Chapter 17

17.1 – Genes specify proteins via transcription and translation

Bacteria vs. Eukaryotes
Bacterial mRNA is immediately translated after transcription, because a nuclear envelope doesn’t block
it from ribosomes.

Codons
61 of the 64 codons code for amino acids. One of the 64 is the start codon, which codes for the amino
acid met (all polypeptides start with met, which can be removed later). The three non-amino acid
codons are stop codons, not producing an amino acid.
Reading frame – the way in which mRNA is translated. Must be correct for the correct polypeptide to
form.

17.2 – Transcription
RNA Polymerase
Only one kind in bacteria, but in eukaryotes, RNA polymerase II forms mRNA, while the others form non-
protein coding RNA.

Promoter
Wherever the promoter is (on one DNA strand or the other) determines which strand becomes the
template strand.

Transcription factors/transcription initiation complex

Once transcription factors are bound to the DNA, RNA polymerase II binds to it, forming a transcription
initiation complex.
Multiple complexes, or polymerases, may transcribe a gene at the same time, producing multiple copies
of the mRNA simultaneously.

Termination
In bacteria, the terminator is transcribed, signaling the polymerase to detach from the DNA and release
the primary transcript.
In eukaryotes, the polyadenylation signal sequence is transcribed, and after continuing to transcribe for
a little bit, the primary transcript is cut from the polymerase. The polymerase continues to transcribe,
but the RNA is digested by an enzyme that follows it. Eventually, the enzyme reaches the polymerase,
and termination is completed.

17.3 – RNA processing

Introns and exons
The only exception to non-coding RNA NOT being spliced is the UTRs of the EXONS. These segments do
not code for protein, but have other functions, like ribosome binding.

RNA Splicing
snRNA catalyzes splicing.
RNA Splicing is alternative; depending on what is treated as exons, different segments are excised,
leading to different proteins forming from a single gene.

How do ribozymes cut themselves?

1) Segments of the RNA base pair with themselves, forming a specific 3d structure, which is
needed for the ribozyme to function.
2) The functional groups of bases of the ribozymes enable it to catalyze its own excision.
3) RNA of the spliceosome and RNA of the RNA transcript base-pair with each other, locating
where the ribozyme needs to begin cutting.

17.4 - Translation
Ribosomes
Subunits made in nucleolus.
rRNA is primarily responsible for the ribosome’s structure.

Initiation
In bacteria, mRNA and tRNA are bound to the small ribosomal subunit in either order, the mRNA being
bound at a specific RNA sequence just before the start codon.
In eukaryotes, the small subunit is already bound to the tRNA, and binds to the 5’ cap of the mRNA,
moving down until it reaches the start codon.
In both, the union of the parts are completed by a large ribosomal subunit, forming a translation
initiation complex. Initiation factors help put them together, and energy is used.
The tRNA that is bound has the amino acid met, matching with the start codon.
Elongation
Three steps – pg. 341; first and third steps use GTP.

Protein folding and post-translational modifications

After synthesis, the polypeptide coils and folds as result of primary structure. Chaperonins check that
the fold is correct.
Molecules may be added to the amino acids, amino acids may be removed, and the polypeptide may be
broken into two or more pieces.

Targeting polypeptides to specific locations

Different signal peptides signal for the polypeptide to go to different places, whether outside or in the
endomembrane system, or if the signal peptides don’t signal for the ribosome to become bound, signal
for the protein to go to places in the cytosol after being completed in the cytosol.

17.5 – Point mutations

Point mutation
Cause of diseases

Spontaneous mutation
Mutation by errors in replication.

Mutagens
Physical and chemical mutation agents.
X-rays, UV light, radiation, base analogs (chemicals similar to normal bases, but pair incorrectly).