Anda di halaman 1dari 9

Study Guide: Organic and Nuclear Chemistry ~Angela

● Organic compounds: contain carbon atoms which bond to one another in chains, rings,
and networks
○ Hydrogen has 1 bond
○ Oxygen has 2 bonds
○ Nitrogen has 3 bonds
○ Carbon has 4 bonds
● Bonds:
○ Type of Bonds
■ Single bonds: 2e– are shared
■ Double bonds: 4e– are shared
■ Triple bonds: 6e– are shared
○ Bond Length
■ Single > Double > Triple
○ Bond Strength
■ Triple > Double > Single
● Hydrocarbons: compounds that contain only carbon and hydrogen
○ Saturated: contains only single bonds
○ Unsaturated: contains at least one multiple bond
● Homologous series of hydrocarbons:
○ Alkanes: contain only single bonds between carbons
■ Name ends in –ane
■ General formula: CnH2n+2
● Ex: Methane: CH4 Ethane: C2H6
○ Alkenes: contain one double bond
■ Name ends in –ene
■ General formula: CnH2n
○ Alkynes: contain one triple bond
■ Name ends in –yne
■ General formula: CnH2n-2
○ Prefix tells the number of carbons in the chain.
● Structural Formula: shows the
way the atoms are arranged
○ Ex: Methane Ex:
Propene

● Branched Carbons: carbon groups connected to the chain


○ Alkyl group: the branched carbon group
■ Prefix –yl
■ Ex: Methyl, Ethyl
● Naming Hydrocarbons with Alkyl Groups:
○ Identify the longest, continuous chain of carbons (backbone) and name it. Use
correct suffixes!
○ Name the alkyl group(s) attached to the backbone. If there are more than one of
the same group, use prefixes di-, tri-, tetra- …
○ If more than one alkyl group, list alphabetically
○ Use a number to indicate which carbon the alkyl group is attached to. The
numbers are always the lowest, so choose the right direction to get lowest number
○ Put a dash between the number indicated and the name.
○ Put a comma if it is multiple of the same alkyl
group
■ Ex: 2-methyl butane

● Functional Groups: show distinctive physical and chemical properties to organic


compounds
○ Halides (halocarbon), alcohols, ethers, aldehydes, ketones, organic acids, esters,
amines, and amides
● Naming Halides/Halocarbons (–X):
○ Have a halogen in place of a hydrogen (F, Cl, Br, I)
○ Name the halogen first (fluoro-, chloro-, bromo-, iodo-) and then the alkane
○ If there are more than 2 carbons in the chain, use a number to indicate which
carbon the halogen is attached to (smallest number)
■ Ex: 1-chloropropane

● Naming Alcohols (–OH):


○ Have hydroxyl group: –OH
○ Name the longest carbon chain, drop the final letter -e and replace with the suffix
-ol
○ If there are more than 2 carbons, use a number to indicate which carbon the –OH
group is attached to (smallest number)
■ Ex: 2-propanol

● Naming Ethers (–O–):


○ Have an oxygen in the chain of carbons (single bonded)
○ Name the alkyl group on either side of the O that is in the chain and add the word
ether at the end
○ If both alkyl groups are the same, name it once
with the prefix di- in front
■ Ex: Ethyl methyl ether

● Naming Aldehydes (–CHO):


○ Have a double bonded oxygen on the last carbon in the chain, so no number is
needed to indicate which carbon it is attached to
○ Name the alkane, drop the final -e and replace with
suffix -al
■ Ex: Butanal

● Naming Ketones (–CO–):


○ Have a double bonded oxygen on a carbon in the middle of the chain
○ Name the alkane, drop the -e and replace with -one
○ If there are more than 4 carbons in the chain, use a number to indicate which
carbon the double bonded oxygen is attached to
■ Ex: 3-pentanone

● Naming Organic Acids (–COOH):


○ Have a double bonded oxygen and an –OH on the last carbon in the chain, so no
number is needed to indicate the location
○ Name the alkane, drop the e- and replace with -oic acid
■ Ex: Propanoic acid

● Naming Amines (–NH2):


○ Have a nitrogen bonded to the carbon chain. The nitrogen may have two, one or
no hydrogen atoms bonded to it.
○ Name the alkane, drop the -e and replace with -amine
○ If there are more than two carbon atoms, use a number to indicate which carbon
the N is attached to
■ Ex: Ethanamine

● Naming Esters (–COOC–):


○ Have a double bonded oxygen and an –O– bonded to another carbon. This is a
combination of an alcohol and an organic acid.
○ Name the alkyl group that came from the alcohol, then name the acid but drop the
-ic acid and replace with -ate
■ Ex: Propyl
Pentanoate

● Naming Amides (–CON–):


○ Have a double bonded oxygen and a nitrogen. This is a combination of an
organic acid with ammonia or an amine.
○ Name the alkyl group that came from the amine, then name the acid but drop the
-oic acid and replace with amide
■ Ex: Pentyl Propanamide
HH O H H H
H I HI II I I I
● Isomers of H–C–C–C–N–C–C–C–
I I organic compounds: have the
I I
C–C–H I I I I
same molecular H IH I H H H H formula but different structures
and properties H H
○ Ex: Pentane C5H12 and Methylbutane
C5H12
● Organic Reactions:
○ Addition, substitution, polymerization, esterification, fermentation,
saponification, and combustion
● Addition Reaction:
○ H2, Cl2, Br2, HCl, HBr is added to an unsaturated hydrocarbon. Both atoms are
added to where the double (or triple) bond was located
○ Key to look for: unsaturated
hydrocarbon reactant
and one product
■ Ex:

○ Addition of H2 can be used to saturate an unsaturated hydrocarbon using a catalyst


such as platinum (Pt)
● Substitution Reaction:
○ A halogen is reacted with a saturated hydrocarbon. One of the halogen atoms
substitutes one of the hydrogen atoms
○ Key to look for:
saturated hydrocarbon
reactant and two
products
■ Ex:

● Polymerization Reaction: joining of many small molecules together to form a large


molecule
○ Single unit: monomer
○ Many monomers bonded together forms a polymer
○ Polymers can be natural or artificial
○ Proteins are polymers of amino
Natural Polymers Artificial Polymers

Protein Polyester

Rubber Nylon

Cellulose Styrofoam
● Esterification Reaction: making an ester by combining an alcohol with an organic acid

● Fermentation Reaction: yeast and bacteria can make ethanol and carbon dioxide by
breaking down sugar using an enzyme
○ The alcohol is used to make beer and wine
○ The carbon dioxide can be used to make bread rise or make the bubbles in beer
and champagne

● Saponification Reaction: a lipid (fat or oil) is used to make soap

● Combustion Reaction: combining with oxygen to produce carbon dioxide and water
○ Burning methane:
CH4 (g) + 2O2 (g) → CO2 (g) + 2H2O (l)
○ Burning octane:
2C8H18 (l) + 17O2 (g) → 16CO (g) + 18H2O (g)
○ Burning ethanol:
CH3CH2OH (g) + 3O2 (g) → 2CO2 (g) + 3H2O (g)
● Radioactivity: spontaneous
breakdown of an unstable atomic
nucleus, yielding particles and/or
radiant energy
● Isotopes: atoms of the same element with
different mass numbers
○ Stability of isotopes is based on the ratio of neutrons and protons in its nucleus
○ Some nuclei (radioisotopes or radionuclides) are made unstable by the extra
number of neutrons and spontaneously decay, emitting radiation
○ There are no stable isotopes of elements above atomic number 83
● Half-life of a radioactive nuclide: amount of time it takes for half of that nuclide to
decay into a stable nuclide
○ Ex: the half-life of Carbon-14 is 5715 years. After 5715 years, ½ the mass of an
original sample of C-14 remains unchanged. After another 5715 years, ¼ (half of
half) of an original sample of C-14 remains unchanged.
○ Half-life cannot be changed
○ Ex ques.: How much of a 20. G. sample of 131I remains unchanged after 24 days?
■ The half-life of 131I is 8 days, so 24 days is 3 half-lives. Starting with 20,
half the mass three times is 20 → 10 → 5 → 2.5 g.
● Transmutation: a change in the nucleus of an atom that converts it from one element to
another
○ Natural or artificially induced by the bombardment of the nucleus by high-energy
particles
■ A particle accelerator can be used to “shoot” charged particles at the
nucleus of atoms to induce transmutation
○ Natural transmutation is an unstable isotope that breaks down by itself.
● Natural decay: spontaneous; involves the release of alpha particles, beta particles,
positrons and/or gamma radiation from the nucleus of an unstable isotope
○ Differ in mass, charge, and penetrating power
● Power strength:
○ Alpha is the lowest and gamma is the highest
■ Mnemonic: alpha, beta, gamma (alphabetically getting stronger)
● Modes of radioactive decay:
○ Alpha decay (α): 2 protons and 2 neutrons
○ Beta particle (β–): electron emitted from the nucleus
○ Positron particle (β+): mass of an electron but positive charge
○ Gamma radiation (γ): high energy radiation (higher than x-ray) with no mass or
charge
● Alpha decay: common for elements with atomic number greater than 83
● Beta (minus) decay: common for elements with atomic number below 83
● Positron decay: does not occur naturally
● Gamma radiation:
○ High-energy, invisible rays of electromagnetic radiation is given off
○ Parent isotope falls into lower energy state
○ Occurs only with one of the other forms of radiation, alpha or beta
○ Mass and atomic number remain unchanged
● Artificial Transmutation: includes fission and fusion
○ Fission: breaking an atom into two smaller atoms
○ Fusion: combining small atoms into a larger atom
● Nuclear fission: splitting the atom

235
U + 1n → 90Sr + 143Xe + 31n ***More neutrons are released to keep the reaction going

● Nuclear fusion: joining small atoms

2
H + 2H → 4He + 1n ***Hydrogen atoms combine to form helium in a star

● Benefits of Fission and Fusion:


○ Small amount of fuel makes large amount of energy
○ Not dependent on foreign oils
○ Cheap electricity
○ Using fusion instead of burning fossil fuels doesn’t pollute air
● Risks of Fission and Fusion:
○ Exposure to radioactive material can cause cancer, mutations or death
○ Transportation and storage of fissionable material is dangerous
○ Nuclear accidents
○ Disposal of nuclear waste
○ Thermal pollution
● Energy Released: comes from fractional amount of mass converted into energy
○ Nuclear changes convert matter into energy
○ E = mc2
***The energy released is equal to the mass lost (m) times the speed of light (c)
squared. A small amount of mass lost converts to a very large amount of energy.
○ The energy released during a nuclear reaction is much greater than the energy
released during chemical reactions
○ Fission: used in nuclear reactors and atomic bombs
○ Fusion: used in hydrogen bombs and the energy that powers the sun
● Uses of radioactive isotopes:
○ 14C: radioactive dating of organic material
○ 238U: radioactive dating of geological formations
○ 235U and 239Pu: nuclear reactors and atomic bombs
○ 131I: detection and treatment of thyroid diseases
○ 60Co: treatment of cancer
● Other uses:
○ Radiation therapy: gamma rays kill cancer cells
○ Irradiated food: gamma rays kill bacteria
○ Radioactive tracers: use a radioactive isotope in a chemical reaction or biological
process and determine where that atom ends up at the end of the reaction
○ A Geiger Counter can be used to detect radiation given off by radioactive isotopes
● Writing Nuclear Equations:
○ Start with the element given.
○ The masses on each side of the equation must equal.
○ The charges on each side of the equation must equal.
○ Use the correct particle by looking at Table N or if it is given and figure out the
numbers to make the masses and charges equal. Whatever the bottom number is
will be the element with that atomic number.

Anda mungkin juga menyukai