general, the different shielding The addition of surfacing metal, other than the elec-
media in order of decreasing dilution: trode, to the weld pool during surfacing can greatly

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LOWEST DEPOSITION RATE

HIGHEST DEPOSITION RATE

STRINGER PENDULUM STRAIGHT STRAIGHT

BEAD LINE LINE,
INCREASING DILUTION

CONSTANT
VELOCITY

DECREASING TRAVEL SPEED

(INCREASING BEAD THICKNESS)

Figure 3. Effect of Travel Speed on Dilution Figure 4. Basic Surfacing Oscillation

(Other Conditions Unchanged) Techniques and Bead Configurations

reduce dilution. The extra metal, added separately as melted. This is accomplished by using some of the
powder, wire, or strip or with the flux, reduces dilu- arc energy to melt auxiliary surfacing metal instead
tion by both increasing the total amount of surfacing of the base metal. The greater the amount of surfac-
metal and reducing the amount of base metal that is ing metal added, the lower the dilution (see Figure 6).

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CENTER LINE
N
CTIO
DIRE
CENTER LINE
NG
W ELDI

OFF-CENTER
OFF-CENTER DIRECTION OF DISTANCE
DISTANCE ROTATION ANGLE OF INCLINATION
ROTATION
DIRECTION
Uphill Welding

CENTER LINE
ON
DIRECTI
CENTER LINE

DING
WEL

OFF-CENTER
OFF-CENTER DIRECTION OF DISTANCE
DISTANCE ROTATION ANGLE OF INCLINATION
ROTATION
DIRECTION
Downhill Welding

Figure 5. Uphill and Downhill Welding Flat Plate and Rotating Cylindrical Parts

10.0

7.0
EXTRA CARBIDE
PREMIUM CARBIDE
5.0
PRIMARY CARBIDE
AND EUTECTIC
4.0
NEAR EUTECTIC
3.0
PRIMARY AUSTENITE PLUS
EUTECTIC (CARBIDE & AUSTENITE)
CARBON, %

2.0

1.0 MARTENSITE AUS-

+ AUSTENITE TENITIC
0.7 Mn

MAR-
0.5 TEN- PREMIUM
SITE AUSTENITIC
TOOL Cr + Mn
0.4 STEEL

0.3

0.2 BUILD CASTER

UP ROLLS
SEVERE ABRASIVE WEAR
0.1 IMPACT AND ABRASIVE WEAR
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 GOUGING AND IMPACT WEAR
ALLOY, % ROLLING AND SLIDING WEAR

Figure 6. Map of Hardfacing Applications

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Other Publications Available from AWS

Code Document
A2.4 Standard Symbols for Welding, Brazing, and Nondestructive Examination
A3.0 Standard Welding Terms and Definitions
A5.various Surfacing Alloy Series in AWS Filler Metal Specifications
TSM Thermal Spray Manual
TSS Thermal Spraying: Practice, Theory, and Application
UGFM-95 User’s Guide to Filler Metals
WHB-2.8 Welding Processes, Welding Handbook (2.8 or latest volume)
WHB-4.8 Materials and Applications, Part 2, Welding Handbook (2.8 or latest volume)
For ordering information, contact Global Engineering Documents, An Information Handling Services Group
Company, 15 Inverness Way East, Englewood, Colorado 80112-5776. Telephones: (800) 854-7179, (303) 397-7956;
FAX (303) 397-2740; E-Mail: global@ihs.com; Internet: www.global.ihs.com.

AWS Practical Reference Guide 15