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Applied Principles of Optimal

Power Development
Max Schmarzo & Matt Van Dyke
Applied Principles
of Optimal Power
Development

Max Schmarzo
&
Matt Van Dyke
Table of Contents

Preface…………………………………………………………………………………………i
The Facilitation of Power Development……………………………………....ii
About the Authors………………………………………………………………………iii

Section 1
Organization of Power Development in Daily Training…………………1

Section 2
Maximal Intent………………………………………………………………………….…7

Section 3
Achieve the Highest Level of Readiness………………………….…………..13

Section 4
Optimal Load………………….…………………………………….……………………30

Section 5
Maintain Velocity………………………………………………………………………41
Section 6
Minimize Fatigue Part I.………………………………………………………….…62
Minimize Fatigue Part II.…………………..…………………………………….…74

Section 7
Addendum: Other Power Training Considerations….…………………93
Preface

This manual was created to assist coaches, athletes, and practitioners better understand
the key aspects of power development and how specific training methods can help
ensure power receives the desired amount of stress. This manual is not a cookie-cutter
program claiming to be a “one-size fits all”, but rather it is designed to provide and
teach coaches the scientific theories and concepts of how to optimize the training of
power. It will provide some practical examples of how to implement these methods
along with some theoretical guidelines. The goal of this manual is to provide every coach
the necessary tools to optimize power training and apply the ideas, concepts, and
methods in ways they best see fit for their athletes.

“... The final goal of competition exercises in Olympic sports (‘Citius, Altius, Fortius’ -
’Faster, Higher, Stronger’) may almost always be related to the capacity to express
power produced by the speed of movements and by the force of overcoming external
resistance. Consequently, a training process focused on improving the sports results
represents the process of increasing the power output of competition exercises” (p.29)

“The final aim of sport training is the improvement of sport results, which is expressed by
the power output of competition exercise. The power output of competition exercise
depends on the athlete's motor potential and on the athlete's capacity to utilize it” (p.65)

-Special Strength Training Manual For Coaches Yuri Verkhoshansky and Natalia
Verkhoshansky

i
The Facilitation of Power
Development

It is imperative to note that this manual describes the most useful, available, and up-to-
date methods to improve the aspect of muscular power. However, power development
is much more complicated than simply following the guidelines provided in this manual.
The adaptations required to improve this aspect of performance involve multiple
cellular, structural, and neurological changes within the body. In order to optimize each
of these individual adaptations, different training methods must be implemented. Some
of these training methods required to achieve these facilitating adaptations may not be
initially associated with “power” training. However, that does not mean that these
specific qualities (absolute strength, cross-sectional area, tendon stiffness, etc.) do not
facilitate and/or further improve the “base” for power development. A well-rounded
foundation is necessary prior to optimal power being realized through specific means.
These specific means will be broken down throughout this manual into five key
components of “power training”. Other facilitating qualities, those which make up the
required base, will be assumed to already exist.

ii
About the Authors
Max Schmarzo
Max Schmarzo is an NSCA Certified Strength and Conditioning Coach (CSCS) and NATA Certified
Athletic Trainer (ATC). He received his MS in Kinesiology from Iowa State University, where he
led investigative research on relationship between the force-velocity profile of the squat and
vertical jump height.

Prior to entering graduate school, Max played four years of NCAA Division III basketball. As an
undergrad, he doubled majored in athletic training and strength and conditioning.

Throughout his undergraduate and graduate schooling, he was able to complete several
internships, including working under Chris Doyle at the University of Iowa, Josh Beauregard at
Iowa State University and Donald Chu at Athercare in Dublin, California.

Max also writes professionally for his website and social media (Instagram),
http://www.strongbyscience.net/ and @Strong_by_Science, respectively.

Matt Van Dyke


Matt Van Dyke is the Associate Director of Sports Performance at the University of Denver
where he is responsible for designing and implementing performance training for men’s
lacrosse, alpine ski, volleyball, and swimming.

Prior to his position with Denver, Matt was the Assistant Director of Strength and Conditioning
for Olympic Sports at the University of Minnesota. Matt completed his Graduate Assistantship at
St. Cloud State University, where he earned his Masters of Science in exercise physiology and
nutrition in 2015.

Matt completed internships with Iowa State and the University of Minnesota under Yancy
McKnight and Cal Dietz, respectively.

Matt most recently released the Triphasic Lacrosse Training Manual, presented at the 2015
CSCCa National Conference on Advanced Triphasic Training Methods, while also writing for his
professional website vandykestrength.com.

Matt is certified by the CSCCa (SCCC). He earned his Bachelor’s Degree in exercise science from
Iowa State University in 2012.

iii
Section 1

ORGANIZATION OF POWER
DEVELOPMENT IN DAILY TRAINING

1
The ability of an athlete to produce high levels of power is critical for their success. For
this reason, improving this quality is constantly sought after by all performance and
strength coaches. Power, when looked at from a basic physics standpoint, relies on both
high force and velocity outputs. Maximal strength is of great importance, but if an
athlete is never trained to utilize their force producing capabilities in an appropriate
manner they will not be prepared to the highest possible level for competition.

This is not new information to the majority of performance coaches at this time.
However, the daily training required to maximize an athlete’s power production is not
as well understood and in some cases misused. The goal of this manual is to provide the
proper content to allow an optimal training day to be designed entirely around the
improvement of power production at a desired velocity or force.

As this topic requires specific training methods to be implemented, five basic principles
of power training will be outlined throughout this manual, as they would be used in a
daily training session. These five principles include:

1. Maximal Intent
2. Achieve the Highest Level of Readiness
3. Optimal Load Dosage
4. Importance of Velocity
5. Minimize Fatigue

With each of these, physiological reasoning, along with examples of each principle will
be provided. If any of these five principles are overlooked in training, it is likely the
training adaptations required to improve power production will not be realized to the
greatest extent possible.

2
What Is Power?

Before each of the five principles are fully introduced, it is important that a brief review
of “power” and the underlying principles of physics are covered. Power is equal to force
multiplied by the velocity of the implement, or P = F*V. In training terms this refers to
the weight of the object being moved (athlete’s body, barbell, dumbbells, etc.) and the
velocity at which it is moved. Each of these components of power are of equal
importance in the equation, which is why both optimal load and the importance of
velocity are primary principles covered in this manual.

The force-velocity curve (Figure 1.1), also referred to as the load-velocity curve, is the
relationship between force (weight on the bar) and velocity (speed the load is moved
at). These variables have an inverse relationship, meaning as load (force) goes up
velocity goes down and vice versa. This means the region of highest power is that where
both force and velocity are optimized.

In dynamic movements, the force-velocity relationship movement is linear, as


represented by the blue line in Figure 1.1 (1-4). This is a little different than the parabola
shaped force-velocity curve portrayed, from the original findings of A.V Hill’s work (5).
However, the differences may be due to the fact Hill used a single muscle fiber while
other researchers have investigated the relationship of a whole movement (1-4). Without
diving too far off topic, the linear relationship makes the force-velocity curve much
easier to understand and apply than Hill’s original hyperbolic, single fiber, force-velocity
curve.

3
Figure 1.1: Linear force-velocity-power relationship of a squat

One intricacy of power that is often overlooked is that the same power output can be
generated in two different fashions, as demonstrated in Figure 1.2. Power can be
created by either a high force and low velocity or a low force and high velocity. By
understanding both the force-velocity curve and the equation for determining power,
this should make sense. As an athlete reduces load and increases velocity, at some point
along the continuum two equal amounts of power will be produced.

 Power (a) = FORCE x velocity

 Power (b) = force x VELOCITY

 Optimal Power = FORCE x VELOCITY

4
Figure 1.2: Power production based on both force and velocity

In Figure 1.2 above, power (a) and (b) are equal power outputs, but (a) is developed
with a FORCE emphasis while (b) is developed with a VELOCITY emphasis. Optimal
Power occurs at only one point on the power curve. It is the region where force and
velocity are optimized to generate the highest power output.

What ultimately determines movement time in sport is the velocity in which it is


completed. Meaning as the speed of a movement increases, the time in which it is
completed, decreases. Theoretically, this means if an athlete is unable to produce power
in the specific velocities utilized in competition, optimal performance in this movement
will not be realized. This is due to the athlete’s inability to produce force in the
decreased amount of time available, due to the increased velocity the movement is
completed at. This ability is termed rate of force development (RFD) and is the goal of
the majority of training programs. Without it, there is likely an inability of the athlete to
compete at the highest levels possible as the athlete will have a “missing link” of
transfer in their sport. This specific aspect of power will be covered to a great extent
throughout this manual, as without transfer to competition, training is meaningless.
5
SECTION 1 REFERENCES

1. Jaric, S. 2015. “Force-Velocity Relationship of Muscles Performing Multi-Joint Maximum


Performance Tasks.” International Journal of Sports Medicine 36(9): 699–704.
2. Jidovtseff, Boris, Nigel K Harris, Jean-Michel Crielaard, and John B Cronin. 2011. “Using
the Load-Velocity Relationship for 1RM Prediction.” J. Strength Cond. Res. 25(1): 267–
70. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19966589.
3. Rahmani, a, F Viale, G Dalleau, and J R Lacour. 2001. “Force/velocity and Power/velocity
Relationships in Squat Exercise.” Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 84(3): 227–32.
4. Conceição, Filipe et al. 2015. “Movement Velocity as a Measure of Exercise Intensity in
Three Lower Limb Exercises.” 414(September).
5. Society, Royal, and Biological Sciences. 2017. “The Heat of Shortening and the Dynamic
Constants of Muscle Author ( S ): A . V . Hill Source : Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London . Series B , Biological Sciences , Vol . 126 , Published by : Royal Society Stable
URL : http://www.jstor.org/stable/82135.” 126(843): 136–95.

6
Section 2

MAXIMAL INTENT

7
Although this will be the shortest section of the five training principles covered in this
manual, its importance cannot be overstated. Adaptations realized are ultimately
determined by the effort exerted by each athlete during training. If an athlete does not
complete a movement with the highest velocity possible, or with maximal intent, the
power produced during that movement will be insufficient to create true performance
improvements. That being said, maximal intent is likely the most critical aspect in
regards to experiencing the greatest improvements in power production. Every
movement of every training session must be completed at the highest velocity possible
at that moment. As demonstrated throughout this manual, that available velocity will
change based on the current state of the athlete, but the effort, or intent, must remain
present at all times. Regardless of the relative load on the bar, the ability to improve
one’s power producing capabilities is maximized only when each repetition is completed
with the greatest intent. Ultimately, the intended velocity of each repetition is just as
important as the actual velocity it is executed at (1-4). Whether the load is extremely high
or low, the movement must be completed with maximal intent, moving the implement
as rapidly as possible.

This can be seen in an example of two athletes, one training the speed-strength quality
(55% of 1RM), while the other is training the absolute strength quality (85% of 1RM).
Even though the athlete training speed-strength is using a lighter load, and therefore
will naturally achieve higher relative velocities than that of the athlete training absolute
strength, a “fast” velocity does not mean it is a maximal velocity. Unless the athlete
training speed-strength moves the load as fast as possible, with maximal intent, the
adaptations may not be fully realized. On the other hand, just because the athlete
training absolute strength will be training at a slower velocity does not mean maximal
intent should be ignored. Even with a naturally high load, slower movement, maximal
intent and maximal velocity for a given load is of great importance and can also lead to
power production adaptations (1-4).

8
As a performance coach, we commonly think in terms of science, programming and
monitoring each aspect of a training program with exact specifications and desires.
Many of these specifications of programming for improved power will be openly
discussed throughout this manual. However, when it comes down to it, the athlete
ultimately dictates the adaptations realized due to the training program. Regardless of
how accurate the load on the bar is, if the athlete is only moving the bar with 80% effort
then is optimal, desired adaptations will not be occurring. The athlete must be moving
the load with 100% effort, every single repetition. If they are not willing to provide
maximal intent in these aspects, particularly when attempting to increase power,
improvements are likely to stall.

This is one reason velocity monitoring systems can be implemented within training
programs with impressive results. Velocity monitoring systems provide immediate
feedback to each athlete. This may seem like an obvious concept, but without proper
monitoring of the athlete’s effort, the entire loading scheme may go to waste. Having a
velocity measuring device on hand to measure velocity can act as the coach’s eye. It can
give immediate feedback to the athlete and coach, allowing both parties to objectively
assess the athlete’s effort based on bar speed and load.

As athletes are competitive by nature, they will continue to push themselves to achieve
the highest number possible. This could be either compared to another athlete at the
same relative load or to a velocity goal a coach provides prior to the training session.
Either way, an athlete will complete each repetition with their maximal available
intention to attempt to achieve this goal. It then falls upon the shoulder of the coach to
dictate appropriate rest times, loads, and volume to ensure athletes are receiving the
appropriate stimulus. Each of these factors will be covered in their individual aspects in
regards to optimizing power production throughout this manual.

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Feedback to improve intent

One of the issues with maximal intent is that it is hard to assess. As a coach, it is difficult
at times to discern whether or not a given repetition was performed with maximal
intent. This difficulty is not just limited to the coach, the athlete themselves may not
even be aware that their “full effort”, is not truly a maximal effort. This is why giving
quantitative feedback can be extremely useful. How do you know how high you jumped
if you didn't measure it? How do you know how fast the barbell moved if there was no
velocity readout? As an athlete, it is impossible to discern the difference between what
you might have thought as a good rep, and what might actually be a good rep. This is
why trying really hard doesn’t mean the rep was good. You want perfect reps as well as
effort. An athlete can try really hard to squat as fast as they can, but an extremely high
effort rep may go to waste if part of this “high effort” is an alteration in form, which
leads to greater horizontal translation and a lower bar velocity. However, if feedback in
the form of speed or jump height is given, the athlete can see whether or not their high
effort resulted in superior performance. This is how and why feedback, used as an
external cue, can lead to positive improvements in adaptations via increased intent.

What makes up a good rep:


Maximal intent + Most efficient form = Highest achievable jump height or bar velocity

In a study done by Randell and Colleagues (5), the effectiveness of velocity feedback on
training was investigated. Professional rugby players were broken up into two groups,
with each group completing an identical training program. Throughout this program,
one group received velocity feedback on their squat jumps while the other group did
not. After the six weeks, the group that received feedback achieved superior gains to
the non-feedback group. Why? The feedback allowed the subjects to know how their
performance for each jump went and whether or not a good rep was actually
performed. Theoretically, this allowed the subjects to realize what form got them to

10
their best rep and cued them to perform movements at this most efficient form
(through positive reinforcement). This is the same idea as racing against a clock. When
the stopwatch comes out, athletes tend to produce better results. Why? Again, it could
be due to the increase in motivation from the feedback, or it could simply be reinforcing
good habits. When an athlete jumps a new record for their squat jump, they may
mentally retain what the “good form” felt like. When they perform poorly, they look for
better ways to perform (6-7). Essentially, the external cue of feedback might help in
guiding their self-learning process. Think of it in terms of basketball, if you keep missing
shots, you are probably going to change your form. If you make a jump shot, you are
probably going to try and reproduce that form.

Coaches are constantly seeking the most up-to-date methods available to implement in
training for the greatest results. However, without maximal intent, or effort, from
athletes for every repetition, even the most advanced methods will prove fruitless in
their goal of improving power. New technology can further increase an athlete’s
motivation and understanding of what a “maximal effort” feels like. Tools that measure
velocity of an implement or even a jump mat can provide immediate feedback and even
create competition between multiple athletes. This added competition will further
motivate athletes to complete each repetition with their highest intent possible and
continue to reinforce those efforts in a positive manner. Only when athletes are
executing all exercises with maximal intent will the remaining four training principles
described in this manual be capable of improving power production to the fullest
extent.

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SECTION 2 REFERENCES

1. Oliveira, F., Oliveira, A., Rizatto, and G., Denadai, S. (2013). Resistance training for
explosive and maximal strength; effects on early and late rate of force development.
Journal of Sports Science and Medicine, 12(3), 402-408.
2. Tillin, N., and Folland, J. (2014). Maximal and explosive strength training elicit distinct
neuromuscular adaptations, specific to the training stimulus. European Journal of
Applied Physiology, 114(2) 365-374. doi:10.1007/s00421-013-2781-x.
3. Oliveira, F., Rizatto, G., and Denadai, B. (2013). Are early and late rate of force
development differently influenced by fast-velocity resistance training? Clinical
Physiology and Functional Imaging, 33(4) 282-287. doi:10.1111/cpf.12025.
4. Moritani, T. Time course adaptations during strength and power training. Mechanisms
of Adaptation (266-278).
5. Randell, A.D., Cronin, JB, Keogh, JW, Gill N.D., and Pedersen, MC. (2011). Effect of
instantaneous performance feedback during 6 weeks of velocity-based resistance
training on sport-specific performance tests. J Strength Cond Res 25: 87-93,.
6. Dunn-lewis, C., and Hooper, D. R. (2014). Positive Effects of Augmented Verbal Feedback
on Power Production in NCAA Division I Collegiate…, (April).
7. Scientiarum, A., Science, H., and Antonio, S. (2015). Effects of verbal encouragement on
performance of the multistage 20 m shuttle run, (January).

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Section 3

ACHIEVE THE HIGHEST LEVEL OF


READINESS

13
Prior to the training of power, coaches must ensure that the body is prepared
appropriately. Like a car sitting outside in the cold needing the engine to warm up prior
to driving, an athlete requires a specific time period to ensure all physiological systems
are “turned on”. In the case of power training, this is much more than just a general
dynamic warm up that includes some movement and a type of mobility series. That
does not mean these are not important aspects of preparing an athlete, but it must be
understood that all aspects of a warm up should be completed with a specific purpose.

One of the best methods to complete this preparatory period for an athlete is through
the use of post-activation potentiation (PAP). Potentiation is experienced due to an
increase in efficiency or speed of each nerve impulse sent through the body (1). PAP is
the enhancement of an athlete’s ability to generate force with moderate or light loads
after an exercise of maximal intensity is performed. PAP is essentially the highest level
of a warm-up a coach can utilize with an athlete, as it requires full engagement of the
nervous system without the accumulation of fatigue prior to the start of training (1).

In order to both “ramp up” the nervous system while also preventing fatigue, PAP is
most typically applied with heavier loads and a low number of repetitions. These include
the highest intensities possible (~85-100%) with minimal volume, as volume leads to
fatigue, and appropriate rest times (1-3). If volume is increased and rest time reduced,
fatigue will accumulate and an athlete will enter the training session in an already tired
state, preventing optimal power training. These parameters can all be met with short
range of motion movements or isometric exercises, with focus placed on maximal intent
and effort.

As stated above, the dynamic warm-up and movement aspects are still critical for the
preparation of training, but the addition of PAP to a warm-up has the ability to maximize
power production throughout the training session. An example warm-up, including each
of these components, can be seen on the following page. When this warm-up method is

14
implemented correctly, an athlete will enter the training session in a “primed” state,
meaning their nervous system is set to perform highly explosive, powerful movements
to their greatest ability.

15
Applied Principles of Optimal Power Development
Pre-Training, Multi-Dimensional Warm-Up
Block 1 General Dynamic Series Warm-Up
Order Exercise Sets Reps/Duration Load Notes
A Jog w/ Arm Circles 1 x 10Y
B Shuffle w/ Arm Circles 1 x 10Y EA
C Carioca 1 x 10Y EA
D Skipping for Height 1 x 10Y
Perform A-D as a General Dynamic Warm-Up Series
Block 2 Multi-Dimensional Movement Series Warm-Up
Order Exercise Sets Reps/Duration Load Notes
A Spiderman-Reach-Hamstring 1 x 5 EA Eyes Follow Reach
B Kneel. 3-Way Hip Flex + OH Reach 1 x 5 EA Max Hip ROM
C Standing T-Up Rotation 1 x 5 EA Max Hip ROM, Knee Locked Out
D Staggered Stance Squat 1 x 5 EA Toes Straight Ahead, Drive Back Knee
E Staggered Stance 3-Way RDL 1 x 3 EA 3-FWD, 3-RT, 3-LT, EA Leg
F Lateral to Cross-Under Lunge 1 x 5 EA Keep Feet Flat, Hips Square
G 45o Glute Hydrant 1 x 30s EA Green/Blue Glutes in all three planes
Perform A-G as a Multi-Dimensional Movement Warm-Up Series
Block 3 Neural Prep. Series Warm-Up
Order Exercise Sets Reps/Duration Load Notes
A Tuck Jump 1 x 5 Max Height
Perform A as a Neural Prep. Warm-Up Series Prior to Training
Block 4 Post-Activation Potentiation Warm-Up
Order Exercise Sets Reps/Duration Load Notes
A Hex Bar Pin Pull 3 x 5s Maximal Low Position
Perform A as a Post-Activation Potentiation Warm-Up Prior to Training
Figure 3.1: Possible warm up sequence to “prime” an athlete for power training. Each exercise is hyperlinked for simplicity

16
Post Activation Potentiation

PAP involves a systemic and local response. The high intensity, short range of motion,
minimally fatiguing exercise allows for specific musculature to be targeted while
engaging the system as a whole. All planned contraction begins in the central nervous
system (4), which means excitation and arousal of the nervous system does not
necessarily require a local stimulus (specific muscle group). However, the usage of local
stimulation (targeting specific areas) will increase local muscular activity, blood flow,
temperature, and local neural mechanisms. The combination of both systemic and local
priming will allow for optimal readiness.

As demonstrated above, in the warm up example, isometric movements can be


implemented easily in the PAP model. Exercises such as pin pulls require minimal setup
and can be controlled based on their duration. This allows a maximal contraction for a
brief amount of time, which serves as both a systemic and local stimulator, while also
minimizing possible fatigue.

As there is only a small load initially with these isometric movements, coaching athletes
to “bend the pins” or “move the rack” can be effective for an athlete to realize the level
of force they should be producing during these exercises. These exercises should not be
completed for extended periods of time, because fatigue increases with duration.
Typically, from what we have noted in workouts, timed sets of five seconds are able to
produce effective results due to PAP. For exercises that require repetitions, short sets of
three to five repetitions will elicit an appropriate increase in the neural drive, along with
the other physiological changes realized due to PAP.

It is critical all coaches continue to respect the rest time required in order to ensure
fatigue is not induced during these preparatory PAP exercises. The nervous system
requires “high-quality” training and must be allowed to recover appropriately between

17
each PAP movement. Just as maximal speed training requires rest time between
repetitions, coaches must allow full recovery between PAP exercises to reduce fatigue
accumulation. Due to the intense nature of these training exercises, it is suggested that
at least one minute up to two or more minutes should be allowed between sets for the
timed sets or repetitions suggested above. Performance coaches must understand rest
time if quality repetitions are to be completed. This concept of quality training will be
discussed in greater detail in the “Maintain Velocity” section of this manual.

These PAP principles can be applied to training daily if desired. The maximal isometric
PAP options require minimal setup and can be executed for a short amount of time. This
training not only increases neural drive, but can also be implemented to increase
strength in specific ranges of motion (5). These adaptations can be especially important
for an athlete, or group of athletes, that require increased strength in low positions.
Leading to not only improved neural drive, but an increase in force production, which is
critical to maximizing power output.

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Physiologically Induced Changes from PAP

Increase in high threshold motor unit recruitment (6)


● Greater utilization of explosive muscle fibers
● Allows greater force in a rapid fashion

Decrease in pennation angle (6)


● Smaller pennation angle allows for greater mechanical advantage for muscle to act
upon the tendon
● Pennation angle change is roughly ~1% change in transmission

Increase in calcium sensitivity (6)


● Potentiation of subsequent muscular contractions
● Regulatory Light Chain phosphorylation increases calcium sensitivity

Theoretical Changes Based On Variables That Positively Influence Power

Increase in rate of coding (7,8)


● Speed of signal being sent to muscle
● Increased “doublets” or reduced time between impulses sent during contraction
● Increases speed and power of contraction

Increase in muscle temperature


● Thermal response to a warm up
● Increases speed of contraction
● Better contractile environment
● Increase in enzymatic activity (5)

19
Increase in central drive (4)
● Central nervous system controls all
● Nervous system is “turned on” or “primed”
● Coordination of muscle activity by CNS
● High level force exertion is a skill in which muscles must be appropriately activated

Examples of PAP exercises

Coaches can implement any of the following movements right into the warm up
provided above in Figure 3.1. In this example, exercise 1 is used as a demonstration, but
any exercise listed below can replace it to achieve a more specific warm-up based on
the prescribed exercises for the upcoming training session.

For example, if a double leg exercise, such as back squat or deadlift is programmed, an
appropriate PAP exercise would be the trap bar deadlift pin pull, high handle trap bar
lifts, or high pin back squats. If the major exercise of the day is single leg based, such as
a split squat, the split squat pin pulls would be most appropriate. Upper body exercises
should also be matched according to their push or pull demands.

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PAP Exercise Options

Trap Bar Deadlift Pin Pull:


This exercise is great for double leg, total body force development. The pin height can
be easily adjusted to allow strength adaptations to be made at specific joint angles while
continuing to potentiate the CNS. Because the athlete is pulling into the locked pins,
minimal setup time is required and if in a group setting there is no need to unload or
load the bar between athletes. Body positioning is critical in this movement as the
athlete is producing maximal tension throughout their body. Athletes with previous
back issues should consider other options that provide a more vertical trunk position,
such as the split squat pin pull.

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Split Squat Pin Pull:
This exercise is similar to the Trap bar pin pull, but is now completed on a single leg.
Coaches should continue to be aware of both joint angle and body positioning to ensure
the athlete is achieving a safe and appropriate stimulus. Athletes, when first being
taught this exercise, tend to lean too far forward with their trunk. This can usually be
adjusted by coaching them to “pull the bar up through their hips” as they will give
themselves a better vertical lever with this cue.

22
SL Leg Press Max Iso:
This exercise can be implemented for athletes unable to grip a bar due to shoulder
issues, or those that can only train a single leg. For example, this an excellent option for
an athlete with an AC joint sprain or coming off of labral issues. There is still maximal
tension created, so the CNS can be maximized through this exercise. However, as gravity
is no longer a factor, as it is not ground based, kinetics of force transfer will be altered
and it may not be as specific as other barbell movements. Plates are loaded up to a
weight that the athlete is no longer able to move and the safety catch is set to the
desired height (red circle). Again, with the supramaximal weight applied, maximal
tension, and thus the activation of the CNS, occurs to the highest extent. Setup is still
relatively minimal and joint angles can be set according to the desires of the coach. This
exercise can be completed with either a single or double leg.

23
Bench Press Pin Press:
This exercise is an upper body example PAP exercise. Again this requires minimal setup
time and can be adjusted to a specific joint angle according to an athlete’s needs or the
phase of training. There is no need to load the bar, because this is an isometric exercise.
By loading the bar, the coach only makes the movement more dangerous.

24
Prone Max Iso Row:
This exercise is another upper body example PAP exercise. This prone movement can be
incorporated to ensure the posterior side of the upper body is “ramped up”. By loading
up the bar to a weight that cannot be lifted, a coach is able to create another maximal
force contraction in a controlled setting. The prone position also allows maximal force to
be utilized by the pulling musculature, and ensures the low back is kept in a safe
position. This exercise can be implemented when an upper body pull exercise is the
major exercise of the day.

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Other PAP Options:

Back Squat Rack Holds


Front Squat Rack Holds
Pin Squats
High Box Squats
Bench Press from Pins
High Handle Trap Bar Deadlifts

Olympic Variants

Block Clean Pull


Block Snatch Pull
Clean from Floor
Snatch from Floor

*With Olympic variants that involve a catch, a coach might want to use a smaller than
usual number of repetitions (1-2), because two movements, a pull and a squat, are being
coupled.

Guidelines for PAP

Figure 3.2 below demonstrates suggested sets, times/repetitions, load, as well as rest
time for the PAP exercises listed above. As you can see, the maximal isometric exercises
consist of timed sets, as repetitions are not possible, while the high load exercises
incorporate few repetitions. This ensures quality is kept and the athlete does not enter
the training session in a fatigued state. Regardless of the method or exercise selected,
appropriate rest time is critical. This time allows an athlete to recover from the high
intensity PAP exercise prior to the completion of their next set. With this longer,

26
required rest time coaches can implement “pre-hab” exercises based on the needs of
their athletes. This could include hip or shoulder preparation training for the upcoming
session. With the low level stress applied by many of these exercises, athletes are still
able to recover from the PAP exercise, which maintains quality training, while also
working on other aspects of performance. This allows coaches to program efficiently
with their limited time while coaching athletes. While completing a PAP exercise an
athlete must produce maximal intent in their maximal isometric or high load exercises.
Without this intent, the goal of training is lost.

Figure 3.2: Guidelines for PAP Exercise utilization. These should be implemented as the final
warm-up prior to the start of power training. Keep volume low and allow rest between sets so
fatigue is not accumulated.

Any of these PAP exercises can be applied within a warm up protocol as shown in the
early pages of this section. That being said there are still general guidelines that should
be followed when programming a PAP exercise. Besides the appropriate volume, load,
and rest time, which ensure the CNS is primed, but not fatigued at the start of the
training session, coaches can also implement an exercise based on the major exercise
programmed for the day.

Coaches can also program PAP exercises based on the requirements of each athlete
and/or sport. For example, a volleyball team that lacks strength in low positions can be
trained using the trap bar deadlift and split squat to improve the strength in these
ranges. However, as the season approaches, more specific exercises such as a lateral
lunge pin pull and split squat pin pull with the knee over the toe can be applied. As
covered already, strength is improved according to the specific joint angles utilized.

27
Ankle position is not excluded from this concept. If the goal of a performance coach is to
produce athletes capable of playing in low hip positions, it is critical they are trained in
those positions, incorporating both the ankle and the hip. When these concepts are
considered, coaches are able to program along a continuum, working from general to
specific. By training athletes to not only be strong in their weakest positions, but to also
be even stronger in the specific positions required in their competitive event, the ability
to maximize transfer of training is increased. Critical thinking and well thought out
application of these principles are both key in the implementation of these PAP
exercises. Never simply choose an exercise to choose one. When utilized efficiently, PAP
exercises can be used to not only potentiate the CNS, but also to improve strength in
the specific positions according to the demands of the sport or needs of the athlete.

28
SECTION 3 REFERENCES

1. Lorenz, D. (2011) Post-Activation Potentiation: An Introduction. International Journal of


Sports Physical Therapy. 6 (3), pp. 234-240.
2. Hodgson M, Docherty D, Robbins D. Post-Activation Potentiation Motor Performance.
2005;35(7):585-595.
3. Matthews M, O'Conchuir C, Comfort P. The acute effects of heavy and light resistances
on the flight time of a basketball push-pass during upper body complex training. J
Strength Cond Res. 2009; 23(7): 1988–199
4. Verkoshansky, Y, Siff, M. (2009). Supertraining (6th ed.). Rome, Italy.
5. Brooks, G.A., Fahey, T.D., & White, T.P. (2005). Exercise Physiology: Human
bioenergetics and its applications. London: McGraw-Hill Education.
6. Zatsiorsky, VM and Kraemer, W. J. (1995) Science and practice of strength and
conditioning Champain, IL; Human Kinetics
7. Andersen, L., Andersen, J., Zebis, M., Aagaard, P. (2009). Early and late rate of force
development: differential adaptive responses to resistance training? Scandinavian
Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 20(1), 162-169. doi:10.1111/j.1600-
0838.2009.00933.x.
8. Tillin, N., Pain, M., Folland, J. (2012) Short-term training for explosive strength causes
neural and mechanical adaptations. Experimental Physiology, 97(5), 630-641.
doi:10.1113/expphysiol.2011.063040.

29
Section 4

Optimal Load

30
Once an athlete’s nervous system has been appropriately prepared for power training
through the use of PAP, the appropriate loads must be implemented throughout the
training session. As covered in an earlier section, power is a direct product of both force
and velocity. With the understanding of the force-velocity curve, previously shown in
Figure 1.1, loads must be utilized that optimize this relationship. Depending on the
exercise, appropriate power loads can range from body weight for jumps to 80% of an
athlete’s one rep max hang clean (1). Clearly this is a wide range of loads available to
train power and depending on the exercise the optimal percentage of 1RM will vary, but
coaches must ensure they are providing an appropriate stimulus for the desired
adaptation.

It is also important coaches understand the training age of their athletes and how that
has the capability of effecting their power production. If an athlete lacks basic strength,
the ability to complete power work to the fullest extent will be reduced. Strength forms
the foundation of power, which becomes clear with force output being one of the two
aspects determining the power equation (Power = Force x Velocity).

Before actual training within this appropriate range of loads is completed, coaches must
first determine where each individual athlete’s range lies. There is obviously no single
load that will be optimal for all exercises. Ranges between exercises can vary. Even
when focusing on one specific exercise, there may be a range of loads that will be
optimal for different athletes. With the optimal load of power ranging fairly wide within
a given exercise, from 30-50% of a 1RM for the bench press, see Figure 4.1 below, there
is clearly room for some error while still maintaining a relatively high power output (may
not be perfect, but “in the ballpark”). However, as needs become more specific, such as
speed-strength and strength-speed, coaches must be capable of determining the exact
loads an athlete requires. The best test a coach can perform to determine optimal
power loads is to test an athlete using a linear position transducer (LPT) or force plate.
However, this technique is not always available for coaches.

31
For more information on force-velocity profiling, see pages (108)

Figure 4.1. Modified table form Haff and Kawamori (2): Optimal load range for power production
for different exercises along with their original author demonstrating the findings

The Specificity of Power

Specificity is of great importance for a sport coach. However, in the weight room it is
difficult for any “skill” specific movements to be trained. Instead, the weight room is
typically geared towards making the athlete’s physiology more specific, or compatible
with the sport. For example, increasing cross-sectional area of the muscle increases the
muscle’s force producing capabilities. An increase in force producing capabilities
theoretically means a possible increase in performance. However, specificity in the
weight room is much more than just increasing a muscle’s size. Specificity can also be
related to the speed at which the movement is done. For example, it has been shown in
several studies that adaptations realized are velocity specific. Meaning the strength
gains found in testing are most prominent at the velocities in which training was
completed (3).

32
This presents an issue for coaches as the ability to train at the exact speeds required in
competition is rarely possible, due to the fact movements are completed at such high
velocities. However, for a given movement in the weight room, power is able to be
easily be targeted. Theoretically, targeting power may bring about more “sport specific”
physiological adaptations that are associated with an increase in sporting performance
(2)
. With optimal power training loads having this large range, coaches must select
training loads appropriate to the specific desired adaptation. Although the ultimate goal
is to improve power production, there are other avenues of specific adaptations
through the utilization of different training loads which fall within this large, available
range.

By splitting up these ranges into categories such as “strength-speed”, “speed-strength”


and “speed”, a coach theoretically has the ability to more specifically program training
sessions to elicit desired adaptations realized by the athlete.

Strength-Speed
● Strength is listed first, thus is the first priority: Higher loading implemented
● Adaptations more aimed at the force aspect of P = F*V
● Even though higher percentage, important to still apply maximal intent (move
the bar as fast as possible)
● Example: Squatting at 65-75% of 1RM, strength based, but still capable of
moving the bar at moderate velocity (NOT maximal strength work)

Speed-Strength
● Speed is listed first, thus is the first priority: Moderate/Lower loads implemented
● Adaptations more aimed at the velocity aspect of P = F*V
● Continue to move the bar as fast as possible
● Example: Squatting at 45-55% of 1RM, still focused on speed, but still moderate
load

33
Speed
● Speed is the only word, thus the only priority: Low loads implemented
● Adaptations entirely aimed at the velocity aspect of P = F*V
● Now about how much force can be produced in minimal time (might not be
highest level of power production
● Most transferrable to sport, but must train all other aspects to see maximal
transfer
● Example: Squat jumps at 0-15% of 1RM

If muscular power is desired, it is theoretically possible that there are intrinsic


adaptations that occur with power training that differs from “traditional” training. It
most likely has to do with neural properties, or muscle fiber shifting. Therefore, training
movements that bring about higher power outputs could theoretically improve these
adaptations for power production (2-6).

These findings, in conjunction with older studies, suggest that training at specific
velocities leads to the greatest increases in strength and power at these executed
velocities. Which means, if we train at a velocity or load related to the highest power
outputs, then we might theoretically be training power in the most efficient way.

Ultimately adaptations realized by an athlete may be specific to the loads and velocities
in which they are trained. With power depending upon both force and velocity, it is
critical each are trained in an individual manner, with each receiving specific stress at
certain times throughout training. By attacking each of these aspects, power production
can be improved throughout the entirety of the force-velocity curve in the most specific
and efficient manner possible.

The understanding of velocity specific training can be seen in the example shown below.
Figure 4.2 is a force-velocity profile shown from one of the authors. The first column

34
demonstrates the percentage of 1RM utilized in the lift, while column two depicts the
velocity at which the implement was displaced. Columns three and four show the power
output of the movement and the location on the force-velocity curve, respectively. As
the load decreases (column one), the velocity at which the implement is moved
increases (column two).

With power output being equivalent to the product of the force and velocity, optimal
power is achieved when both are demonstrated at a high level. This can be seen at the
60% load with the exercise completed at .9 m/s as this yellow row is labeled “Optimal
Power” in the furthest right column. Training goals, such as strength, strength-speed,
speed-strength, and many others are also listed in this figure based on the velocity the
exercise is completed at. This figure should allow coaches to understand how the
manipulation of training loads can drastically change the outcomes of training, and thus
the adaptations realized by an athlete.

35
Figure 4.2: Example of an athlete’s velocity-%of 1RM-power profile. The left column is the
athlete’s percentage of 1RM. The Middle column is the corresponding velocity for a given
percentage of 1RM and the left column is percentage of Power (max power 100% occurring at 9
m/s).

36
Figure 4.3 below depicts the identical information, but now with the relative power
curve also included. The x-axis is the velocity of the movement (column two), while the
y-axis shows the percentage the movement was completed at. Between these two axes
demonstrate both velocity and force, respectively. By using the same color scheme as
Figure 4.2, this athlete’s force-velocity line can be easily viewed. Finally, the relative
power curve of this individual athlete (column three) can be seen in a more applicable
way. By understanding where the athlete produces maximal power for each exercise, a
coach can implement training loads accordingly.

Figure 4.3: Each shaded region is labeled using the terminology the authors saw best fit. The
graph can be used to help interpret the categories of training while reading the below table
from Jimenez-Reyes and colleagues.

How to specifically train regions of the force-velocity curve

As mentioned above, training specific regions of the force-velocity curve (speed-


strength, strength-speed, speed, etc.) may be of interest when developing a program for
an athlete. This section is going to quickly go over a study to illustrate how such training
can be done, and what kind of evidence there is to support these specific adaptations.

37
Pedro Jimenez-Reyes and colleagues (8) published one of the most thorough and in
depth investigations (in our opinion) of the effects of force - velocity specific training on
the vertical jump. In short, this study highlighted specific deficiencies of individuals
based on their jumping force-velocity profile and then proceeded to develop a training
program geared towards improving those specific deficiencies. In the study, movements
were broken up into either, strength, strength-power, power, power-speed, or speed
emphasis. The nomenclature that they used reflects very closely to the common
nomenclature used here in the United States of, absolute strength, strength-speed,
optimal power, speed-strength, explosive, and speed (see Figure 4.2 and 4.3 above).

In this same study, Jimenez-Reyes and colleagues listed out the exercises and intensities
used to target these specific needs. However, before analyzing their protocol, it is
important to note that the below exercises are designed to improve vertical force vector
production. The below list is not complete, nor perfect, but it is research proven and
should spark some creative ideas.

38
Figure 4.4: Exercises and the specific percentages that correlate with their power development
qualities are listed (8).

By understanding and programming optimal load based on desired power adaptation,


coaches are able to maximize the outcomes of their training protocols.

39
SECTION 4 REFERENCES

1. Cormie P, McBride JM, McCaulley GO. Validation of power measurement techniques in


dynamic lower body resistance exercises. J Appl Biomech. 2007;23(2):103-118.
2. Kawamori, N. and Haff, G. (2004) The optimal training load for the development of
muscular power. The Journal of Strength and Conditioning, 18(3), 675-684.
3. Rodgers, M. M., & Whipple, R. H. (1990). Specificity of speed of exercise. The Journal of
Orthopedic and Sports Physical Therapy, 12(2), 72–78.
4. Kawamori, N., & Newton, R. U. (2006). Velocity Specificity of Resistance Training: Actual
Movement Velocity Versus Intention to Move Explosively. Strength and Conditioning
Journal, 28(2), 86.
5. Sayers, S. P., & Gibson, K. (2012). Effects of high-speed power training on muscle
performance and braking speed in older adults. Journal of Aging Research.
6. Pareja-Blanco, F., Rodriguez-Rosell, D., Sanchez-Medina, L., Gorostiaga, E. M., &
Gonzalez-Badillo, J. J. (2014). Effect of movement velocity during resistance training on
neuromuscular performance. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 35(11), 916–924.
7. Haff GG, Nimphius S. Training Principles for Power. J Strength Cond Res. 2012;34(6):2-
12. doi:10.1519/SSC.0b013e31826db467.
8. Jiménez-Reyes P, Samozino P, Brughelli M, Morin JB. Effectiveness of an individualized
training based on force-velocity profiling during jumping. Front Physiol. 2017;7(JAN):1-
13. doi:10.3389/fphys.2016.00677.

40
Section 5

MAINTAIN VELOCITY

41
Returning to the power equation (P = F*V), power is ultimately dependent on force and
velocity. The force aspect of power production was covered in the previous section on
optimal loading. With the external force (load) remaining constant throughout the
exercise, which remains true for all free weight exercises unless accommodating
resistance is implemented, power is then reliant on the velocity at which the external
load is moved. As an athlete moves a bar with greater speed, the power will increase.
For this reason, the importance of maintaining velocity for the entirety of the training
session, regardless of the load selected, becomes clear.

In order for coaches to ensure velocity is maintained, quality of repetitions must remain
the goal of training. Power training requires quality training, meaning the number of
repetitions completed must remain short, with a high velocity. High-quality training
maximizes the ability of the performance quality to function at the highest intensities.
For example, a single maximal effort sprint can be applied to increase maximal velocity
(1)
. Work capacity training, on the other hand, focuses on improving the performance
qualities ability to be used for an extended period. The ability of an athlete to complete
repeated, high velocity sprints relies much more on their work capacity. This same high-
quality approach to speed training can also be applied to exercises in the weight room.
As repetitions creep up, the ability of an athlete to recover appropriately and produce
high speed movements, whether that be sprinting or bar speed, decreases (1).
Ultimately, excessive volume will lead to repeated, sub-maximal, power production and
increased focus on capacity training. Clearly this is counterintuitive if the desired
outcome is to increase an athlete’s ability to produce maximal power.

The CNS requires quality training for adaptations to be seen. Training an athlete for
maximal speed is a simple example of this. If coaches are training their athletes to run
faster, then they must very simply do that. RUN FAST. As the total volume of running
experienced by an athlete increases, or the rest time decreases, the ability of an athlete
to produce the same maximal velocity is reduced. This same principle applies to training

42
power output. As the number of repetitions/sets increases, the recovery time required
to continuously produce maximal power is increased. This is due to the accumulated
fatigue experienced by both the CNS and the muscle tissue completing the movement. If
this concept of quality work is not implemented appropriately during power training, an
athlete’s CNS will fatigue rapidly, leading to a decrease in bar velocity and ultimately a
reduction in power output.

Many coaches, in general, tend to excel in work capacity training, or the ability to
continue to push their athletes to the brink of exhaustion. Most athletes would agree
they have endured grueling conditioning drills where, by the end, there is nothing left in
the tank. It is important to note this manual is not stating difficult training sessions,
aimed at improving work capacity, are not vital for sport performance. However, these
workouts are not designed to improve power output to the fullest extent. Coaches must
always remember to “keep the main goal the main goal”. If increasing power output in
an exercise or movement is the goal of training, then every effort must be made to
ensure each athlete is provided the appropriate stimulus to achieve this adaptation.
Methods to ensure quality is maintained include, clusters sets, bar speed measures, and
finally autoregulation of the training session using velocity cut offs. Only when these
methods are implemented appropriately, can a coach ensure each athlete is achieving
the appropriate stimulus for improving power production.

Cluster Sets

One of the best methods available to maintain a high velocity movement, and thus
increase power output, is through the implementation of cluster sets (2,3). Cluster sets
allow an athlete to perform a relatively high volume, with adequate rest, while velocity
is retained than if standard sets are completed. In other words, cluster sets allow
maximal power output for a greater amount of time by utilizing higher quality training
(4)
. As power training requires intense outputs from the athlete, cluster sets allow

43
greater repetitions to be completed with higher velocities than otherwise possible.

Maintaining a small drop off in bar speed during resistance training (which means higher
power outputs) showed greater increases in total power production than those that had
a larger drop off in velocity (5).

For example, if an athlete is squatting 80% of their 1RM and the coach has programmed
3 repetitions with the goal of improving power, the athlete will likely be capable of
completing each of these repetitions with a desired bar speed, or power output.
However, this is a relatively small stimulus for an athlete and will likely not lead to a
large change in their power output. As many understand the concept of overload, a
coach may simply add more sets to increase the stress placed upon an athlete. As the
number of sets are increased, the ability of an athlete to complete sets of 3 reps at 80%
of their 1RM with the highest velocity possible will decrease dramatically. By the third
set, unless ample rest time is provided, it is likely the athlete is no longer able to
produce relative high amounts of power (when compared to their abilities in the first
set), leading to training in the capacity manner rather than quality. This returns to the
concept of speed training discussed earlier, as volume increases and rest time remains
the same or decreases, the ability to train with maximal effort, or quality work, is
diminished.

Through the use of cluster sets, a coach could apply many of those same parameters
(80% 1RM, with the goal of double digit repetitions) to maximize power training. For
example, the same athlete is completing the same load, but now completes a single
repetition, rests for 20 seconds, completes a second repetition, again rests 20 seconds,
and completes a third repetition. This cluster method has still completed a set of three,
but broken up, or clustered the repetitions. The first set of cluster repetitions may show
similar bar speeds compared to the regular set of 3 repetitions, however a large
discrepancy in velocity will be seen by set three as an athlete will experience less fatigue

44
due to the cluster method (Figures 5.1 and 5.2). Cluster sets allow increased quality
stress to be placed upon an athlete, which is critical for velocity to be maintained and
for maximal power output to be achieved. The short rest time between repetitions in
the cluster set allows the re-synthesis, although it be only partial, of the short-burst
energy systems and allows recovery time for the CNS. By including these short rest
times between repetitions, each repetition is accomplished with maximum or near
maximum velocity and force, resulting in maximal power output. These cluster sets
ensure an athlete is completing maximal or near maximal efforts each and every
workout, leading to the greatest improvements in power production possible.

Figure 5.1: Mean velocity is greatly reduced by the end of a six rep set is completed.

45
Figure 5.2: By clustering the set of 6 reps, with a short break for recovery every two reps, mean
velocity remains much higher. This allows increased power production and adaptation.

Fatigue within a Cluster Set

An example of the reduction in fatigue through the use of cluster sets can be seen again
below in Figure 5.3. Two athletes are shown throughout a workout below. Both start at
the power production ability at the beginning of the training session (black dotted line).
However, the athlete on the left, is utilizing sets of 3 repetitions, while the athlete on
the right is implementing cluster sets of 3. Each athlete’s ability declines after each set,
however, the athlete training using clusters (right), declines at a much slower rate as
they are allowed a small recovery time between each repetition. This allows the athlete
on the right to complete a greater number of quality repetitions, meaning an increased
training stress is placed on the power producing capabilities of the athlete.

46
Figure 5.3: Quality compared to capacity training. If appropriate periodization and rest times are
not applied, an athlete will fatigue rapidly, reducing the amount of power they can repeatedly
produce (red solid line). This reduction in power output can be avoided with the implementation
of cluster sets (green solid line).

This is just one example of a cluster set option as there are multiple ways to perform
these sets. Other cluster options will be covered in the upcoming section. Regardless of
the cluster set option selected, there are a few rules that should be followed to ensure
an athlete can produce repetitive, high-effort movements. Firstly, the bar must be
returned to the rack/floor between cluster repetitions. If an athlete is required to hold
the implement during their rest time, they will recover to a lesser extent than if
complete recovery was allowed. Secondly, allow a minimum of ten seconds between
repetitions.

Even with this short amount of rest between repetitions, as little as ten seconds, an elite
level athlete, who has been trained appropriately in their three energy systems, will be
capable of producing repeated, high-intensity movements. Lastly, cluster sets are
designed to prevent accumulated fatigue. This correlates with the second rule, but
coaches must remember when implementing cluster sets that quality, and ultimately
the velocity of movement remains the goal. The greater number of repetitions an
athlete can complete with maximal velocity, the greater improvements in power. This
returns to the idea of training with a high quality to allow maximal adaptations to be
realized in the most efficient manner. This ensures the neurological effect remains high

47
throughout every rep and successive sets. This is a method that can be applied to both
lower and upper body exercises.

There are no black and white answers in training, no one single program will necessarily
elicit the same results in multiple athletes. Clusters must be applied in training with the
same mentality. Coaches must recognize and understand appropriate programming
based on their ultimate goal. If the highest quality of repetitions are desired, then
clusters of single repetitions at maximal intensity should be considered. If the goal of
the training session is to increase repeated power output, then the set and repetition
scheme must be changed to match these needs, commonly through the use of doubles
and occasionally triples, depending upon the level of athlete.

There will never be a “one size fits all” program, or even repetition scheme for cluster
implementation, however a coach can improve training session efficiency by
understanding how different schemes can be applied to achieve different adaptation
outcomes. Regardless of what set and rep scheme you choose, keep in mind that the
reason why the cluster methods are being utilized is to maintain velocity. As soon as this
goal is lost, it is likely the desired adaptation of increased power will likely be reduced.

Measuring Speed Appropriately: Peak vs. Mean Velocities

With recent advances in technology, the ability of coaches to ensure each athlete is
receiving the appropriate stress, or stimulus, has been improved tremendously. It is
critical that all coaches understand the desired outcome of the training session prior to
the implementation of technology. These technology options include bar speed
measurements and vertical jump testing. These not only serve as a form of immediate
feedback of athlete output, but can also serve as a determinant of athlete “readiness”.
This “readiness” testing will be discussed in the fatigue management section.

48
It is imperative that the coach is utilizing the correct form of velocity measurement with
this newly available technology. The majority of velocity measuring devices will provide
coaches with a readout of both, peak velocity and mean velocity. These are two entirely
different measurements and must be utilized with the understanding of such. Mean
velocity is most appropriately utilized for non-ballistic movements, while peak velocity
will provide a better predictor of ballistic movement power.

Non-ballistic movements are implemented when the bar, or athlete does not become a
projectile. In these movements the object or athlete is terminated with a complete
stoppage. There is both an acceleration and deceleration phase in these exercises. In
these exercises the knowledge of the mean velocity throughout the movement will be
more beneficial for coaches in determining power output. As the implement does not
become a projectile and there is a natural deceleration phase at the termination of non-
ballistic movements. Coaches will find much more accurate power output readings if the
mean velocity is utilized, as it considers both the acceleration and deceleration phases,
rather than the maximal speed of the bar at just one point in the exercise. Barbell
training exercises such as squat and bench press are both non-ballistic movement
examples.

On the other hand, a ballistic movement is classified as an exercise in which the athlete
or bar does become a projectile and there is no deceleration phase. Ballistic training
methods are classified as the implement or athlete continues to increase in velocity until
the very end of the movement. Peak velocity is more applicable during ballistic
movements as the focus of the exercise is how high or how far the implement will
travel. Peak velocity and exit velocity are strongly correlated with each other (6). It is this
exit velocity, or the velocity at which the projectile is no longer being acted upon by a
force (other than gravity) that will ultimately determine the distance traveled by the
object. A jump, or throw are simple examples of ballistic exercises. When an athlete
performs a jump, coaches are concerned with the height of the jump. It is the velocity at

49
which the athlete leaves the ground, or the speed at which the implement is released
that determines distance traveled. Thus, peak velocity, or the exit velocity, is more
important for these training modalities than mean velocity. Depending on the exercise
the athlete is performing, the kinetic qualities may greatly differ (ballistic or non-
ballistic). By understanding these differences in exercises, coaches are more able to
apply appropriate velocity measurement techniques.

Not only are the velocity monitoring methods different for non-ballistic and ballistic
movements, but the actual velocities throughout an exercise differ between the two
movement types. For example, when an identical load (45%) is implemented with either
a bench press throw (ballistic) or a bench press (non-ballistic), the bench press throw
elicited greater velocities throughout nearly the entire range of motion (7). Not only
were the velocities greater for the matched load ballistic bench throw, it was also
demonstrated that the ballistic version of the exercise induced greater force outputs,
and in turn, greater EMG activity. Meaning, not only was force production maximized
with both increased velocity and force, but there were also a greater number of motor
units recruited in the movement. By recruiting these more explosive muscle fibers,
greater adaptations might be seen over the long-term.

Based on the information provided above, it is easy to assume that ballistic movements
will be preferred in training compared to their non-ballistic counterparts. However,
despite the previously described physiological reasons, coaches do not live in a world
that is governed by only a single principle. Coaches must always consider the safety of
each athlete as well. In the case of the bench press throw, the deceleration of the bar,
which is now a projectile, must be taken into account. If you have an athlete capable of
benching 400lbs, this means 180lbs (45% 1RM) is being hurled through the air at high
velocities. Repeating this exercise for multiple sets and reps only increases the likelihood
of experiencing a catastrophic injury to one or multiple athletes. Although the benefits
of bench throw are greater than the traditional bench press, they do not outweigh the

50
potential for injury of this ballistic method of training.

Besides the already described physical and physiological qualities that differentiate
ballistic and non-ballistic movements, there are theoretical motor learning issues with
non-ballistic exercises as well. As previously described, non-ballistic exercises involve an
active deceleration phase at the end of each repetition. Some argue this deceleration
will actually teach poor movement patterns. In the majority of sporting movements, the
end range is actually where the athlete is moving with the highest velocity. Sprinting is a
simple example of this concept. However, during a squat, this is not the case as the
athlete must decelerate at the top of the movement. At the range of motion where
velocity is typically the highest in a sporting movement (sprinting), velocity is at its
lowest in a non-ballistic movement (squatting). In theory, a non-ballistic exercise could
be teaching the athlete’s body to slow down in its most important phase of movement.

Clearly there are both positives and negatives to both ballistic and non-ballistic training
modalities. With the understanding that ballistic exercises produce the greatest
physiological responses, and with the only negative being the “catch” issue of the
projectile, there have been specific methods developed and utilized to make a non-
ballistic exercise “semi-ballistic”. Ultimately the kinetics are attempted to be created
similar to that of a ballistic exercise, but with no projection of the load or body at the
termination of the movement. One of these more popular methods is the
Compensatory Acceleration Training concept, or CAT.

The CAT method was developed and popularized by Dr. Fred Hatfield, who was also
known as “Doctor Squat”. The concept behind this method is to actively accelerate the
implement throughout the movement and essentially “manually override” the kinetic
principles that typically apply to non-ballistic exercises. Despite the logic behind this CAT
method, it can be theorized that through this active acceleration through the end range
of motion that unnecessary stress will be placed on the passive structures that are now

51
required to stop the implement from becoming a projectile. Returning to the athlete
capable of benching 400lbs, even at lighter loads (45%), that athlete is still attempting to
accelerate 180lbs through their end range of motion. This leads to potentially excessive
stress being placed on the elbow joint and ligaments as the athlete is moving a load with
maximal intention through end range. Obviously this example is extreme as 400lb bench
athletes are rare, but even with a younger athlete this CAT method does have the
potential to place unnecessary stress on both joints and ligaments.

Other Considerations in Ballistic vs. Non-Ballistic Movements

Accommodating Resistance

Accommodating resistance follows a similar principle to that of CAT training. It is


designed around making non-ballistic exercise more ballistic in nature, without having
to make the barbell a projectile. Accommodating resistance is typically done with the
addition of either bands or chains. The concept of bands and chains is to increase the
force aspect of the movement, which in turn will allow the athlete to maintain and
possibly increase velocity as the barbell goes through the full range of motion. By
increasing the mass, the accommodating resistance is attempting to mimic a similar
EMG and force profile to that of a ballistic movement.

Bands versus Chains

There are some subtle, yet important differences between the effects of bands and
chains on a movement. Chains are a concentric only overload. They decrease in load as
the bar is lowered and is increased as the bar is raised. Because they do not have the
same elastic qualities of bands, they will not actively pull the athlete down through the
eccentric range of motion. Another difference is that chains have a linear fit to the
strength curve (each link is a specific weight and bar weight increases linearly with an

52
increase in range of motion), while a band has a more hyperbolic curve of resistance,
decreasing as range of motion increases. The bands increase tension the greatest
through the earlier ranges of motion and decrease the amount of tension it increases by
as the bar goes through the greater range of concentric range of motion. Finally,
because bands are elastic, they can be used to overload the speed of the eccentric
portion. Bands will actively pull the bar and athlete down to the floor much faster than
that of gravity (amount of stretch and tension will depend speed of eccentric overload)

Olympic Movements and their variations

This manual will categorize Olympic movements, as well as their variations, as ballistic
exercises. This is due to the fact that the bar does itself become a projectile and is
accelerated throughout its entire range of motion the athlete is actively creating force
upon it. These exercise methods also require an athlete to “catch” the projectile,
typically by dropping under the displaced bar. This being said, there is still some debate
as to how Olympic movements should be categorized as some consider the deceleration
of the athlete’s body dropping under the bar to create a non-ballistic movement. At this
time the authors do not consider this deceleration of the athlete’s body relevant to
remove these exercises from the ballistic category, as the bar itself does become a
projectile. With Olympic movements, coaches should look at peak velocity after the
second pull.

Once again, it is absolutely critical every performance coach both programs and
implements a training regime with specific outcome goals in mind. The advances in
technology are an amazing addition to monitoring training, but they are just that, an
addition. Even the most advanced technology will never be capable of replacing a
coach’s well thought out, and implemented program with a sole purpose in mind.
Coaches must ensure they have a complete understanding of all training aspects prior to
implementing some of the newest gadgets to monitor athletes. These principles will be

53
applied in a later section when the practical aspect of velocity profiling is demonstrated.

Theoretical and physiological reasons for high velocities:

Allows for proper fiber type to be trained


● By training in a ballistic manner (high velocity) type II muscle fibers are trained
● Fatigue most rapidly, why quality must be considered in programming

Allows for proper energy systems


● By focusing on quality training, creatine phosphate is allowed to recover
● Can complete timed sets to ensure appropriate adaptations

Allows for maximal power


● Power is the product of force*velocity
● Must maintain velocity of implement as the force (load) remains the same
throughout the majority of exercises

Allows for optimal motor unit recruitment


● Activates motor units capable of producing the highest force (type II muscle
fibers)

Allows for optimal neural drive


● By focusing on quality, velocity is maintained and neural drive is maximized

Allows for increase in maximal velocity


● Improving maximal velocity when athlete is velocity deficient has been shown to
increase performance

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Example of velocity based workouts and cluster sets

Target Velocity Sets

Target velocity sets are done by first determining a specific velocity the athlete is going
to aim for. In the example below, Figure 5.4, the target velocity is 1.0 m/s. Secondly, the
coach will start an athlete at a weight they know that the target velocity can easily be
reached. From this point, the coach will increase the weight on the bar every time the
athlete hits at least one rep at or above the target velocity. In the example below, the
athlete will perform two reps at a given load and the fastest velocity will be used. By
providing two reps, it provides the athlete a chance to ‘redeem’ themselves should they
have a subpar first rep. The results of each set will determine the load for the next set. If
the athlete hits the target velocity, then they move up in weight. If the athlete misses
the target velocity, the coach can decide to reduce the weight or give them a second set
to try and perform better. Once the desired number of sets are performed, the athlete
will have a new “one rep max” for this given velocity. Now, each time such a series is
performed, the athlete and coach will have a target weight to beat for this velocity.

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Using Velocity Based Clusters

Figure 5.4: A demonstration of the use of velocity based clusters in a training exercise

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Training with Velocity Cutoffs

Cutoff training will use specific drop in bar velocity to determine when a set is complete.
In this method, there are no prescribed repetitions, but rather the athlete completes
the movement until they fall below the desired velocity. The number of sets completed
can also be based on a specific velocity cut off. However, the velocity cutoff for ending a
series of sets may be different than the velocity cutoff for ending the single set. The
example below shows the differences in both set and movement cutoff. In this example
the velocity cutoff for each set is a reduction of 0.10m/s from the original speed while
the cutoff for the workout series is 0.05m/s. This series cutoff is determined by the
fastest rep in the first set (1.0m/s from table below) and used for the rest of the sets.
Once the velocity of the first two reps on any set fall below the series cutoff (-0.05 m/s),
the exercise is terminated. In the example below this occurs in the fifth set. This leads to
the two cutoff threshold, with the first determining the end of a set (-0.10m/s) and the
second determining the end of the series (-0.05m/s drop from fastest rep within the first
two reps of the set).

All sets and reps, aside for the reps that do not meet the threshold, will fall within the
range of 1.0 - 0.9 m/s if program is followed.

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Example of Cutoff/Drop off Sets with Bench Press

 Starting velocity = 1.0m/s


 Rep Cutoff = -0.10m/s
 Series Cutoff = -0.05m/s (within in the first two reps of the set)

Figure 5.5: Example Cutoff/Drop off Sets. *The fastest rep during first set was 1.0 m/s. For that
reason 1.0m/s was used for the series cutoff. If one of the first two reps of any set falls below
0.95m/s, a -0.05m/s reduction, then the exercise will be ended as the athlete is no longer able
to train with a high enough velocity to maximize power.

*** Side Note: You do not have to go until your first rep velocity falls below your cut off.
You can have it set up so that if they cannot perform more than 2-3 consecutive reps
above the cutoff velocity, then you can cut them off***

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Aspects to be modified

When using the cutoff/drop off method, coaches are able modify the cutoff/drop off
velocities for both the reps and or sets individually. For example, it is possible to have a
larger prescribed velocity cutoff for the repetitions than the set cutoff. As always it is
important to consider the desired outcomes of the training session, as increased cutoff
velocity will eventually lead to a reduction in training quality. Using a 20% velocity
cutoff in the squat preserved a greater number of type IIx fibers a well as increased
vertical jump greater than a 40% velocity cutoff. At the same time, the 20% velocity
cutoff was still able to be a large enough stimulus to induce strength and hypertrophy
gains (8). This clearly demonstrates that excessive volume can be placed on athletes,
which although still allows strength gains, will likely lead to decreased explosive
performance due to the reduced type IIx fibers.

Barbell Jump Squat Cut off/Drop off Example

0.10m/s cutoff/drop off (reps) X 0.05m/s cutoff/drop off (set)


Reps cut off after a 0.1m/s fall from initial velocity and cut sets off after first rep of the
set falls below 0.05m/s of initial rep.

Figure 5.6: Representation of a potential cut off/drop off set for an individual athlete

59
Figure 5.6 above is an example of using cutoff training for barbell jump squats. Each
set’s designated cutoff decrement was -10% jump height. The red line represents the
prescribed set threshold, meaning once the athlete performs one rep under this desired
threshold the set is terminated. This ensures that the athlete is performing the
movement (in this case jumping) at specific programmed power outputs. Instead of
having to assign specific reps, coaches can simply implement a program based on cutoff
velocities/heights. This allows each individual athlete to perform the maximal number of
repetitions possible while maintaining high power outputs.

With power being ultimately determined by both the force and velocity of a movement,
both are critical factors in improving this performance aspect. The speed of every
exercise can be maintained to a greater extent through the use of appropriate cluster
sets. This maintenance of speed will allow the high quality training required to see
power improvements to be continued as fatigue is reduced. New technology also allows
the use of “velocity cutoff” training. Ultimately allowing coaches to quickly determine
when an athlete is no longer capable of producing the highest amounts of power,
regardless of their intent. Each of these methods can be easily implemented within a
training program to maximize its efficiency and ensure each athlete is receiving an
optimal amount of stress.

60
SECTION 5 REFERENCES

1. Pareja-Blanco F, Rodríguez-Rosell D, Sánchez-Medina L, et al. Effects of velocity loss


during resistance training on athletic performance, strength gains and muscle
adaptations. Scand J Med Sci Sport. 2016;(March). doi:10.1111/sms.12678.
2. Tufano JJ, Conlon JA, Nimphius S, et al. Maintenance of Velocity and Power With Cluster
Sets During High-Volume Back Squats. 2016:885-892.
3. Lawrence MM. Effect of cluster set configurations on power clean technique.
2012;(November). doi:10.1080/02640414.2012.736633.Lawrence, M.M. 2012.
4. Tufano JJ, Brown, LE, Haff, GG. (2017). Theoretical and Practical Aspects of Different
Cluster Set Structures: A Systematic Review. Journal of Strength & Conditioning
Research, 31(3): 848-867. doi: 10.1519/JSC.0000000000001581
5. Pareja-Blanco F, Rodríguez-Rosell D, Sánchez-Medina L, Gorostiaga EM, González-Badillo
JJ. Effect of movement velocity during resistance training on neuromuscular
performance. Int J Sports Med. 2014;35(11):916-924. doi:10.1055/s-0033-1363985.
6. Pupo, J. D., & Detanico, D. (2011). Kinetic Parameters as Determinants of Vertical Jump
Performance. Brazilian Journal of Kinanthropometry and Human Performance, 14(1),
41–51. http://doi.org/10.5007/19800037.2012v14n1p41
7. Newton RU, Kraemer WJ, Hakkinen K, Humphries BJ, Murphy AJ. Kinematics , Kinetics ,
and Muscle Activation During Explosive Upper Body Movements. 1996:37-43.
8. Jiménez-Reyes P, Samozino P, Brughelli M, Morin JB. Effectiveness of an individualized
training based on force-velocity profiling during jumping. Front Physiol. 2017;7(JAN):1-
13. doi:10.3389/fphys.2016.00677

61
Section 6

MINIMIZE FATIGUE

Part I

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The purpose of power training is to, put simply, train at high power outputs. A reduction
in power is associated with an increase in metabolic and neurological fatigue (1). If an
athlete begins a training session in a fatigued state, or starts the session fatigued from a
prior training session, the desired power training stimulus might not be achieved. There
are multiple ways to test, monitor and evaluate the fatigue of an athlete. These
methods range from vertical jump height, to bar velocity, questionnaires, and even hand
dynamometers (1). Each of these methods can be applied either in a pre-training, or
throughout training model.

Pre-Training

Pre-Training testing for fatigue is implemented with the goal of measuring total
accumulated fatigue. The fact that accumulated fatigue plays a large role in an athlete’s
output, specifically in regards to the nervous system, is critical. As the specific training of
power, as well as the nervous system, requires quality training. Coaches must be
capable of determining if an athlete’s current state of fatigue is too great to obtain such
quality of work, these potential monitoring tools will be covered in the upcoming
section. However, if a coach is able to identify the pre-existing fatigue, then an
individualized training adjustment can be made to help aid in recovery and avoid
unwarranted stress.

Throughout Training

Fatigue monitoring can also be completed throughout the training session. This method
is implemented to ensure each athlete is achieving the appropriate stimulus desired.
Even with appropriate clustering and implementation of all other factors, fatigue will
still occur at some point. However, based on their training age, genetics, and many
other factors, each athlete will accumulate fatigue at different rates. By monitoring
throughout the training session, a coach is able to see how rapidly each athlete’s power

63
output, or bar velocity in this case, decreases. This will ensure training time is not
wasted training outside of the coaches desired zones of power output.

For example, if an athlete’s mean bar velocity at a given load, say 220lbs drops from 1.0
m/s to 0.40 m/s within a set, the total power output will drop by 60%. A coach may find
a 60% reduction in power output too great for their specific training goal.

What to look for

There are two trends you want to look for. You want to look for the micro, day-to-day
fluctuations and the macro, long term changes.

Day-to-Day

The day-to-day fluctuations can give you some insight as to how “ready” the athlete is. If
the mean velocities dip below a specific percentage of their normal output, then the
coach may want to make sure what to modify the training.
You can also look for day-to-day relationships between velocity changes and other
aspects of training. For example, it is possible that the coach may begin to predict how
much of a velocity fall off they expect to see from different kinds of training days. These
day-to-day changes can be extremely useful for in season peaking, monitoring and
overall training evaluation. Theoretically, one might be able to tell whether or not a
given workout is going to be facilitating the next day’s work out (higher velocities the
next day after a workout) or hindering the next day's work out (reduction in velocity).
Monitoring velocity also might allow the coach to predict supercompensation patterns.
Depending on the accumulated reduction in velocity over a given time frame by an
athlete, the coach may start to see trends of how the velocity may rebound above
baseline levels.

64
Once a coach has gotten an idea of how the workouts affect velocity changes, a coach
can implement specific workouts to get specific results for game day. Instead of
accidentally performing a “fatiguing” workout the day before a game, a coach can more
confidently perform a “facilitating” workout that is backed by some level of confidence
based on their velocity monitoring findings.

Long-Term Trends

Long term trends can help the coach understand how a program is affecting their
athletes. They can inform the coach how an athlete is progressing throughout a training
cycle without having to max them out. A coach can see how athletes are responding
during both the in-season and pre-season training cycles by comparing changes in
velocity compared to the baseline. Secondly, long-term trends can give the coach an
understanding of how their loading cycles tend to affect their athletes performance if by
comparing velocity losses to other field tests, such as vertical jump and ten yard sprint
time. Based on these comparisons, a coach might be able to see how certain blocks
influence velocity and in turn, how velocity loss may influence sport specific field tests.
This can give insights in how to accurately time different loading patterns to get the
most out of a long-term training plan

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Figure 6.1: Long term and short term trends can be derived from acute and chronic changes in
velocity at a given load. Measurements were taken over a period of 16 weeks, two eight week
cycles.

Stress Managing and Autoregulation

Both of these techniques for monitoring fatigue, pre- and throughout training, allow for
the autoregulation of each individual athlete. These methods, when utilized
appropriately, provide a snapshot of where the athlete’s nervous system is at before,
and during, each training session. Ultimately allowing a coach to provide the optimal
stress to each athlete based on their individual requirements.

A performance coach is ultimately a stress manager and must realize that balance is
crucial in order for optimal performance to be achieved by each athlete. A simple way to
view the stress being applied in training is to consider training on a continuum. If stress
is applied at an extreme amount with limited recovery, the athlete will be unable to
cope with the excessive levels of stress and begin to respond poorly. At the opposite
end of the continuum, if not enough stress is applied during training, the desired
training adaptations will not occur and optimal performance will never be reached.
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In either case, too much or too little stress in the training process will hinder the
improvement of power production. This less than optimal stress application, either too
much or too little, will hinder an athlete’s development over the course of time and
ultimately lead to detrimental effects on their performance. Managing and balancing
stress is a crucial aspect in coaching athletes at any level.

The application of appropriate stress and its outcome in performance also can be seen
in the simple General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) provided in the figures below (2). The
first figure (6.2) displays the improvements possible when stress is applied in an
appropriate amount for the desired adaptation, in this case power output, which leads
to improved performance to the fullest extent. The second figure (6.3) shows the results
of an athlete that is stressed using insufficient means in training. This training method
results in a poor training response and no performance gains in power production due
to the training applied. The final figure (6.4) represents the results of an overtrained
athlete, or one that has experienced excessive levels of stress. When this approach is
implemented, the athlete’s body does not have the resources or capabilities to adapt to
the demands being placed upon it in training. Thus, a negative, or poor, training
response occurs and an athlete will end in a decreased performance state than pre-
training levels.

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Figure 6.2: Adaptation Response with Appropriate Stress in Training (Desired Adaptation)

Figure 6.3: Adaptation Response with Insufficient Stress in Training (No Response)

68
Figure 6.4: Adaptation Response with Excessive Stress in Training (Decreased Performance)

The ability to manage stress appropriately is a skill that allows the autoregulation of
training to be utilized to the highest extent. Autoregulated training sessions, according
to each athlete’s abilities, can be utilized to increase the likelihood that power is being
targeted specifically in a training session. As each athlete is truly an individual, fatigue
monitoring methods allow programming to be completed according to their exact needs
in that specific training session.

Maintaining Quality of Training and Minimizing Intra-Workout Fatigue

For example, two athletes are completing a training program using cluster repetitions
with a set rest time and the ultimate goal of finishing as many sets as possible before
passing a three percent drop-off in bar velocity (this method is outlined in the
maintaining velocity chapter). This is an example of quality power training as the athlete
is stopped as soon as they reach the small drop-off. Athlete one is able to complete
fifteen repetitions before they pass the three percent drop-off, while the second athlete
is able to complete twenty-eight repetitions of the movement. By monitoring fatigue a
coach can program specifically to each athlete’s needs. If both athletes were trained
according to the abilities of athlete one, athlete two will be under trained as they will
69
not experience enough stress. If both are trained according to the needs of athlete two,
athlete one will be overtrained and unable to adapt to the training. By applying these
methods appropriately, coaches are able to ensure power is trained to the highest
extent according to the exact desired amount for each training session.

The chart below depicts this exact scenario and what each athlete is experiencing
throughout the cluster training session described above. Again, athlete 1 is able to train
for fifteen repetitions prior to surpassing a three percent drop-off, while athlete 2 can
sustain the desired bar velocity for twenty-eight repetitions. The ability of each athlete
to train with a high-quality level of power output, which is the desired goal of this
training session, is demonstrated based on the color of the cell. Green cells represent
when the goal adaptation is achieved, while red cells represent a repetition in which an
undesired adaptation is likely to be realized.

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Figure 6.4: Two athletes and their individual responses to identical training stressors.
These differences could be the accumulation of previous training stressors, training age,
and/or multiple other factors
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The adaptations realized will depend entirely on the training program prescribed for the
athlete and the desired amount of time prior to training with high-quality again. Keeping
in mind the goal of a three percent drop-off requires high-quality, even when an athlete
reaches this percent they will still be training power. This is shown in the red cells for
both athlete 1 and athlete 2 in the chart above. However, once this percent drop-off is
reached, the quality of that power adaptation is no longer reached based on the set-
parameters of the daily training session. Meaning the goal of the training session is no
longer being achieved. As fatigue is accumulated, whether within a single session or
multiple training days, the ability to train with high-quality is reduced. This should be a
review at this point. Keeping this in mind, a coach is able to implement specific drop-off
percentages based on when quality training will be completed again. These two
concepts allow a coach to ensure they are monitoring fatigue individually and ensure
the exact goals of power training are met to their fullest extent.

Below is a potential guideline of when power training is available to be trained at the


highest extent based on the percent drop-off implemented. These rest periods may
allow an athlete to recover and train with zero or limited residual neuromuscular fatigue
in the next session. It is important to emphasize that this is merely an attempted
guideline and individual athletes may respond with different required rest times
between training sessions.

Figure 6.6: Potential rest days required between training based on percent drop-off achieved.
Remember these are merely guidelines and each athlete will require different amounts of
recovery time.

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It should be clear at this point the importance of fatigue monitoring for optimal stress
and adaptations. In the above example athlete 1 may have entered the training day in
an already somewhat fatigued state, or they simply do not have the same ability to
maintain quality power repetitions for repeated efforts. Either way, training stressors
applied must be relative to each individual athlete’s abilities at that specific moment
(training session in this case). Once again, this returns to the concept that if an athlete is
not running at their highest velocities, they will not improve maximal speed. These
simple monitoring aspects can be utilized to apply optimal stress levels to each
individual. Potential physiological reasons for an athlete to experience fatigue are listed
below. It is important to note that this is in no way an all-encompassing list and there
are many other factors that will impact fatigue on an athlete.

Short List of Physiological reasons for fatigue:

● Metabolic accumulation (1)


● Muscle breakdown (3)
● Reduction in central drive
● Disruption in neural pathways
● Outside stressors (school, social life, any psychological stressor)
● Malnutrition (4)

The remainder of this section will demonstrate other methods in which fatigue
monitoring can be implemented. It is important to remember that many of these
methods can be applied at either the beginning of a training session, throughout the
training session, or even both.

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Section 6

MINIMIZE FATIGUE

Part II

74
Fatigue Monitoring Options

There is no one, “best” method. The goal of these assessment tools are to help the coach
form ideas and understandings of how their athletes respond to different stimuli.

Vertical Jump Test

Vertical jump test is commonly used to test the athlete's readiness. It can arguably be
considered one of the easiest and most accurate measurements of relative power. It is
non-invasive and has been shown to predict neuromuscular changes (5).

Athletes should perform this test only once completely warmed up and should be
allowed multiple attempts with adequate rest periods between jumps. The movement
should be done with the athletes’ hands on their hips or across their chest (stick with
whichever way you choose to remain consistent). The athletes should go down to a
standardized knee angle, pause for two seconds to eliminate the aid of the stretch reflex
and then jump as high as they can. Testing procedures should be standardized and easy
to reproduce. With the knowledge that the vertical jump method is correlated to the
ability of an athlete to produce high-neural drive efforts, a performance coach can
theoretically monitor and control the stress levels experienced throughout the week
and autoregulate according to their specific needs.

Bar Velocity Pre and Post Testing

The method of using pre and post differences in bar velocity as a measure of fatigue was
research by Sanchez-Medina and colleagues. This method is quite simple and only
involves a total of 6 reps (3 pre and 3 post) with a sub-maximal load to be performed at
the beginning and end of a working set. The decrease in average bar velocity from pre
and post training has been correlated to lactate and ammonia accumulation.

75
Prior to the working sets of the exercise, the athlete will perform three repetitions with
a load that corresponds to 1.0 m/s. If the athlete can move 185lbs at 1m/s, they will
perform three repetitions and the average velocity will be taken (should be ~ 1.0m/s).
Then, post exercise, the athlete will perform three repetitions with the same load,
185lbs. This time, it is expected that average bar velocity will have decreased. The
amount of velocity loss depends on how fatiguing the set was. Once you have your pre
and post measurements, the difference between the two average velocities will be your
average percentage loss of velocity.

For example, if your athlete performed 185lbs for an average of 1.0 m/s as a pre-test
and then performed 185lbs for an average of 0.7 m/s post-tests, then we know the
difference between pre and post is 1.0 - 0.7 = 0.3m/s and 0.3m/s is 30% of the original
pre-test average of 1.0 m/s, so the pre-post velocity loss was 30%. By understanding the
underlying physiological requirements of training power, coaches are able to prescribe
specific “pre-post velocity loss” to achieve desired adaptations.

Why does pre and post velocity loss matter? Pre and post velocity loss can give the
coach some insights into how difficult the training session was and how much recovery
time the athlete may need to fully recuperate. This knowledge can allow coaches to
program rest days appropriately based on the percent of decrement each athlete
achieves. A general guideline of rest days required depending on fatigue level is shown
above in Figure 6.6 (page 72). Sanchez-Medina and colleagues found that a mean
velocity loss (pre-post) over three working sets of ~15% for the squat, ~20% for the
bench press and ~12% decrease in jump height (CMJ) are associated with increases in
ammonia concentrations above resting values (1). High correlations were also found
between lactate levels and pre and post average velocity loss of the squat, bench, and
jump height. Theoretically, the larger the decrease in velocity between pre and post
testing the longer the athlete may need to recover. Monitoring these decreases can aid

76
in creating more accurate training protocols and allow for greater understanding of the
impact and direction of training.

Hand Grip Test

The handgrip test is performed using a handgrip dynamometer. This is simple device
that is used to measure the isometric force of an athlete’s grip. Unlike the vertical jump
test, the handgrip test will be more reliant of maximal strength and not limited by any
time variable. Differences in daily handgrip measurements could possibly be influenced
by neural output and central drive. Central drive meaning that if something is
neurologically fatigued (motivation or disruption in homeostatic), they may score lower
than usual, despite minimal disruption in the contractile properties of the muscles.

As coaches are aware, the neural state of the athlete plays a large role and being able to
monitor this system is imperative. Research suggests that isometric handgrip tests are a
good tool for measuring autonomic nervous system function (6). The handgrip test is
similar in nature and idea to an isometric mid-thigh pull. It is a maximal effort
movement performed in an isometric state. Because the movement is isometric, there
will be minimal physiological breakdown of the muscle tissue and is considered
relatively much less invasive than other dynamic tests.

Testing of the handgrip test needs to be standardized. Despite it being a relatively non-
invasive assessment tool, the athlete should be adequately warmed up prior to testing.
The athlete should test both hands in a standardized fashion, with arm position and grip
position the same for each testing session. Proper rest time should be allowed between
sets. Athletes should be limited on the amount of time they are allowed to squeeze the
dynamometer for (coach’s decision) and should be allowed multiple attempts each side
(coach’s decision).

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Figure 6.7: Hand dynamometer and correct usage (Lafayette Instrument Company, Lafayette, IN)

Wearable technology

Wearable technologies are becoming more and more popular. They are slowly making
the subjective, objective. From GPS to heart rate monitors, wearable technology is
aimed at measuring training loads. Depending on the type of equipment you are using
and the company it is made by, the developers may provide their own scores for
measuring workloads. The majority of these products have algorithms built in, which
makes it very appealing to the coach because it eliminates a lot of the “busy work”.
Instead of having to worry about all of the calculations, the coach only has to focus on
applying the information it provides.

Wearable technology can provide a feature that most other pieces of equipment do not.
It allows for immediate, actionable feedback. This will allow coaches to acutely manage
the training loads and adjust volume in the middle of the workout. This is arguably one
of the most valuable features of some wearable technology. The best way to avoid

78
fatigue is to quantify when the athlete is approaching it.

Questionnaires

The questionnaire is a subjective measure, meaning that it is not actually directly


assessing an unbiased value, instead it is based on the athlete’s opinions and feelings.
Questionnaires can range from being a couple of questions to an entire page.
Depending on what the coach is looking for, either option may be applicable.

Questionnaires are heavily dependent on the athletes’ honesty. If the athletes do not
buy into the importance of the questionnaire and do not take them seriously, the results
might be meaningless. However, unlike the objective measures (vertical jump and
handgrip) the questionnaires can offer unique valuable insights.

To make the questionnaire easier to understand the coach may want to quantify the
results of the answers. This can help give the coach a working number that they can use
to analyze how the athletes are responding.

Figure 6.8: Example Questionnaire utilizing RPE.

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This specific scale was developed by Dr. Zourdos for in training auto-regulatory purposes
(6)
. It was used to help athlete’s correlate the level of difficulty of the movement with
the number of reps they could achieve in the movement. This would not be used for a
post workout team questionnaire, however, something similar in nature to quantify the
difficulty of the entire workout can be used.

Coach’s Observations

Coach’s observations are not easy to quantify and can be hard to measure, but when
used it might be one of the most effective forms of fatigue monitoring. This is arguably
one of the biggest facets of a good coach and can embody many qualities of the “art of
coaching”. As a strength coach, you are one of the few people that see and work with
your athletes on a near daily basis. You are the one who designed the workout, so you
naturally have an inclination of how it might affect them. By simply watching your
players interact with one another, look at you, carry themselves and go through the
workout can give you a good understanding of how they are responding to your
workouts.

For example, as a coach you might design what are called “facilitating workouts”. These
workouts are not supposed to be highly fatiguing, but instead are supposed to ready the
athlete for the following day. However, if you see that during the workout bar velocity
drastically drops, athlete’s begin to slump over and overall “energy” in the room
dramatically decreases, you might be correct in assuming that the workout became too
demanding and is no longer “facilitating”, but instead very taxing. By simply jotting
down a couple of notes to yourself as a reminder, the next day the athletes come in you
can compare how they are carrying themselves. If they appear to be too taxed from the
day before, you can reference your observations and make the coaching decisions as to
whether or not you want to modify the program.

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A way to make a coach’s observation actionable is by having each coach record notes on
a set series of questions. The questions can range from “how do you think the players
responded?” to “how difficult do you think the workout was?” At the end of each
session or day, the coaches can all gather together and quickly discuss their
observations and how they felt. By having all coaches perform this note taking process,
you are not only getting a diverse range of feedback, but you are making it a
requirement for all coaches to be engaged in actively observing the players.

Figure 6.9: A list of possible questions a coach can consider/answer while observing. This sheet
can be utilized to track notes from session to session.

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Talking to your athletes

Talking to your athletes is very similar to the coach’s observations and at times they can
be nearly synonymous. However, the “talking” to your athletes portion involves active
discussion and communication while coach’s observations are non-verbal. Talking to
your athletes is a great way of getting an understanding of how they are actually feeling.
Surveys are great, but at times athletes may find them to be too tedious and blow them
off. However, an active conversation is not scripted like a survey and may allow for
more information to be extracted. Remember, it is the athletes who are the ones going
through the training, by not taking their input, it is similar to a chef never asking
whether or not the customers like the food.

As mentioned earlier, coaches do not need to have a scripted conversation with every
athlete. Engaging with athletes on a regular basis will allow for coaches to understand
how they are responding, as well as better build their relationship with them. Coaches
do not need to take notes in front of the athletes, but it might be beneficial to jot down
a couple key points from the conversation on a notepad. This way, when the staff meets
up to go over the daily training sessions, coaches can have a couple of sentences to
reflect on and discuss instead of trying to do it all by memory. It also requires coaches to
be active listeners. If you require some level of note taking, the coaches cannot just
blow off the conversation.

Using the metrics

Metrics are great, but they only hold value when you know how to use them. For
quantifiable metrics (vertical jump and handgrip) you may want to develop standard
deviations from your collected data. This will allow you to actually use your data and
compare results from one day to the next. Finding the standard deviation is very easy. It
doesn’t take more than a couple of steps in excel and you can have it up and running in

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minutes.

For example, if you are using bar velocity at a given load, vertical jump height, or hand
grip strength, a coach might find it useful to modify their program if the athlete falls one
to two standard deviations outside of their “norm”.

Using the metrics in combination with one another

Metrics can be used in combination with one another. For example, you might run
correlations to see that if fluctuations in vertical jump change in conjunction with
isometric handgrip performance. If you are doing some type of on the field
measurement that day, you may want to compare the fatigue metrics to the field tests
and see whether or not you believe there was any influence. You can also use your
vertical test and handgrip metrics and compare them to your surveys. Depending on the
survey you provide, you have numerical scores associated with each day. By comparing
metrics, you can start to discern which tools are reliable, which ones might possibly be
valid and which ones are useless.

Not every tool you use will be perfect and quite frankly, some might be a waste of time.
Some coaches may find the surveys and observations are more useful while other may
find that a mixture of technology and human interaction works best. The goal is to find a
tool that helps you get a competitive edge and works well for your situation

How to use correlations

Correlations are fairly straightforward. With correlations you are comparing to see
whether or not one variable is related to another. For example, you might want to see
whether or not maximal strength in the back squat is correlated to vertical jump height.
Correlations can help the strength coach get an understanding of how training metrics,

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tools, and modalities are related with one another.

Correlations range from values of +1.00 to -1.00. A relationship’s significance is


determined by how close the correlation coefficient (r-value) is to +1.00 or -1.00. A
perfect correlation is either +1.00 or -1.00 while no correlation is a value of 0.00.

Negative correlations are not “bad”. A negative correlation can be desirable. For
example, the correlation between vertical jump and 10 meter sprint time is negative,
depending upon the athlete’s level of training. This means as jump height increases the
sprint time will decrease and vice versa. If you want to run faster, you want your sprint
time to decrease (If sprint time decreases average velocity increases). However, this
does not mean all negative correlations are good.

No correlations simply mean that there is likely not a link between the two factors being
looked at by the coach.

Positive Correlation

Figure 6.10: An example of a positive correlation.

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Negative Correlation

Figure 6.11: An example of a negative correlation.

No Correlation

Figure 6.12: An example of no correlation.

Correlations can easily be setup in excel or any other type of statistical software. All you
need to do is setup two columns (X and Y variables). Each column is going to be holding

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the values of one of one variable. All X values (one variable) go in the X column and all Y
values (the other variable) go in the Y column.

Figure 6.13: Column example to set up correlation graphs (Figures 6.10-6.12)

The rows of each column must correspond with each other at all times. Their connection
in the example below is the athlete’s results in two different testing protocols. This is
demonstrated in the green highlighted column. In this scenario a coach may have been
looking to see if one testing result was at all related to the other. It is important to note
that this highlighted green column could also represent two individual athletes but the
same testing. This method could be applied in a situation to determine the
requirements of successful sport performance. Correlations are capable of being utilized
in many different ways and serve as valuable tools for coaches.

Figure 6.14: Example of a potential correlation between performance/testing parameters

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We can use the foundation of correlations to build regression models, which can help us
predict future scores. For example, we might be able to predict how high someone can
jump based on their maximal squat strength to bodyweight ratio. However, these
predictions will never be perfect, unless the correlation is perfect (+1 or -1). Instead,
there will be an amount of error in our prediction. This can be done by calculating
standard error and then finding a confidence interval. The confidence interval
essentially tells us where we think this predicted score might fall. Depending on the
strictness of the confidence interval, the interval can range in size.
For example, using a regression model, we might find that for every .3 increase in squat
to body weight ratio the vertical jump height may increase from 1-3 inches in a 95%
confidence interval.

Correlation is not causation

Just because something has a correlative relationship doesn’t mean it has a causative
relationship. Causative relationships are what we strive to better understand. However,
finding a correlation is often the first step in determining a causative relationship.

Application in Training

Data is useless without application. In the example below figure 6.15, weekly averages
for vertical jump were recorded. During this 13 week period, the athletes went through
different phases of their program, which means as a coach, one might expect to see
specific changes in average vertical jump height depending on the phase. For example, a
planned overreaching might have occurred between week 6 and week 10. As indicated
by the graph and as expected by the coach, there was a decrease in average vertical
jump height. However, once the stimulus was reduced after week 10, super

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compensation was allowed to occur and a positive spike in average vertical jump height
can be noted.

Figure 6.15: Example of jump monitoring over the course of a training program

Using the same example as above, we could imagine this 13 week period occurring in
season. During weeks 1 through 6 the vertical jump height averages remain relatively
stable. However, from week 7 to week 10 the vertical jump height averages decrease.
This is not ideal, but at least the decrease in performance can be caught before fatigue
accumulation becomes too great and the athletes begin to enter into an overtrained
state. As a coach, in order to prevent further fatigue, action can be taken to reduce
some of the overall loading of the in-season program, which in turn allows the vertical
jump height to stabilize around week 11.

More in depth statistical analysis can be done on the data gathered to give you even
better insights. Whether it is a z-score, t-score, variance or a confidence interval, all can
be used to help better understand what the data means. However, this text will not
cover these methods and referencing an outside resource might be beneficial.

In order to minimize fatigue, a coach has to monitor fatigue. There is currently no one

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best option and because of this, different coaches my find different methods useful. The
most important aspect regarding monitoring fatigue is finding a reliable method that
can easily be implemented into a program. Whether one chooses a vertical jump test or
a simple questionnaire, fatigue monitoring can help aid in autoregulating training, thus
making it more accurate. However, in order to actually understand whether or not your
methods are useful, which at times can be hard to discern upon first glance, simple
statistical methods can be used to help. Using something as simple as a correlation can
help the coach understand whether or not what they are testing is actually associated
with fatigue.

Fatigue Summary

As an athlete accumulates fatigue, their ability to produce the highest levels of power
will be drastically reduced. This can be easily seen in the P = F*V equation, as volume
experienced throughout a training session increases, the ability of the athlete to achieve
the highest velocities of a movement diminishes and power is reduced. The importance
of velocity was covered in an earlier section in this manual. The ability of a coach to
minimize and monitor fatigue induced throughout training is vital to maximizing power
adaptations.

Methods such as cluster training and appropriate rest times can be applied practically
within a training program to ensure athletes are able to continually produce high
velocity movements. Monitoring for fatigue can be completed both before, and
throughout the training session as fatigue can be accumulated from either previous
training sessions/stressors, or throughout the training session itself. By monitoring each
athlete, optimal stress is placed on every individual. This will lead to greater adaptations
and more specific programming to be completed based on each athlete’s needs.

There are many potential methods available for monitoring fatigue, some being simple

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while others extravagant. However, more than anything else, it is more important that
whatever method is implemented is done so in the correct manner. Some of the most
advanced methods possible will bear no fruit for a coach if they are not utilized
appropriately and even the most basic tools available can prove to be highly efficient
and effective when applied correctly.

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Applied Principles of Optimal Power Development
Pre Pre-Training, Multi-Dimensional Warm-Up
Block 1 Lower Body Warm-up
Order Exercise Sets Reps/Duration Load Notes
A Hex Bar Deadlift 1,1,1 x 5,3,3 50-80% Warm-Up
Perform A as a Warm-Up for Heavier Sets
1:00 Minute Rest Between Sets
Block 2 Lower Body Power
Order Exercise Sets Reps/Duration Load Notes
A Jump Mat Vertical Testing AMAP x 2 BW Max Height Jump, Best of 2 Jumps
B Hex Bar Deadlift AMAP x 1,1 65-70% Cluster Singles
C JOP Plyo AMAP x 3 EA SL Deceleration, Low Impact
Perform A-C Simultaneously until 5% Drop in Vertical Jump
10 Seconds Rest Between Cluster Repetitions; 1:30 minutes between Rounds
Block 3 Upper Body Warm-up
Order Exercise Sets Reps/Duration Load Notes
A Bench Press 1,1,1 x 5,3,3 50-80% Warm-Up
B Mini-Band Scap Press 3 x 10 EA Green
Perform A & B Series Simultaneously for 3 Sets as a Warm-Up for Heavier Sets
1:00 Minute Rest Between Sets
Block 4 Upper Body Power
Order Exercise Sets Reps/Duration Load Notes
A Bench Press 4 x 2,2 65-70% Cluster Doubles
B One Arm Med Ball Pass 4 x 5 EA Use Hips
Perform A-B Simultaneously for 4 Sets
25 Seconds Rest Between Exercises; 2:00 minutes between Rounds
Block 5 Lower Auxiliary Power
Order Exercise Sets Reps/Duration Load Notes
A DB Step Up 3 x 5 EA 65-70%
B Split Stance Cable Rot. Row 3 x 5 EA
C DB RDL 3 x 5 65-70%
Perform A-C Simultaneously for 3 Sets
30 Seconds Rest Between Exercises
Figure 6.16: Full training program with the goal of improving power production

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SECTION 6 REFERENCES

1. Sánchez-Medina, L., and González-Badillo, J. J. (2011). Velocity loss as an indicator of


neuromuscular fatigue during resistance training. Medicine & Science in Sports &
Exercise, (22), 1725–1734.
2. Selye H. (1976) The Stress of Life (rev. edn.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
3. Judelson A., Maresh, C., Anderson, j., Armstrong, L., Casa, D., and William Kraemer
(2014). Hydration and muscular performance : Does fluid balance affect strength ,
power and high- intensity endurance , (June).
4. Lopes, J., Russell, D.M., Whitwell, J., Jeejeebhoy, K.N. (1982). Skeletal muscle function in
malnutrition. The American Society for Clinical Nutrition, Inc. 36(4), 602-610.
5. Taylor, K., Chapman, D. W., Cronin, J., Newton, J., and Nicholas, G. (2012). Fatigue
Monitoring in High Performance Sport. Journal of Australian Strength and Conditioning.
20(1) 12-23.
6. Khurana, RK., and Setty, A. (1996). The value of the isometric hand-grip test- studies in
various autonomic disorders. Clinical Autonomic Research.
7. Zourdos, M.C., Klemp, A., Dolan, C., Quiles, J.M., Schau, K.A., Jo, E. Helms, E., Esgro, B.,
Garcia Merino, S., and Blanco, R. (2016) Novel Resistance training-specific RPE scale
measuring repetitions in reserve. The Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research.
30(1):267-275.

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Conclusion

It is important for coaches to remember that exercises are merely movements


programmed to accomplish specific training adaptations. It is the ability of a
performance coach to implement an exercise in a manner that elicits the desired
response that ultimately determines its effectiveness. In the specific case of this manual,
power is the desired adaptation which is most efficiently achieved with the methods,
exercises, and tools described throughout this manual.

On the surface, power might seem as simple as a simple formula, as it only includes
force and velocity. However, as demonstrated throughout this manual with the wide
variety of training possibilities, power is a much more complex than what it may first
appear. Power is predicated on optimization. In order to achieve the highest power
outputs, mental and physical states must each be functioning to their fullest capacity.
The process and framework of achieving this optimization is what this manual attempts
to provide.

As noted by Verkhoshanky, improved power during the sporting movement is the most
desired positive physiological adaptation an athlete can achieve. Moving with greater
speed and force (power) is part of the complex equation that separates the recreational
from the elite level athlete. However, despite the conceptual simplicity of improving
power, the multi-faceted adaptable and transferable process is more complex and
requires coaches to consider many aspects.

We believe power is best developed by: Optimizing maximal intent through usage of
feedback, incorporating specific post activation potentiation methods to put the athlete
in their highest state of readiness, implementing appropriate training loads and
velocities that elicit the desired power outputs, programming that allows velocity to be

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maintained throughout the training session while also minimizing fatigue experienced.
Each of these methods can be implemented and measured on a daily basis when power
is the desired outcome of training. Only when these methods are all implemented and
are utilized in conjunction with statistical assessment can more specific methods be
determined for each individual athlete.

It should be noted that even with all of the advancements in technology and
improvements in training means, sport specific transfer remains one of the more
difficult aspects of performance to predict. Although it remains the ultimate goal, it is
commonly not realized to the fullest desired extent. The reasons for this lack of transfer
can fall outside of the performance coach’s control, making it difficult to predict. Even
with this “lack of predictability”, the development of key physiological and neurological
traits should still be considered to a great extent in training. More often than not, the
athlete capable of producing greater amounts of power will experience increased
success than a less powerful athlete.

If this manual has sparked a greater interest in the area of power production and
improvement in sports performance, an entire annual plan, which demonstrates each of
these concepts is available here.

This manual does not claim to hold all of the answers and anyone reading this should
not consider this manual to have the answer to every power related question. The goal
of this manual is to outline the theory and evidence based processes that may best lead
to desired, power improving adaptations. As research continues to improve and the
literature continues to grow the details of such adaptations will come to the surface in
greater detail.

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Section 7

Addendum:
Other Power Considerations

Rate of Force Development


Band Accelerated Movements
Eccentric Power Development
Velocity Profiling

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Band Accelerated Movements

This final section in this power manual will demonstrate some of the remaining
concepts, methods, and applications in training that have not been covered. Ranging
from the broad category of rate of force development, to more specific training means
such as accelerated band training, power training is an extremely broad topic. This
section should provide a few final theories while also demonstrating the use of these
through an individual “velocity profile” creation as well as in-season monitoring. With
many portions of this manual delegated to the importance of the nervous system and its
role in power production, it is vital all coaches have an example to utilize when
beginning to create their own training programs. These concepts and practical
applications should serve as the “icing on the cake” of power training, with the
foundation being covered in the previous six sections.

Rate of Force Development

Power production and rate of force development go hand in hand. To develop high
power outputs, an athlete must develop high amounts of force at high velocities. When
movements are occurring at high velocity, the amount of time available to complete the
action is reduced. Sprinting is an example of this, the ground contact time in maximal
velocity sprinting is typically between 0.08 and 0.12 seconds for elite level sprinters. This
is a much shorter time than needed for the athlete’s body to produce maximal force,
which takes up to 0.3-0.4 seconds (1,2). Both thresholds are demonstrated below in
figure 7.1. During this brief amount of ground contact time available to produce force, it
is the rate at which force is developed, rather than the absolute amount of force they
are capable of expressing which leads to the greatest change in performance. With this
knowledge, a coach can see that high power outputs occurring at high velocities must
have high levels of rate of force production.

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Figure 7.1: Time force analysis based on specific training adaptations realized (3)

Rate of force development can be trained in a biphasic manner, with an early and late
phase. Each of these phases require specific training for improvement and are both
required for optimal on-field performance. The early phase is influenced primarily by
neural drive while the late phase is more dependent upon the muscle cross sectional
area and maximal force production capabilities (1,4,5).

With early and late phases of RFD affected by different processes, it is not surprising
that different training methods bring about different adaptations to the two phases.
Training programs that place focus on explosive strength, or high velocity movements
increases early force development by increasing neural drive (1,2,4-6). It appears that the
early phase of force development may also be improved when the intention of training
is maximal acceleration. This returns to the concept demonstrated in the previous
section of executing every movement with maximal intent. Programs that focus training
on high loads lead to improvements in maximal strength and maximal force
development. These adaptations are involved in the late phase, as the movements allow

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enough time for maximal force to be developed during muscle contraction.

These differences due to training can be seen above in figure 7.1. Note the
improvement in the early phase in explosive/ballistic trained athletes, while the heavy
resistance trained athletes have an increased late phase. Each of these improvements
can be related back to the CNS or tissue adaptations realized when the early and late
phases are trained, respectively. This returns to the optimal loading and velocity training
discussed in previous sections. It is paramount a coach understands the adaptations that
are likely to be experienced post-stress to the highest extent possible. Athletes can be
trained specifically according to their individual requirements.

One method that can be utilized to increase the early phase of rate of force
development is the use of accelerated methods. These training exercises, which have
received a lot of attention recently, allow an athlete to complete a movement at
supramaximal speeds. One example of this method is an accelerated band jump,
although there are countless possibilities for accelerated movements to be completed.
However, prior to providing the training guidelines and exercise options, it is important
to first cover the physics and concepts as to why these methods are applied.

In order to fully understand the application of accelerated movements, it is imperative


that the physics of these exercises are understood. Referring back to the force-velocity
curve, it can be noted that maximal concentric force can be seen right before movement
velocity becomes zero. This is seen in a one rep max. The athlete moves the most
maximal load possible, which creates a slow movement velocity. On the other end of
the spectrum, maximal velocity occurs when force is near zero. Both of these can be
seen in the force-velocity profile demonstrated in Figures 4.2 and 4.3 on pages 36 and
37, respectively. As the load increases or decreases, the potential velocity of the
movement decreases or increases, respectively. However, without the use of assistance,
it is nearly impossible to achieve an external force of zero. This is due to the force

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experienced by all people due to their body weight. Although often forgotten, gravity
constantly provides force on the body that every athlete must overcome. This external
force leads to every exercise not being trained at the highest possible velocities. Body
weight movements are obviously faster than loaded movement, but if velocity is our
goal, we must ensure speed is trained to the fullest extent.

For example, take a 220 pound athlete performing a vertical jump. When the athlete
performs the movement, they have to overcome their 220 pounds of external load. This
means without assistance, 220 pounds is the lowest load this athlete can complete a
movement against. However with assistance, bands are one example, the athlete can
now achieve movement velocities against loads that are less than their body weight.
This allows the athlete to continue to train with closer to maximal velocities. Meaning
training to improve every aspect of the entire force-velocity curve becomes possible.

It is important to note that the bands are not “pulling” the athlete up, but are rather
counteracting gravity by acting on the body as an upward, vertical force. So, while
gravity is constantly pulling the person downward, thus giving their mass weight, the
bands are working in the opposite direction, reducing the force required to overcome
their own body weight (without changing their mass).

Simple Physics

220lb athlete - 40lbs of band tension (opposite direction of gravity) = 180lb the athlete
must now overcome in movement. This is almost a 20% change in loading, which has the
ability to lead to significant changes in velocity when maximal intent is applied.

This allows athlete to now train at an external load (body weight) that would otherwise
not be achievable without bands working against gravity.

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This means, the athlete can now truly train at maximal velocities. As demonstrated by
Jimenez-Reyes and colleagues (7), who used a similar stimulus to train velocity (used a
reduced body weight vertical push off exercise). In order to improve velocity, the athlete
has to train at a high velocity. In order to best understand this concept of why an athlete
may want to train at a velocity faster than their external load (body weight) allows, think
of it in terms the weight room. If a coach wanted to increase an athlete’s ability to
produce power, at say a 300lbs squat, the coach would train at loads above and below
300lbs. So, if we want to improve power of a body weight movement, without bands we
can only train above body weight, not below. However, with the inclusion of bands, the
coach can now train above and below the desired load (body weight) in order to achieve
maximal adaptation through strategically placed stimuli.

As discussed multiple times throughout this manual, adaptations realized in power


production may be specific to the velocities they are trained at. Meaning an athlete
might experience the greatest gains in power production abilities at the specific speeds
in which they are trained. When implemented correctly, accelerated movements are
simply another method in which power production in the highest velocity ranges can be
improved. As athletes continue to develop basic strength and power production, means
of training must become more specific to the demands of their sport. This includes both
the motor pattern as well as the velocity it is completed in. By using an accelerated
version of an explosive motion, the athlete is able to train at the highest velocities
possible, or a supramaximal speed state, as these velocities are otherwise impossible
due to the athlete’s body weight. These otherwise unobtainable velocities ultimately
lead to adaptations to the early phase of rate of force development.

Accelerated methods have been applied for years in track in the form of towing, or
supramaximal sprinting. Although there are no exact recommendations for accelerated
movements and their use in the weight room, we feel it is important that technique
does not change while utilizing this method. This idea is based off of appropriate

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transfer of training and the concept that as athletes develop they require more specific
means of training. These can be accomplished by training appropriate motor patterns,
or muscle sequencing, as well as the velocity they are training at.

As the improvement goals of this training method are aimed at not only improving
power production but also the motor pattern, or specific recruiting pattern/movement,
desired in competition, it is critical these movement patterns are not changed to a large
extent. As soon as this changes, the accelerated movement will likely produce much less
transfer of power to the sport, as a different movement pattern is used.

The amount of assistance applied prior to significant changes in motor patterning will
vary based on both the exercise prescribed and the individual athlete, with the biggest
factor being body weight. For example the 220lb athlete described above will require
much greater assistance than a 160lb athlete to achieve the same maximal velocity
training. Although this does not provide an exact cut-off, there will be clear instances in
which there has been too much assistance provided, such as an athlete floating as the
bands assisting them are producing greater force than the athlete's body. This is an
obvious example of inappropriate use of accelerated training as the athlete is not able
to produce force through the ground with that much assistance. As stated previously,
there are no exact specifications to our knowledge currently provided for optimal
accelerated or supramaximal training. That being said it is ultimately up to a coach’s eye
to ensure these accelerated movements are implemented with appropriate assistance.

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Figure 7.2: External Load in comparison with vertical jump height

As training with the assistance of bands is completed at the highest velocities possible,
the neural drive required might be different than other methods of training. This is due
to the limited time an athlete has to produce force prior to them leaving the ground.

The depth at which an athlete completes these movements at will also vary the training
stimulus. Just as range of motion can be altered in exercises such as the squat and
bench, the depth each movement is programmed and completed at can lead to slight
variations in the training adaptations. For example, as an athlete gets into a lower
position on band accelerated jumps ground contact times will increase. However, if the
athlete completes the movement with minimal knee bend (joint range of motion) the
ground contact time will decrease. These subtle differences will change the training
stimulus. For example, a longer ground contact time and greater knee flexion may result
in greater emphasis on the contractile force of the knee extensors, while a shorter
ground contact time and smaller range of motion may rely more on the stretch
shortening cycle and elastic qualities of the athlete. On the other end of the spectrum,

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It is important coaches realize all of the small details that can be programmed with
accelerated training to match the exact outcomes desired of training. Exercises are
merely methods in which to apply training principles to achieve a desired response.
Examples of accelerated band training to maximize rate of force development are
shown below.

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Accelerated Band Jumps

Figure 7.3: Accelerated band jumps allow the greatest adaptations to the early phase of rate of
force development, which is critical for success in athletics.

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Accelerated Rack Band Push Up

Figure 7.4: Accelerated methods can also be applied to upper body movements. By reducing an
athlete’s body weight (through the assistance of bands), the highest velocities possible are able
to be trained.

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Eccentric Power (rate of force absorption)

Up to this point this manual has focused entirely on power production in the concentric
phase of movement, placing emphasis upon the velocity a movement is completed at.
With power production and rate of force development playing important roles in
athletic performance, the ability to decelerate high levels of force is often overlooked in
training. This ability to rapidly absorb force, or the eccentric rate of force development,
is both critical for optimal power production and injury reduction.

Eccentric rate of force development is ultimately referring to the amount of force and
speed an athlete is able to safely decelerate in a rapid fashion. A simple example of this
can be seen in an athlete who desires to be quick, explosive, and agile. Clearly this
athlete must be capable of completing a change in direction in a rapid, explosive
fashion. However, these movements require more than just the concentric power
production, which has been covered extensively to this point. These explosive changes
in direction require an improved ability to rapidly decelerate prior to accelerating in the
new desired direction. Ultimately the athlete that is able to “throw on their brakes” the
fastest (eccentric), complete the short isometric phase, and then re-accelerate
(concentric) in the most rapid fashion will demonstrate the most explosive agility. If any
of these three phases are lacking in their training, change of direction will not be
demonstrated in the most optimal manner.

Rate of force absorption is not just important for being quick and explosive, it is
important for safety and reduction of injury. Athletics in nature require high velocity and
high force movements over short periods of time. If an athlete’s body is not capable of
handling these forces appropriately, they are increasing their risk for injury. Whether
the athletic movement is landing after a volleyball spike, making a cut as a wide receiver
fights to get open, or a basketball player executing a crossover, all movements involve
the rapid absorption of high forces. If an athlete’s muscular system cannot adequately
absorb these forces, the body will find alternative, and commonly incorrect, methods to

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execute these movements.

As an example, it is common to see an athlete with poor rate of force absorption round
their back. This position forces the lower back to compensate and complete a
movement in a pattern that is less than optimal. Another common occurrence is the
knees caving inwards after a jump. This is seen as the athlete’s hips and lower
extremities are not capable of handling the required eccentric load and ultimately leads
to stress being placed on passive structures to aid in force absorption. Whether the
cause of these commonly experienced issues is purely due to a lack of an athlete’s rate
of force abortion, or more correlated to a mechanical issue is hard to discern. However,
it is quite possible the two go hand in hand. As each improves individually, the
optimization of rate of force absorption is realized.

Just as rate of force development is trained specifically, this ability to quickly absorb
high levels of force must also be trained. Through specific eccentric training, for both
strength and at high velocities, the rate of force absorption for an athlete can be
improved dramatically. These methods include the use of rapid eccentric training, push-
pull training (AFSM), and oscillatory training. A description of these methods as well as
their adaptations can be viewed by clicking here.

With the training of power allowing a broad spectrum of methods, coaches must realize
each of the potential methods available. Rate of force development, or the ability to
produce force in the most rapid fashion, is one of, if not the, most transferrable skills
trainable. Improvements can be seen in this when focus is placed on achieving maximal
velocities, such as those available with accelerated band training. However, rate of force
acceptance also plays an important role in both maximizing power production while also
reducing injury likelihood. These methods can be applied at specific times within
training programs to create an optimal situation for each athlete in their power
production.

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Velocity Profiling

Velocity Profiling is the process of measuring and evaluating an individual's force-


velocity relationship of a specific exercise. Depending on the athletes being tested and
their training backgrounds, their profiles may differ quite a bit. For example, two
athletes with the same one rep max will not always have the same profile. Depending
on the slope (rate at which force decreases in relation to velocity) one athlete might be
more proficient at speed-strength versus strength-speed.

How to set up a velocity profile

Velocity Based Training (VBT) is an outstanding tool that can provide many benefits.
However, in order to get the most out of it, depending on the situation, a coach may
want to set up an individual velocity profile for each athlete.

*** In a large team setting you may want to do a modified velocity profile for your
athletes. This will save you time and make it much more manageable**

Jovanovic and Flanagan’s Proposed Method

The method outlined is the method proposed by Jovanovic and Flanagan (8). It takes
about 15-20 minutes for an athlete to complete this protocol. A coach can have several
athletes per rack when performing this testing in a large group setting.

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Figure 7.5: Table modified from Jovanovic and Flanagan 2014

In order for this process to work, it is imperative that the athlete moves the weights as
fast as they can and receive adequate rest (3-5 minutes) in between sets. As previously
covered, coaches should utilize the mean velocity from each set for non-ballistic
movements, and should only use peak velocity for ballistic movements. For a reminder
of what determines these movement types or why, refer to page 48.

Step 1) Once the data is collected, the coach can throw the numbers into a simple excel
spreadsheet. A set up might look like Figure 7.6 below. Make sure that the weight lifted
and fastest mean velocity are from the same set. For example, when the athlete lifted
135lbs, their fastest mean velocity was 1.09m/s

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Figure 7.6: Excel sheet to show the correlation between fastest mean velocity and the weight
lifted

Step 2) Highlight the columns and select graph. The graph icon is in the top right corner
of Figure 7.7

Figure 7.7: “Graph” button is the rectangle located at the top right of this figure. Ensure the
desired data is highlighted

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Step 3) After the graph icon has been selected, choose the XY scatter plot option shown
in Figure 7.8. Make sure that the load is on the y-axis and the velocity is on the x-axis.
This will help make sure that you are predicting load based on velocity. The Y-variable is
always the information that is being predicted. If the X and Y axis are flipped, you can
either switch the columns in Figure 7.6, or in the graph editor, select the “flip axis”
option.

Figure 7.8:

Step 4) Select a linear “Line of best fit” or “trend line”. This can be done in the
“customization” tab.

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Figure 7.9: A line of best fit appears when checked. This will make non-graphed points more
easily predictable

Step 5) Select “use equation”. This option can be found under the “label” option.

Figure 7.10: Select the “use equation” option

Step 6) Look at your graph and you should see a linear equation in the top right corner.
It might look something like Figure 7.11 below.

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Figure 7.11: Completed force-velocity profile

For this particular person, their linear regression formula is Y=-409*X+574.014. This will
be used to predict your weights at a given velocity.

Step 7) Once the regression formula has been obtained, the rest is fairly
straightforward. All the coach needs to do from here is set up two columns in excel.
Take one column and label it “predict load” and make another formula and label it as
“velocity”. Your velocity column should start with the minimal voluntary threshold for
whatever exercise you are using. The minimal voluntary threshold is just the velocity at
which the one rep max occurs at. For the squat, its 0.30m/s and for the bench press its
0.15m/s. When plugging the minimal voluntary threshold into the excel column, you do
not need to include the m/s part. Your set up for the squat, with a minimal voluntary
threshold may look Figure 7.12.

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Figure 7.12: Table utilized to predict weight lifted at different velocities

Step 8) In the predicted load column, plug in your linear regression formula
(=409*X+574.014). Now, instead of having the “X” in the equation, delete it and replace
it will the velocity across from it. When you replace the “X”, your equation might have a
cell number in it, something like C20, this is supposed to happen. Once you have
plugged in the equation, you can copy and paste it and add it to all of the other
velocities. Basically, by replacing the “X” with the cell which has the velocity number in
it, you are telling the equation, “tell me how much weight will I lift at this velocity”. It
might look something like Figure 7.13.

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Figure 7.13: Predicted weight lifted at different velocities. This is created entirely from the
previous force-velocity equation previously shown (Figure 7.11)

Now that a force-velocity profile is built, a coach can calculate what weight should be
lifted at a given speed. To see percentage of body weight or percentage of one rep max
for the “weight lifted”, one can simply divide that number by the athlete’s body weight
or projected one rep max. Remember, the projected one rep max occurs at minimal
voluntary threshold, recall different exercises will achieve different bar speeds (Squat:
0.30 m/s vs Bench: 0.15 m/s).

Bosco’s and JB Morin’s Methods

JB Morin’s methods have been popularized through advent of the My Jump App, which
allows coaches to use a phone to set up a force-velocity profile of an athlete. Validated
by research, this method has been shown to be effective at analyzing deficiencies. The
method is similar in nature to the velocity profiling methods mentioned above, but
instead of only using bar speed and load, JB Morin and Colleagues have developed a
biomechanical equation based on limb lengths to determine an “optimal profile”. By

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using a phone, it does all of the calculations for the coach and even suggests specific
training methods based on deficiencies. The issue is, this type of profiling is limited to
sprinting and jumps and does not involve the usage of non-ballistic movements.

However, not every coach may want to use their phone in the weight room. Instead of
using the above velocity profiling methods proposed by JB Morin and colleagues, which
requires a phone, a coach can use Jovanovic and Flanagan’s method and use
displacement measure (peak velocity or jump) height to obtain a force-velocity profile.
From there, all one needs to do is follow the same steps as mentioned above and use
the regression formula to predict how high an athlete will jump with a given load. Once
this equation is gathered, the coach can use Carmelo Bosco’s formula to determine if an
athlete is speed-strength or strength-speed deficient.

Carmelo Bosco’s Method

If an athlete can jump 65 + 5% of their max vertical jump height with a load that is 50%
of their bodyweight then they are proficient, if they are less they are deficient.

If an athlete can jump 35 + 5% of their max vertical jump height with a load that is 100%
of their bodyweight then they are proficient, if they are less they are deficient.
The reason why we suggest that a coach may want to use projected jump heights from a
force-velocity profile, instead of just testing the athletes with the given percentages of
body weight, is that when dealing with heavier athletes it may not be wise to have them
jump and land with a load that is equal to their body weight.

Making Life Simple

We have made an easy to use velocity profile builder (Click Here). This velocity profile
builder includes jump height calculations from peak velocity, bar displacement

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calculations from peak velocity, Bosco’s profiling method, Jovanovics and Flanagan’s
profiling method, daily two-load 1rm estimations, a velocity cutoff/drop off calculator
and many more tools. It is an easy to use, premade spreadsheet that many coaches
have already put to use. Please feel free to use and share this tool with any other
coaches that may find this useful.

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SECTION 7 REFERENCES

1. Andersen, L., Andersen, J., Zebis, M., Aagaard, P. (2009). Early and late rate of force
development: differential adaptive responses to resistance training? Scandinavian
Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 20(1), 162-169. doi:10.1111/j.1600-
0838.2009.00933.x.
2. Tillin, N., Folland, J. (2014). Maximal and explosive strength training elicit distinct
neuromuscular adaptations, specific to the training stimulus. European Journal of
Applied Physiology, 114(2) 365-374. doi:10.1007/s00421-013-2781-x.
3. Jeronimo, L. P. (2016, April 24). Rate of Force Acceptance as an Injury Prevention
Strategy in Athletic Populations. Retrieved from Elite Track Sport Training &
Conditioning: http://elitetrack.com/articles/rate-force-acceptance-injury-prevention-
strategy-athletic-populations/
4. Oliveira, F., Oliveira, A., Rizatto, G., Denadai, S. (2013). Resistance training for explosive
and maximal strength; effects on early and late rate of force development. Journal of
Sports Science and Medicine, 12(3), 402-408.
5. Aagaard, P., Simonsen, E., Andersen, J., Magnusson, S., Dyhre-Poulsen, P. (2002).
Increased rate of force development and neural drive of human skeletal muscle
following resistance training. Journal of Applied Physiology, 93(4), 1318-1326.
doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.00283.2002.
6. Tillin, N., Pain, M., Folland, J. (2012) Short-term training for explosive strength causes
neural and mechanical adaptations. Experimental Physiology, 97(5), 630-641.
doi:10.1113/expphysiol.2011.063040.
7. Jiménez-Reyes P, Samozino P, Brughelli M, Morin JB. Effectiveness of an individualized
training based on force-velocity profiling during jumping. Front Physiol. 2017;7(JAN):1-
13. doi:10.3389/fphys.2016.00677.
8. Jovanovic M and Flanagan E. Researched applications of velocity based strength
training. J Aust Strength Cond 22: 58–68, 2014.

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