● Organic compounds: contain carbon atoms which bond to one another in chains, rings,
and networks
○ Hydrogen has 1 bond
○ Oxygen has 2 bonds
○ Nitrogen has 3 bonds
○ Carbon has 4 bonds
● Bonds:
○ Type of Bonds
■ Single bonds: 2e– are shared
■ Double bonds: 4e– are shared
■ Triple bonds: 6e– are shared
○ Bond Length
■ Single > Double > Triple
○ Bond Strength
■ Triple > Double > Single
● Hydrocarbons: compounds that contain only carbon and hydrogen
○ Saturated: contains only single bonds
○ Unsaturated: contains at least one multiple bond
● Homologous series of hydrocarbons:
○ Alkanes: contain only single bonds between carbons
■ Name ends in –ane
■ General formula: CnH2n+2
● Ex: Methane: CH4 Ethane: C2H6
○ Alkenes: contain one double bond
■ Name ends in –ene
■ General formula: CnH2n
○ Alkynes: contain one triple bond
■ Name ends in –yne
■ General formula: CnH2n-2
○ Prefix tells the number of carbons in the chain.
● Structural Formula: shows the
way the atoms are arranged
○ Ex: Methane Ex:
Propene
Protein Polyester
Rubber Nylon
Cellulose Styrofoam
● Esterification Reaction: making an ester by combining an alcohol with an organic acid
● Fermentation Reaction: yeast and bacteria can make ethanol and carbon dioxide by
breaking down sugar using an enzyme
○ The alcohol is used to make beer and wine
○ The carbon dioxide can be used to make bread rise or make the bubbles in beer
and champagne
● Combustion Reaction: combining with oxygen to produce carbon dioxide and water
○ Burning methane:
CH4 (g) + 2O2 (g) → CO2 (g) + 2H2O (l)
○ Burning octane:
2C8H18 (l) + 17O2 (g) → 16CO (g) + 18H2O (g)
○ Burning ethanol:
CH3CH2OH (g) + 3O2 (g) → 2CO2 (g) + 3H2O (g)
● Radioactivity: spontaneous
breakdown of an unstable atomic
nucleus, yielding particles and/or
radiant energy
● Isotopes: atoms of the same element with
different mass numbers
○ Stability of isotopes is based on the ratio of neutrons and protons in its nucleus
○ Some nuclei (radioisotopes or radionuclides) are made unstable by the extra
number of neutrons and spontaneously decay, emitting radiation
○ There are no stable isotopes of elements above atomic number 83
● Half-life of a radioactive nuclide: amount of time it takes for half of that nuclide to
decay into a stable nuclide
○ Ex: the half-life of Carbon-14 is 5715 years. After 5715 years, ½ the mass of an
original sample of C-14 remains unchanged. After another 5715 years, ¼ (half of
half) of an original sample of C-14 remains unchanged.
○ Half-life cannot be changed
○ Ex ques.: How much of a 20. G. sample of 131I remains unchanged after 24 days?
■ The half-life of 131I is 8 days, so 24 days is 3 half-lives. Starting with 20,
half the mass three times is 20 → 10 → 5 → 2.5 g.
● Transmutation: a change in the nucleus of an atom that converts it from one element to
another
○ Natural or artificially induced by the bombardment of the nucleus by high-energy
particles
■ A particle accelerator can be used to “shoot” charged particles at the
nucleus of atoms to induce transmutation
○ Natural transmutation is an unstable isotope that breaks down by itself.
● Natural decay: spontaneous; involves the release of alpha particles, beta particles,
positrons and/or gamma radiation from the nucleus of an unstable isotope
○ Differ in mass, charge, and penetrating power
● Power strength:
○ Alpha is the lowest and gamma is the highest
■ Mnemonic: alpha, beta, gamma (alphabetically getting stronger)
● Modes of radioactive decay:
○ Alpha decay (α): 2 protons and 2 neutrons
○ Beta particle (β–): electron emitted from the nucleus
○ Positron particle (β+): mass of an electron but positive charge
○ Gamma radiation (γ): high energy radiation (higher than x-ray) with no mass or
charge
● Alpha decay: common for elements with atomic number greater than 83
● Beta (minus) decay: common for elements with atomic number below 83
● Positron decay: does not occur naturally
● Gamma radiation:
○ High-energy, invisible rays of electromagnetic radiation is given off
○ Parent isotope falls into lower energy state
○ Occurs only with one of the other forms of radiation, alpha or beta
○ Mass and atomic number remain unchanged
● Artificial Transmutation: includes fission and fusion
○ Fission: breaking an atom into two smaller atoms
○ Fusion: combining small atoms into a larger atom
● Nuclear fission: splitting the atom
235
U + 1n → 90Sr + 143Xe + 31n ***More neutrons are released to keep the reaction going
2
H + 2H → 4He + 1n ***Hydrogen atoms combine to form helium in a star