Chapter - 1

What is Operating System?

An operating system is the core software that allows a computer to run as a useful device, it manages
the hardware, the user interface and all other software running on the computer.
Without an operating system, a computer is just a collection of components heating up the room as no-
one would be able to make any practical use of the machine.

Parts of an Operating System

The operating system has four main parts:
 The Kernel
 The Device Drivers
 The User Interface
 The System Utilities

The kernel:
An operating system kernel is a computer program that serves as an intermediary layer between the
hardware and application programs. A kernel makes it possible for software to interact with the underlying
hardware of the operating system. Such software (mostly application software) achieve this by issuing service
requests to the kernel. (These requests are called system calls.) When a service request is received, the kernel
translates it into instructions for the CPU or other electronic components of the computer to execute.
The way operating system kernels handle requests, however, differ from one another. Consider the
following analogy: an application program wants to have a cup of coffee so it makes a request to the kernel.
What should the kernel do at this point? Should it delegate the coffee making activity to somebody else
(microkernels) or should it make it by itself (monolithic kernels)? Delegating the activity can be advantageous,
in that, the kernel would then have less things to worry about. However, that comes at the cost of performance:
finding who to delegate, calling the person, etc. But how about a mixed approach? Say, let the kernel do some
core stuff by itself and delegate other things to other people (hybrid kernels).
In a microkernel operating system design, the kernel itself does not contain any functions—all tasks
are delegated to separate programs called servers. These servers provide services for the operating system,
leaving the kernel to contain only what it needs to operate: a mechanism of mapping requests to servers and
executing them. This greatly reduces the size of the kernel, and also increases its stability since any fault in any
of the servers does not really affect the kernel itself. Nevertheless, the critical overall performance of
microkernels are lower than that of their monolithic counterparts because of their (mostly) large number of
request-to-server mappings. Popular examples of microkernel operating systems are GNU Hurd, MINIX, and
QNX.
A monolithic kernel is a system program that contains all the code required to perform every kernel
related task. It contains all the core operating system functions and device drivers. Since all the various
functions live in the same memory area, it is possible for one function to modify the behavior of another
function. Worse yet, data corruption resulting from the operation of one function can cause the whole system
to crash. However, with these negative side effects come some great gains: the dynamic module loading ability
of some monolithic kernels minimizes the operating system's memory footprint while running faster than
microkernels in most practical cases. Examples of monolithic operating systems are DOS, BSD, Linux, and
OpenVMS.
The architecture of hybrid kernels is similar to that of microkernels, except not every request is
delegated to a server, but some code are loaded into kernel space as in monolithic kernels. The performance
overhead incurred by microkernels when running some services (such as the file system) in user space is
eliminated by moving the code for such services into kernel space. This technique allows the kernel to enjoy
the best of both worlds: modularity and performance. However, there is a compromise: unlike monolithic
kernels, hybrid kernels cannot dynamically load additional modules to extend the capabilities of the kernel.
Examples of hybrid kernel operating systems are Microsoft Windows, Mac OS X, and the discontinued BeOS.
The Device Drivers
A computer system is usually made up of several devices such as disk drives, keyboards, mice, video
adapters, sound cards, etc. When a user attaches such devices to their computer, they expect the operating
system to identify the device and make use of it. Indeed, the operating system may know what the device is but
not how to communicate with it. The latter problem is solved by means of a driver. A device driver is a
computer program that controls a particular device attached to a computer. It provides an interface through
which the operating system can transparently make calls to the device. In fact, device drivers have built-in
functions that are meant to be called by the operating system or other privileged programs.
Devices are generally slower compared with the CPU. This means that whereas the CPU could be doing
other stuff, it many times waits for a busy but slow device to finish whatever job it is doing. This bad behavior,
however, is mitigated by the use of hardware interrupts. Interrupts because control to be transferred to a routine
designed to process the interrupt. For example, when a key is pressed on a computer keyboard, a hardware
interrupt is generated, which invokes the keyboard device driver. After the driver has finished processing the
event, control is returned back to the interrupted program. However, only a few peripherals support interrupts
which means that drivers have to poll the hardware, i.e. ask whether there is an event to process.

The User Interface

Here is another feature of an operating system: its user interface. An operating system's user interface
determines how the user interacts with the computer. The two most common forms of a user interface are the
Command Line Interface (CLI) and the Graphical User Interface (GUI). A CLI provide a prompt at which
commands can be given line-by-line. This kind of interface is usually implemented with a program called
a command line shell, which accepts commands as text input and converts them to the appropriate operating
system functions. CLIs can be quite powerful for experienced users, but if one does not know the system well
enough, they can become quite lost. Examples of CLIs are the UNIX shells and the Windows Command
Prompt.
In contrast, a GUI provides a visual environment where a device (such as a mouse) is used to navigate
the system and perform tasks. Unlike CLIs where performing a task can become slow and error-prone (such as
when very long commands are to be entered), GUIs present the user with widgets that trigger some of the
operating system's commands, reducing complexity and the need to memorize command names and their
parameters. For many users, a GUI present a more accessible user interface; however, the choice of a user
interface is simply a matter of personal preference. Examples of GUIs are those implemented in Microsoft
Windows, Apple's Mac OS X, and GNOME/KDE for the X Windows system on Unix-like operating systems.

The System Utilities:

System utilities are the core software functions that allow you to manage your computer in ways that
you would find it inconceivable to be without. System utilities may be already included in your computer or
downloaded from the Internet. No matter where you look, you can always find plenty of system utility programs
at little or no cost. In this article, we will go over several examples of system utility programs and how they
affect you and your computer.

Disk Cleanup
Disk Cleanup is a function that comes with all versions of Windows Operating Systems. Disk Cleanup
allows for you to scan your entire hard drive to search for extra room by deleting any unnecessary files such as
temporary files from the Internet and cookies that are downloaded when you visit webpages. Not only does
Disk Cleanup allow you to delete simple files from the Internet, but it also allows for you to delete Restore
Points, uninstall programs, remove Windows components, and compress old files all in the click of a mouse.
You can find Disk Cleanup in Windows XP by going to the Start menu –> All Programs –> Accessories –>
System Tools –> Disk Cleanup.
Disk Defragmenter
The Disk Defragmenter is another tool that comes with Windows and is used for many different
solutions. The main function of the Disk Defragmenter is to reassemble fragmented files. Whenever a file is
modified in any way, the computer stores the file in broken pieces across the hard drive rather than putting the
whole file in one spot. This can lead to system malfunction and poor performance because your computer must
search for all the pieces of a specific file before it can display it. The Disk Defragmenter searches for all pieces
of every file on your hard drive and reassembles the files into a specific location. This increases the speed at
which files are displayed and results in less delays when opening files or programs.

System Restore
System Restore is a function that comes with Windows that allows you to return your computer to an
earlier time in which you had not encountered an error. System Restore is great for fixing problems that a virus
has caused after you use antivirus software to rid your computer of the malware. System Restore allows you to
manually set Restore Points on a calendar and also automatically creates Restore Points on a regular basis as
well as right before your computer goes through any major change such as installing a new program. System
Restore can be found by going to Start –> All Programs –> Accessories –> System Tools –> System Restore.

Disk Compression and Archivers

Disk compression is a type of function that allows for a program to search your hard drive and compress
files, particularly old or unused files. This greatly improves your computer’s functionality and performance
because it does not have to keep track of so many files at once. It also serves to free up space, which is the
main function of disk compression software. Archivers, another form of file compression software, allows for
you to compress a file or folder and then decompress the file whenever you decide to. The most popular archive
to date is WinRAR, which is named after WinZip but has no affiliation. Both WinRAR and a plethora of disk
compression programs are available on the Internet at no charge.

Registry Cleaners
Registry cleaners are programs that allow for you to scan your computer for any errors in the registry,
which is a collection of the core computer files that are essential to performance and functionality, and repairs
them if needed. Registry cleaners are widely available on the Internet and give you a significant upper hand
when cleaning up the mess that a virus or other malware has left on your computer. Likewise, some otherwise
safe programs can cause errors in the registry without intending to. Registry files can also be corrupted if the
user unknowingly deletes or modifies a file in the registry. This usually occurs when an inexperienced user
tries to fix their computer and inevitably causes more damage than before.

File Splitters
File splitters are programs that allow you to break a file into smaller pieces in order to store or send
files. File splitters often come in handy because many online storage services, including email attachments,
limit you to a specific file size that can be transferred at one time even though files often exceed these limits.
File splitters allow you to break the file into two or more pieces, send them simultaneously, and then piece
them back together when you are ready to use the file again. A good file splitter is File Splits. It allows for you
to break a file of any size into multiple pieces and then rejoin the files together just as easily.
Types of Operating System
There are Many Operating Systems those have be Developed for Performing the Operations those are
requested by the user. There are Many Operating Systems which have the Capability to Perform the Requests
those are received from the System. The Operating system can perform a Single Operation and also Multiple
Operations at a Time. So there are many types of Operating systems those are organized by using their Working
Techniques.

1) Serial Processing Operating System:

The Serial Processing Operating Systems are those which Performs all the instructions into a Sequence
Manner or the Instructions those are given by the user will be executed by using the FIFO Manner means First
in First Out. All the Instructions those are Entered First in the System will be Executed First and the Instructions
those are Entered Later Will be Executed Later. For Running the Instructions the Program Counter is used
which is used for Executing all the Instructions.
In this the Program Counter will determines which instruction is going to Execute and the which
instruction will be Execute after this. Mainly the Punch Cards are used for this. In this all the Jobs are firstly
Prepared and Stored on the Card and after that card will be entered in the System and after that all the
Instructions will be executed one by One. But the Main Problem is that a user doesn’t interact with the
System while he is working on the System, means the user can’t be able to enter the data for Execution.

2) Batch Processing Operating System :

The Batch Processing is same as the Serial Processing Technique. But in the Batch Processing Similar
Types of jobs are Firstly Prepared and they are Stored on the Card. and that card will be Submit to the System
for the Processing. The System then Perform all the Operations on the Instructions one by one. And a user can’t
be Able to specify any input. And Operating System wills increments his Program Counter for Executing the
Next Instruction.
The Main Problem is that the Jobs those are prepared for Execution must be the Same Type and if a job
requires for any type of Input then this will not be Possible for the user. And Many Time will be wasted for
Preparing the Batch. The Batch Contains the Jobs and all those jobs will be executed without the user
Intervention. And Operating System will use the LOAD and RUN Operation. This will first LOAD the Job
from the Card and after that he will execute the instructions. By using the RUN Command.
The Speed of the Processing the Job will be Depend on the Jobs and the Results those are produced by
the System in difference of Time which is used for giving or submit the Job and the Time which is used for
Displaying the Results on the Screen.

3) Multi-Programming Operating System :

As we know that in the Batch Processing System there are multiple jobs Execute by the System. The
System first prepare a batch and after that he will Execute all the jobs those are Stored into the Batch. But the
Main Problem is that if a process or job requires an Input and Output Operation, then it is not possible and
second there will be the wastage of the Time when we are preparing the batch and the CPU will remain idle at
that Time.
But With the help of Multi programming we can Execute Multiple Programs on the System at a
Time and in the Multi-programming the CPU will never get idle, because with the help of Multi-Programming
we can Execute Many Programs on the System and When we are Working with the Program then we can also
Submit the Second or Another Program for Running and the CPU will then Execute the Second Program after
the completion of the First Program. And in this we can also specify our Input means a user can also interact
with the System.
The Multi-programming Operating Systems never use any cards because the Process is entered on the
Spot by the user. But the Operating System also uses the Process of Allocation and De-allocation of the
Memory Means he will provide the Memory Space to all the Running and all the Waiting Processes. There
must be the Proper Management of all the Running Jobs.
Real Time System Operating System:
There is also an Operating System which is known as Real Time Processing System. In this Response
Time is already fixed. Means time to Display the Results after Possessing has fixed by the Processor or CPU.
Real Time System is used at those Places in which we Requires higher and Timely Response. These Types of
Systems are used in Reservation. So when we specify the Request, the CPU will perform at that Time. There
are two Types of Real Time System

a) Hard Real Time System:

In the Hard Real Time System, Time is fixed and we can’t Change any Moments of the Time of
Processing. Means CPU will Process the data as we Enters the Data.

b) Soft Real Time System:

In the Soft Real Time System, some Moments can be Change. Means after giving the Command to the
CPU, CPU Performs the Operation after a Microsecond.

4) Distributed Operating System –

Distributed Means Data is Stored and Processed on Multiple Locations. When a Data is stored on to the
Multiple Computers, those are placed in Different Locations. Distributed means In the Network, Network
Collections of Computers are connected with Each other.
Then if we want to Take Some Data from other Computer, Then we uses the Distributed Processing
System. And we can also Insert and Remove the Data from out Location to another Location. In this Data is
shared between many users. And we can also Access all the Input and Output Devices are also accessed by
Multiple Users.

5) Multiprocessing Operating System :

Generally a Computer has a Single Processor means a Computer have a just one CPU for Processing the
instructions. But if we are Running multiple jobs, then this will decrease the Speed of CPU. For Increasing the
Speed of Processing then we uses the Multiprocessing, in the Multi Processing there are two or More CPU in
a Single Operating System if one CPU will fail, then other CPU is used for providing backup to the first CPU.
With the help of Multi-processing, we can Execute Many Jobs at a Time. All the Operations are divided into
the Number of CPU’s. if first CPU Completed his Work before the Second CPU, then the Work of Second
CPU will be divided into the First and Second.

6) Parallel operating systems

Parallel operating systems are used to interface multiple networked computers to complete tasks in
parallel. The architecture of the software is often a UNIX-based platform, which allows it to
coordinate distributed loads between multiple computers in a network. Parallel operating systems are able to
use software to manage all of the different resources of the computers running in parallel, such as memory,
caches, storage space, and processing power. Parallel operating systems also allow a user to directly interface
with all of the computers in the network.
A parallel operating system works by dividing sets of calculations into smaller parts and distributing them
between the machines on a network. To facilitate communication between the processor cores and memory
arrays, routing software has to either share its memory by assigning the same address space to all of the
networked computers, or distribute its memory by assigning a different address space to each processing core.
 Sharing memory allows the operating system to run very quickly, but it is usually not as powerful. When
using distributed shared memory, processors have access to both their own local memory and the memory of
other processors; this distribution may slow the operating system, but it is often more flexible and efficient.

Functions of Operating System

There are Many Functions those are Performed by the Operating System But the Main Goal of
Operating System is to Provide the Interface between the user and the hardware Means Provides the Interface
for Working on the System by the user. The various Functions those are Performed by the Operating System
are as Explained below:-

1. Resource Management
Operating System Also Known as the Resource Manager Means Operating System will Manages all
the Resources those are Attached to the System means all the Resource like Memory and Processor and all the
Input output Devices those are Attached to the System are Known as the Resources of the Computer System
and the Operating system will Manage all the Resources of the System. The Operating System will identify at
which Time the CPU will perform which Operation and in which Time the Memory is used by which Programs.
And which Input Device will respond to which Request of the user means When the Input and Output Devices
are used by the which Programs. So this will manage all the Resources those are attached to the Computer
System.

2. Storage Management
Operating System also Controls the all the Storage Operations means how the data or files will be Stored
into the computers and how the Files will be Accessed by the users etc. All the Operations those are
Responsible for Storing and Accessing the Files is determined by the Operating System Operating System also
Allows us Creation of Files, Creation of Directories and Reading and Writing the data of Files and Directories
and also Copy the contents of the Files and the Directories from One Place to Another Place.

3. Process Management:
The Operating System also Treats the Process Management means all the Processes those are given by
the user or the Process those are System‘s own Process are Handled by the Operating System . The Operating
System will create the Priorities foe the user and also start or Stops the Execution of the Process and Also
Makes the Child Process after dividing the Large Processes into the Small Processes.

4. Memory Management:
Operating System also manages the Memory of the Computer System means provide the Memory to
the Process and also deallocate the Memory from the Process. And also defines that if a Process gets completed
then this will deallocate the Memory from the Processes.

5. Extended Machine:
Operating System also behaves like an Extended Machine means Operating system also Provides us
Sharing of Files between Multiple Users, also Provides Some Graphical Environments and also Provides
Various Languages for Communications and also Provides Many Complex Operations like using Many
Hardware’s and Software’s.

6. Mastermind:
Operating System also performs Many Functions and for those Reasons we can say that Operating
System is a Mastermind. It provides Booting without an Operating System and Provides Facility to increase
the Logical Memory of the Computer System by using the Physical Memory of the Computer System and also
provides various Types of Formats like NTFS and FAT File Systems.
Operating System also controls the Errors those have been Occurred into the Program and Also Provides
Recovery of the System when the System gets Damaged Means When due to Some Hardware Failure , if
System Doesn’t Works properly then this Recover the System and also Correct the System and also Provides
us the Backup Facility. And Operating System also breaks the large program into the Smaller Programs those
are also called as the threads. And execute those threads one by one.
About Clustered Operating System
In personal computer storage technology, a cluster is the logical unit of file storage on a hard disk; it's
managed by the computer's operating system. Any file stored on a hard disk takes up one or more clusters of
storage. A file's clusters can be scattered among different locations on the hard disk. The clusters associated
with a file are kept track of in the hard disk's file allocation table (FAT). When you read a file, the entire file is
obtained for you and you aren't aware of the clusters it is stored in.

Since a cluster is a logical rather than a physical unit (it's not built into the hard disk itself), the size of
a cluster can be varied. The maximum number of clusters on a hard disk depends on the size of a FAT table
entry. Beginning with DOS 4.0, the FAT entries were 16 bits in length, allowing for a maximum of 65,536
clusters. Beginning with the Windows 95 OSR2 service release, a 32-bit FAT entry is supported, allowing an
entry to address enough clusters to support up to two terabytes of data (assuming the hard disk is that large!).

The tradeoff in cluster size is that even the smallest file (and even a directory itself) takes up the entire
cluster. Thus, a 10-byte file will take up 2,048 bytes if that's the cluster size. In fact, many operating systems
set the cluster size default at 4,096 or 8,192 bytes. Until the file allocation table support in Windows 95 OSR2,
the largest size hard disk that could be supported in a single partition was 512 megabytes. Larger hard disks
could be divided into up to four partitions, each with a FAT capable of supporting 512 megabytes of clusters.
Chapter – 2