Advance Soil Mechanics

Course Code –GE-501

Contact Hours -2+2

Dr Hassan Mujtaba
 Course Content
• Introduction
– Phase Relations
– Soil Mineralogy
– Index Properties
– Soil Classification
– Interparticle Forces

2
 Course Content
• Ground Water and Seepage:
– Effective stress concept
– Principal Stresses
– Stress Path
– Stress Distribution
– Stress Strain Behaviour of Sands
– Strength of sands
– Mohr Coulomb Theory
– 1 & 2 Dimensional Flow
3
 Course Content
• Ground Water and Seepage (cont’d):
– Permeability & Flow Nets
– Drained Stress-Strain and Strength Behaviour
– Stability of drained slopes
– Pore Pressure during undrained loading
• Settlement and Consolidation
• Settlement due to exceptional causes
• Frozen Soils
4
 Reference Books
• Introduction to Geotechnical Engineering
– Holtz and Kovacs
• Geotechnical Engineering Principals and Practices
– Donald. P. Coduto
• Advance Soil Mechanics
– Braja M Das
• Principal of Geotechnical Engineering
– Braja M Das

5
 Reference Books
• Soil Mechanics
– Lambe and Witman

6
 What is soil
• The word 'soil' is derived from the Latin word
solium which, means the upper layer of the
earth that may be dug or plowed; specifically,
the loose surface material of the earth in which
plants grow. (In Agriculture)
• In geology, earth’s crust is assumed to consist
of unconsolidated sediments which is called
mantle.
• The upper layer of mantle which can support
7
plants is called soil.
 What is soil (cont’d)
• The term ‘soil’ in Soil Engineering is defined
as an unconsolidated material, composed of
solid particles, produced by the disintegration
of rocks.
• The void space between the particles may
contain air, water or both. The solid particles
may contain organic matter.

8
Nomenclature in Soil Engineering/ Geology

9
 Soil Mechanics
• According to Dr. Karl Terzaghi (Father of Soil
Mechanics),
– Soil mechanics is the application of the laws of
mechanics and hydraulics to engineering problems
dealing with sediments and other unconsolidated
accumulations of solid particles produced by the
mechanical and chemical disintegration of rock,
regardless of whether or not they contain an
admixture of organic constituents.

10
 Soil Mechanics (cont’d)
• Branch of mechanics which deals with the
action of forces on soil and with the flow of
water in soil.
• The soil consists of discrete solid particles
which are neither strongly bonded as in solids
nor they are as free as particles of fluids.
Consequently, the behavior of soil is
somewhat intermediate between that of a solid
and a fluid.
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 Scope of Soil Engineering

• Foundations
• Retaining Structures
• Stability of Slopes
• Underground Structures
• Pavement Design
• Earthen Dam and Embankments
• Miscellaneous Soil Problems

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Scope of Soil Engineering

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 Uses of Soil
• As supporting material to bear the load of
structures resting on earth.
• Raw construction material for earthern
structures like dams, leeves, raods, airfields,
railway embankment
• Processed material in the form of burnt bricks
• In Pottery industry china clay (kaolinite) is
used as raw material
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 Uses of Soil
• Kaolinite is used in paper, paint and
pharmaceutical industry
• Bentonite (clay) is used in drilling industry for
stabilization of boring and in slurry trench
construction for stabilizing foundation
excavation
• In medicines (kaoline mixture)

15
Why soils are important for Civil Engineers

• Soil is the most common, oldest but the

complex material.
• Unlike other material like steel it is not
homogenous so its behaviour under load
cannot be predicted with reasonable accuracy.
• Properties highly variable function of stress
type and history

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Why soils are important for Civil Engineers

• Properties change with time, stress,

environment
• For design of dams, highways, tower, retaining
walls we have to deal with the situations where
parameters are not well defined, hence no
single solution.
• In such situation one has to apply his
judgement/ experience in addition to the
knowledge of the subject.
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 Role of Soil in Civil Engineering
• Settlement of a structure is predicted from the
behaviour of a small sample of soil subjected
to consolidation test.
• But the question arises up to what extent these
test data are representative of the overall
behaviour of the actual soil stratum. Also other
factors need to be considered are as follows

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Role of Soil in Civil Engineering
– Up to what extent was the sample disturbed during
excavation/ extraction, preparation.

– To what extent the physical characteristics of the

soil under consideration vary both in horizontal/
vertical direction.

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Historical Development of Soil Mechanics

• Remnants of most notable structures built by Roman,

Egyptians, Chinese and other provide evidence that
some knowledge existed during ancient civilization of
interaction of super structure with the supporting soil
underneath
• The great wall of China
• The pyramids of Egypt
• Many buildings and durable roads constructed by
Romans

20
 Historical Development of Soil Mechanics

• The mastery of Dam building displayed by

Indians.
• Leaning Tower of Pisa

21
 Role of Geotechnical Engineering in various Projects

Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco

(foundation extend to bed rock about
100 ft below the water level, difficult to
Sears Tower in Chicago construct high tidal waves)
(one of the Tallest Building) 22
Role of Geotechnical Engineering in various Projects

Oroville Dam, California

23
(one of the largest earth filled dam in world)
 Role of Geotechnical Engineering to avoid failure

Niigata Earthquake in Japan (Liquefaction rotating

the apartment buildings) 24
 Role of Geotechnical Engineering to avoid failure

Teton Dam Failure House built near the top

(only few month after the of slope
completion when reservoir
was completely filled)
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Role of Geotechnical Engineering to avoid failure

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 Case Studies
• Minaret of a Mosque in
Walled City was raised to a
height of 200 ft on fill
material.
• As a result walls cracked and
settlement took place

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28
Petrol Pump near Rawalpindi on Motor way
The contractor erected the whole structure on the fill material
without compaction in layer as a result settlement took place and
cracks appear in walls 29
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32
 Rocks
• Rocks are made from various types of
minerals. Minerals are substances of
crystalline form made up from a particular
chemical combination. The main minerals
found in rocks include quartz, feldspar, calcite
and mica.
• Geologists classify all rocks into three basic
groups: igneous, sedimentary and
metamorphic.
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 Igneous Rocks
• These rocks have become solid from a melted
liquid state. Extrusive igneous rocks are those
that arrived on the surface of the Earth as
molten lava and cooled. Intrusive igneous
rocks are formed from magma (molten rock)
that forced itself through cracks into rock beds
below the surface and solidified there.
• Examples of igneous rocks: granite, basalt,
gabbro.
34
 Sedimentary Rocks
• Weathering reduces the rock mass to fragmented
particles, which can be more easily transported
by wind, water and ice.
• When dropped by the agents of weathering, they
are termed sediments. These sediments are
typically deposited in layers or beds called strata
and when compacted and cemented together
(lithification) they form sedimentary rocks.
• Examples of sedimentary rocks: shale,
sandstone, chalk.
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 Metamorphic Rocks
• Metamorphism through high temperatures and
pressures acting on sedimentary or igneous
rocks, produces metamorphic rocks.
• The original rock undergoes both chemical and
physical alterations.
• Examples of metamorphic rocks: slate,
quartzite, marble.

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Rock
Cycle

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 Soil and Rock
• Soil: Unconsolidated agglomerate of minerals
above solid Rock
• Rock: Hard and durable material that can not be
excavated without blasting
Difference between Rock and Soil
• Rocks are generally cemented; soils are rarely
cemented
• Rocks usually have much lower porosity than
soils

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 Soil Formation
• The rock and the minerals of the earth’s crust were
the parent materials from which soil originated.
• Exposure to weathering agents, volcanic action and
stresses induced by ongoing deformation of the
earth’s crust were factors responsible for weathering
of rocks and minerals.
• Soil is formed as a result of weathering of rocks.
• Weathering: is a process whereby an intact rock mass
is decomposed or disintegrated by atmospheric agents
– Physical or Mechanical weathering agents
– Chemical weathering agents
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 Soil Formation
• Characteristics of soil is related to its parent
material.
• The process of weathering is going on for
million of years.
• During this period soil have continuously
being formed from rocks and then transported
by rivers, wind and ice.
• These are eventually deposited in oceans
where they are transformed into rock again.
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 Rock-Soil Cycle
• Weathering of all three
kinds of rock form soil
• Pressure and cementation
of sediments (soil) forms
sedimentary rock
• Pressure, heat and solution
of both igneous and
sedimentary rock forms
Metamorphic rocks
• Melting of rocks forms
Magma. Cooling of
Magma forms igneous and
pyroclastic soils
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 Mechanical Weathering Agents
• Temperature changes
• Freezing and thawing (volume of frozen water
increases by 9%)
• Erosion/abrasion by flowing water, wind and
ice
• Natural disasters, e.g. earthquakes, landslides
etc.
• Activities by plants and animal including men
42
 Mechanical Weathering Agents
• Temperature changes
– Different minerals of a rock have different coefficients of
thermal expansion. Unequal expansion and contraction of
these minerals occur due to temperature changes. When the
stresses induced due to such changes are repeated many
times, the particles get detached from the rocks and the
soils are formed.
• Freezing and thawing (volume of frozen water increases by
9%)
– Water in the pores and minute cracks of rocks gets frozen
in very cold climates. As the volume of ice formed is more
than that of water, expansion occurs. Rocks get broken into
pieces when large stresses develop in the cracks due to
wedging action of the ice formed. 43
Freeze and Thaw

44
 Mechanical Weathering Agents
• Erosion/abrasion by flowing water, wind and ice
– As water, wind and glaciers move over the surface of rock,
abrasion and scouring takes place. It results in the
formation of soil.
• Natural disasters, e.g. earthquakes, landslides etc.
• Activities by plants and animal including men
– As the roots of trees and shrubs grow in the cracks and
fissures of the rocks, forces act on the rock. The segments
of the rock are forced apart and disintegration of rocks
occurs.
• Soil formed by mechanical weathering retains the minerals and
material fiber of parent rock.
• Coarse-grained soils such as gravels, sands and their mixtures.
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Abrasion (wind)

46
Abrasion (water)

47
Abrasion (Ice)

48
 Chemical Weathering Agents
• Chemical weathering results from reactions of
rock minerals with oxygen, water, acids, salts
etc. The various chemical weathering
processes are
–Oxidation
–Carbonation
–Hydration
–Leaching
–Solution
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 Chemical Weathering Agents
• Oxidation
– It occurs in the rock containing iron
– Oxygen in the air reacts with them and
decomposes them.
• Carbonation
– The rock containing minerals iron, calcium,
magnesium, sodium, potassium etc can be
decomposed by carbonic acid formed by carbon
dioxide with water.
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 Chemical Weathering Agents
• Carbonation
– All igneous rock may be decomposed in this
manner.
– Silica is not decomposed by carbonic acid and
quartz mineral is regarded as most stable mineral.
– Granite is more resistant to weathering as
compared to basalt and gabbro.
• Hydration
– Decay of rock caused by water combined with
some rock mineral. This process is more intensive
in humid than in arid climates. 51
 Chemical Weathering Agents
• Leaching
– Is a process whereby water soluble salts are
dissolved and washed out from the soil by rainfall,
percolating water, surface runoff or other water.
• Solution
– Some of the rock minerals form a solution with
water when they get dissolved in water. Chemical
reaction takes place in the solution and the soils
are formed.

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 Organic Weathering
• A prominent rock is acted by bacteria which
induce chemical changes in their surrounding.
• This contribute to the weathering of rocks

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 Soil Deposits
• Residual soils
– Soils formed by weathering of rocks in place
• Transported soils
» Alluvial or fluvial or Alluvium
» Aeolian soil deposits
» Glacial soil deposits
» Colluvial or colluvium

• Organic soils
• Marine soils
• Pyroclastic soils
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Soil Deposits

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 Alluvial Deposits
• Deposits by running
water
• Deposits from
braided stream
• Are those with high
gradient, rapidly
flowing that are
highly erosive

•A minor change in velocity will cause sediments to

deposit. They are complex in nature
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Alluvial Deposits

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 Alluvial Deposits
• Meander Belt Deposits
stream with winding course
• Point par
• Natural levees
• Flood plain or back swamp
deposit (highly plastic clay)
• Oxbow or channel fill-
erosion of neck of meander
may result in cutting of
meander leaving a curved
isolated channel
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 Alluvial Deposits
• Alluvial Terrace deposits
Relatively narrow, flat-surfaced, river flanking
remnant of flood plain deposit formed by
entrenchment of river
• Alluvial fans
When a river channel widens significantly or its
slope decreases substantially, coarse soil particles
settle forming submerged, flat, triangular deposits
known as Alluvial Fans
• Delta Deposit:
Soil deposited at mouth of river or stream
entering a lake or reservoir. 59
 Alluvial Deposits
• Deposits made in lakes are called lacustrine
deposits. Such deposits are laminated or
varved in layers.
• Marine deposits are formed when flowing
water carries soils to ocean or sea. Also, when
sediment precipitates through salt water.

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 Aeolian Deposits
Soils transported and deposited by wind action; two type of
soils are famous
• Loess: is a soil consisting of silt and silt-size particles.
The grain size tends to be uniform. Cohesion is developed
by clay coating or by chemical leaching by rainwater.
Loess is quite stable under unsaturated condition. It is
collapsible upon saturation.
• Sand Dune: Mounds ridges of uniform fine sand. They
are formed when the sand is blown over the crest of the
dune by wind action. Sand dunes have the properties:
– Uniform in grain size
– Relative density on windward side is more than leeward side
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 Aeolian Loess
Deposits
Sand deposit
formed by wind
action, rolling the
sand which is too On vertical cuts,
large for air Loess deposit tends
transport to slough when wet

Sand dune

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 Glacial Deposits
They are transported and deposited by the
movements of glaciers.
The general name is glacial till or Moraines.
• Terminal moraine (Ablation till)
• Ground Moraine or lodgments till (hard pan)
• Lateral Moraine
• Glaciofluvial deposit or out wash
• Glacio-lacustrine deposit (varved clay)
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 Glacial Deposits
• Terminal moraine (Ablation till)
– are the ridges of material scraped or bulldozed to
the front of glacier.

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 Glacial Deposits
• Ground Moraine or lodgments till (hard pan)
– The land which was once covered by glaciers and
on which till has been deposited after melting.
• Lateral Moraine
– Accumulation of material deposited along the sides
• Glaciofluvial deposit or out wash
– The soil carried by the melting water from the
front of a glacier

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 Glacial Deposits
• Glacio-lacustrine deposit (varved clay)
– Material deposited within lakes by melting water
from glaciers

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 Colluvial Deposits
Soils transported and deposited by the action of
gravity.
• Talus: formed by gradual accumulation of
unsorted rock fragments and debris at the base
of cliffs
• Hill Wash: Fine colluvial consisting of clayey
sand, sand silt or clay washed from top hills
• Landslide deposit:
Large mass of soil or rock which have stepped
down as a unit
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 Organic Soil Deposits
Formed by in-place growth and subsequent decay of animal
and plant life
Peat: A fibrous aggregate of decaying vegetation matter with
dark color and bad smell
Muck:
Peat with advanced stage of decomposition
Properties:
• NMC may range 200 to 300%
• Highly compressible
• Likely to undergo secondary consolidation
• Not suitable for engineering purposes. 68
 Marine Deposits
Material transported and deposited by ocean
waves and currents in shore and offshore
areas:
• Shore deposits: deposits of sand and/or gravel
by waves on the shoreline
• Marine clays: Organic and inorganic deposit of
fine-grained soil at the bed of sea or lake.

69
 Pyroclastic soil Deposits
Materials ejected from volcanoes and transported
by wind, air, gravity etc.
• Volcanic ash:
Lava thrown in air and subsequent cooling
• Pumice: is rock form by cooling of lava flow
on earth surface during volcanic eruption.
Very porous, light weight material. It may
float on water

70
 Some Typical Soil Names
• Clay: finest soil particle wise having grain diameter less
than 0.002 mm. It is quite hard when dry and shrinks
during the process of drying. It possess much cohesion
and shrinks during the process of drying. It undergoes
large settlement when wet. It feels smooth when touched
with fingers.

• Silt: (particle size 0.002-0.075 mm)

– It is partly plastic and partly cohesive. Silt are permeable to
some extent and capillary action is high. It has little value
of dry strength. When taken in hand it feels rough. It also
exhibit dilatency.
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 Some Typical Soil Names
• Sand: (particle size 4.75 mm – 0.075 mm)
– It has no plasticity and negligible cohesion (in dry state zero). It
has marked value of internal friction between individual grains.
When sand is present in a confined it can withstand great load.
Fine sand have relatively high value of permeability and
capillarity where as medium and coarse sand have high
permeability and low capillarity. It feels gritty (rough) because
of presence of individual sand grains
• Gravels: (particle size 4.75 mm - 75 mm)
– It is used in road construction, foundation work and concreting.
Gravels when mixed with sand, silt and clay becomes a well
graded mass and it is an excellent load bearing material. The
capillary action in gravels is not very prominent. The rise in
water table is not likely to decrease its strength.
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 Some Typical Soil Names
• Organic Matter:
– The main source of organic matter which is found in the top soil layer
is animal or vegetable remains which are left in place where these
organisms die. The organic matter has spongy structure (having large
number of voids). These material undergo large volume change upon
application of loads. It has large % of moisture content in it.
• Boulder: (particle size > 300 mm)
– They are rock fragment of any shape having size greater than
300 mm.
• Cobbles: (particle size 75 mm - 300 mm)
– They are rock fragment of any shape having size in the range of
75 mm to 300 mm

73
 Some Typical Soil Names
• Gumbo:
– It is very fine clay deposit. The clay is dark in colour and
when wet it is plastic, sticky and spongy
• Hard Pan:
– It is relatively hard densely cemented soil layer. It does not
soften when wet. It consists of either clay or silt with sand
or gravel in it. Hard pan offers great resistance to the
penetration of drilling tools and is difficult to excavate.
• Humus:
– It is dark brown organic earth of top soil. It is unsuitable as
a foundation or as a construction material because it
continues to decay or shrinks.
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 Some Typical Soil Names
• Loess:
– It is uniform, cohesive, wind blown porous deposit of very fine
material. The size of the particles ranges from 0.01 mm to 0.05
mm. these sizes corresponds to silty clays. Its colour is yellowish
light brown.
• Muck:
– It is mixture of fine particled inorganic soils and black
decomposed organic matter. The material is either found in
swamps or is deposited by over flowing rivers.
• Peat:
– It is organic soil formed by vegetable matter. Under conditions of
excessive moisture it is very compressible and is therefore
unsuitable for supporting even the lightest foundation.

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 Some Typical Soil Names
• Loam: mixture of sand, silt and clay
• Mud: a pasty mixture of soil and organic matter
• Caliche: cemented clay, sand gravel mixture. The cementing
material is clacium carbonate deposited through evaporation
• Marl: Clay with calcareous material
• Boulder clay: clays containing considerable amount of
cohesive material; wide range of particle sizes varying from
boulder to very fine
• Bentonite: clays with main mineral of montmorrilonite formed
by chemical weathering of volcanic ash
• Black cotton soils: Highly expansive and compressible clays
of dark to black color commonly found in India
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 Objectives of Soil Mechanics
• To perform engineering soil survey
• To develop soil sampling devices and sampling methods.
• To develop suitable soil testing devices and soil testing
method
• To collect and classify information on soils and their
physical properties in the light of fundamental knowledge
of soil mechanics, earth works and foundation
engineering
• To investigate physical properties of soil
• To evaluate and interpret soil test results and their
application to the use of soil as foundation support or as
construction material
77
 Objectives of Soil Mechanics
• To understand physical processes which actually take
place in soils, subjected to static and dynamic load,
water and temperature.

78
 Phase Relation and Basic Definition
• Soils are aggregates of mineral particles and together
with air and or water in the void spaces they form
three phase system.
• The sizes of particles that make up soil vary over a
wide range.
• Soils generally are called gravel, sand, silt, or clay,
depending on the predominant size of particles within
the soil.
• To describe soils by their particle size, several
organizations have developed particle-size
classifications.
79
Soil Particle Size

80
 Soil Particle Shape
• Angular Particles have sharp
edges and relatively plane
sides with unpolished
surfaces.
• Sub Angular Particles are
similar to angular description,
but have rounded edges.
• Sub Rounded Particles have
nearly plane sides, but have
well-rounded corners and
edges.
• Rounded Particles have
smoothly curved sides and no 81
edges.
 Physical Properties of Soil
• In general, a soil mass consists of solid particles,
water and air. The three constituents are blended
together to form a complex material.
• However, for convenience, all the solid particles are
segregated and placed in the lower layer of the three-
phase diagram

82
Actual Soil Mass vs Three Phase Soil System

83
 Physical Properties of Soil
• When the soil is
fully saturated,
there is no air
phase

• When the soil is

absolutely dry, the
water phase
disappears

• When the soil is

partially saturated

84
Volumetric Relationship of Soil

85
 Volumetric Relationship of Soil
• VOID RATIO (e) Vv
e=
– For Sand e- 0.5-0.9 Vs
– For Clay e – 0.7-1.5
– e may exceed 3 to 4 times for some collodial type clays

VV
• POROSITY (n) n= ×100
– (0-100%) V

• DEGREE OF SATURATION (Sr) Vw

Sr = 100
Vv
• For a dry soil, Sr = 0%, and for a fully saturated soil, Sr =
100%.
86
 Volumetric Relationship of Soil

• AIR CONTENT (ac) is the ratio of the volume of air (Va)

to the volume of voids (Vv).

Va
ac =
Vv

• PERCENTAGE AIR VOIDS (A or na) is the ratio of the

volume of air (Va) to the total volume (V).

Va
A = na =
V
87
 Weight Volume Relationships
• BULK UNIT WEIGHT W
γb =
V
Ws
• DRY UNIT WEIGHT γd =
V

Wsat
• SATURATED UNIT WEIGHT γ sat =
V

• SUBMERGED UNIT WEIGHT

W
γ sub = sub γsub = γsat - γw
V Ws
• UNIT WEIGHT OF SOIL SOLID γs =
Vs 88
 Weight Weight Relationships

Ww
• WATER (MOISTURE) CONTENT w= 100
Ws
– Moisture content varies from 10-30% for sands and 10% to
more than 300% for clays

• SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF SOLIDS

Ws
γs V Ws
Gs =  Gs = s and if Vs =Vw  Gs =
γw Ww Ww
Vw
γb
• MASS / BULK SPECIFIC GRAVITY G m =
γw
• RELATIVE DENSITY (Dr) γ  γ d -γ dmin  emax  e
Dr = dmax Dr 
  emax  emin
γd γ -γ
 dmax dmin  89
 Weight-Weight Relationships
 γd 
• RELATIVE COMPACTION Rc =    100
 γ dmax 

emax  e
Dr 
emax  e min

γ dmax  γd -γ dmin 
Dr =  
γd  γ dmax -γ dmin 

90
 Relative Density
Gs w
• Maximum Void ratio- emax 
 d min
1

Gs  w
• Minimum Void Ratio emin 
 d max
1

γ dmax  γ d -γ dmin 
Dr =  
γd  γ dmax -γ dmin 
• Relative Density
emax  e
Dr 
emax  emin

91
Problem

92
Relationships between various parameters

93
Relationships between various parameters

94
 Two Basic Soil Types

• Particle Size Distribution

Sieve Analysis

Hydrometer Analysis
Using Stoke’s Law

95
 TWO BASIC SOIL TYPES

• Granular Soil
– Cohesionless visible to naked eye
– Particles are large and equi-dimensional
– They have very low specific surface area
– Only mass forces are acting
– Coefficient of permeability is high
– Capillary pressure is very low
– Engineering properties from in-situ penetration test
– Tests are carried out in drained loading conditions

• Specific surface area is surface area to mass ratio

• Capillary pressure is the pressure experienced by the
water held in pores of soil above the capillary zone is
retained in a state of reduced pressure 96
Grain Size Distribution Curves

97
 TWO BASIC SOIL TYPES

• Commercially Ravi Sand Chenab Sand

available
Granular Soil

Lawrencepur Sand Shaki Sarwar Sand

F
98
 100

90
Cu - 5.79 to 7.33
Cc - 0.86 to 0.97
80
Percent finer by weight, %

D50 - 0.8 mm -0.08 mm

70

60

50

40
.
30
Range of samples
20 medium to fine sand
10

0
100 10 1 0.1 0.01 0.001
Particle size, mm
GRAVEL SILT & CLAY
SAND

99
 100 Coarse Sand

90 Medium Sand

80
Fine Sand
Percent finer by weight, %

70
Silt
Clay
60

50

40
.
30
Range of samples
20 medium to fine sand
10

0
100 10 1 0.1 0.01 0.001
Particle size, mm
GRAVEL SILT & CLAY
SAND

100
 TWO BASIC SOIL TYPES

• Cohesive Soil

– Consists of clay minerals

– Particles are small and platy shaped
– They have high specific surface area (> 10m2/g)
– Mass forces and surface forces are acting
– Coefficient of permeability is low
– Capillary pressure is very high
– Engineering properties from in-situ and lab test
– Tests are carried out in undrained loading conditions

101