THEORY - PRACTICAL INTEGWTION :

CONCEPT AND PRACTICE.

History of Science Teaching in India

General Science, Integrated Science and
Optional Science
Objectives of Science Teaching
Approaches in Science Teaching
Conventional Science Teaching Methods
Modernization of Science Teaching
Curriculum Innovations
Science Education World Wide
Science Teaching in India
2.1 History of Science Teaching in India.

Science teaching in India is several decades old and started on a very

slow foot. The Reviews issued by the Government of India reflected the sorry and

shocking state of affairs in science teaching of the country. Until the beginning of the

2oth century, there was considerable shortage of qualified science teachers in India.

From 1905 there was a little improvement in the expansion of science education in

India.

2.1.1 Science Education after Indian Independence.

'
The Secondary Education Commission: 1952-53 popularly known as

the Mudaliar Commission was the first Commission in the history of lndian education

to survey the entire field of secondary education. It recommended the teaching of

General science as a compulsory subject in the high and higher secondary schools.

The All India Seminar on the teaching of science in secondary schools

in 1956 dealt with all the problems facing the inclusion of General science and

touched all the aspects concerning teaching of science in schools viz., syllabus,

equipment and apparatus, teaching aids, etc.

I . Report of the Secondary Education Commission 1952-53. Ministry of Education,

Government of India. p. 77.
 The Indian Parliamentary and Scientific committee2 set up in 1961

also studied the allied problems of shortage of qualified teachers, accelerated

achievements in science, growing importance of science in the affairs of the mankind,

changes in the processes and goals of science, etc.

The Education Commission: 1964-663 (the Kotl~ari Commission)

pointed out that science education is in a bad shape. To meet this immediate threat,

the Commission recommended that science and mathematics should be taught on a

compulsory basis to all pupils as a part of general education. In the lower primary

classes science teaching should be related lo the child's environment, at the higher

primary stage emphasis should be on acquisition of knowledge and ability to think

logically, experimental approach should be stressed, method of teaching should be

modernized giving stress to the investigatory approach.

The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT)

is concerned with research, instruction and evaluation. A Central Science Workshop

was established under the NCERT to produce prototypes of school science teaching

equipment and to develop low cost kits for the primary and middle school stages.

Some States have established State Councils of Educational Research and Training

2. Narendra Vaidya. (1976). -Impact Science Teaching. New Delhi: Oxford and
IBH Publishing Company. p. 45.
3. Report of the Education Commission 1964-66. Education and National
Development. Ministry of Education, Government of 1ndia.p. 1 56.
(SCERT)on the same pattern of the NCERT. The main functions of the NCERT are
to provide in-service training to teachers especially in the development of science

education, prepare instructional materials in science, conduct research studies in

science education, provide guidance service in science to schools, and to take up

innovative programmes in science education in the national science programmes.

2.2 General Science, Integrated Science and Optional Science.

2.2.1 General Science

Genera1 science4 has been defined as 'a course of scientific study and

investigation which has its root in common experiences of children and does not

exclude any one of the fundamental aspects of science'. Teaching of General Science

was introduced in India, as a compulsory subject at primary, middle and secondary

level from 1956.

General science occupies a critical position in the secondary school

curriculum. It is the first experience most pupils have with science as a special subject

and it may be the only science course that some pupils will take during their school

4. M.S. Yadav. (Ed.) (1992). Teaching of Science. New Delhi: Anmol Publications
Pvt. Ltd. pp.9-41.
cuniculurn. It is the first experience most pupils have with science as a special subject

and it may be the only science course that some pupils will take during their school

experience. General Science determines the attitude that many pupils develop toward

Science. General Science deserves the best teaching and the best facilities that can be

provided.

General Science as its name implies has a broad scope and can be

applied to a broad range of interest. It has its own body of subject matter that is

chosen to meet the needs of the pupils who take it. General Science is 'general' only

in that it is free of the traditional boundaries of the various areas of science. General

Science was introduced into the curriculum as part of a general effort to humanize the

secondary school curriculum.

Some recent trends in General Science is that more time is being

devoted to laboratory work in the form of projects and experimentation during the

reguIar class period. There is less time given to reading science and more to 'doing'

science.

A low interest in senior high school sciences, the diversion of capable

students into fields other than science and the shortage of scientific personnel in

industry and Governmental agencies are considered to be the limitations of General

Science. Some of the failures of General Science are due to circumstances beyond the
control of individual teachers. Large classes, heavy class loads and inadequate

facilities are the inevitable results of a rapidly expanding school population.

Keeping in view that the major aim of teaching science is to acquaint

the students with himself and his environment, it is desirable if the student is

imparted a working knowledge of almost all the main branches of science such as

Physics, Chemistry, Astronomy, Geology, Geography, Botany, Zoology, Home

science, etc.

2.2.2 Integrated Science.

Integrated science5 has been defined as those 'approaches in which the

concepts and principles of science are presented so as to express the fundamental

unity of scientific thought and to avoid premature or undue stress on the distinctions

between the various scientific fields'. Such a definition encourages a wide diversity,

not only in specific topic but also in the overall organization and structure of those

programmes that are considered to be integrated science.

The programmes developed in the United States such as PSSC, BSCS,

CHEM Study, etc., did much to improve the quality of laboratory instruction and

5. Coordinating meet in^ for UNESCO's programme in integrated science teaching

(1972). Paris :UNESCO. pb5.
leaching of science concepts and processes. But it has been realized that with the

amount of scientific information growing at a fantastic rate, students cannot continue

to learn science as compartmentalized discipline that have little relation to each other

or to man's place in the natural world.

The following are considered to be some of the advantages of

integrating science6:

- It helps in understanding a fact or a concept in its natural state fully and

wholly.

- There is continuation in learning.

- Learning experience become more meaningful.

- It reduces the work Ioad of pupils.

- Teachers get more time and the extra time can be used to provide remedial

teachng to students.

- The work load of teachers is reduced.

- It nourishes teacher's creativity and their mentality to do work.

- It brings about learning that is related to life and environment.
- It is free of any traditional boundaries of different branches of science.

- It covers everyday science for everybody.

6. Co-ordinating meeting for UNESCO's programme in integrated science teaching

(1972). op.cit. pp. 7-9.
2.2.3 Optional Sciences

Science has been taught as different branches such as physics,

chemistry, biology, etc .in a compartmentalised way. Subjects are taught separately

and in isolation without bringing any correlation or integration between them. The

pupil has got the liberty to choose his branch in which he has got interest, hence the

name optional science. The characteristics of some optional science7subjects arc dealt

below:

Biology is the most popular optional science. Open-ended experiments,

where pupil does not h o w the outcome before they begin the experiment, are used

in the laboratory. This type of laboratory activity permits pupils to work out their

own experimental procedures, to answer questions, and to draw conclusions based on

the data that they collect. Project work is suggested for the academically talented.

An attempt to reorganize physics has been made by the Physical

Science Study Committee (PSSC) the pioneer in modern science curriculum

7. R.C. S h m a . (1987), Modern Science Teaching. New Delhi: Dhanpat Rai and
Sons, p.55.
developments where laboratory experimentation was given importance by whch

pupils discover physical concepts, principles and laws. PSSC was developed in order

to rectify the following inadequacies8 experienced in the secondary school physics

which are the following:

- Emphasis was upon principles and laws rather than upon concrete things of the

environment.

- There was insistence on memorisation of formulas and standarhsed ways of

solving problems,
- There was excessive use of mathematical exercises in order to develop skills

with formal science problems.

- Laboratory exercises and materials used in classes were stereo typed.

- There was no provision for individual differences.

- There was inability to stimulate original thinking.

Chemistry

The criticisms that have been leveled at physics apply equally to chemistry.

Pupils memorize endless laws, principles, minor facts, symbols, formulas and

equations. Much laboratory work in Chemistry consists of set of exercises. Some of

ihese are designed to teach pupils the use of chemical apparatus and abstractions.

8. Walter A. Thurber and Alfred T. Collette. ( 1 9 6 4 9

Secondary Schools (2ndedn.). New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India. pp. 56-58.
Others are designed to illustrate generalizations made in books and lectures. Rarely do

the pupils carry out true experiments in which they are trying to find out answers to

real problems. New approaches in Chemistry, like Chemical Education Materials

Study Programme (CHEM Study) and Chemical Bond Approach (CBA), which

emphasize laboratory work and discovery, have improved the status of chemistry in

high schools.

Physical Science

In the 1940's physical science electives were developed for pupils who

did not have the ability to handle traditional physics and chemistry. Courses in

physical sciences for the academically talented are used in some instances as a

substitute for physics and chemistry. The advantages of such courses include the

elimination of duplication of a number of topics found in both physics and chemistry.

Physical science courses can benefit the less academic minded pupils,

but these courses must allow enough time for learning through first hand experiences.

Classes should be small and a great deal of class time should be devoted to project

work and to the solution of individual problems.

2.3 Objectives of Science Teaching.

The objectives for the science curriculum should be determined by the

needs of the people. Practical work is a part of science curriculum. Learning in

 science involves children advancing their ideas by trying them out in practical

investigations. The purpose of science teaching is not only to acquaint the students

with the knowledge of scientific facts, concepts and principles, but also to develop

practical skills and scientific attitudes in the students.

Same of the objectives of teaching science' in the school cuniculum

should be directed towards:

- better understanding of the nature of science.

- acquisition of skills.

- development of scientific attitudes.

- training in scientific method.

- development of interest and appreciation.

- helping the students fit themselves better in the society.

- helping students develop suitable career interest.

Exposure to scientific concepts both in the class room and in the

laboratory leads to the acquisition of following skills in the pupil:

a. Experimental skills on handling apparatus and instruments, arranging

apparatus for an experiment and preserving chemicals, apparatus, etc .

9. Radha Mohan (1 995). Innovative Science Teaching - for Physical Science Teachers.
New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd.p. 18.
 b. Constructional skills on making improvised aids, making minor repairs

when things go wrong in the laboratory.

c. Development of skills involving drawing diagrams of experiments done

and specimens observed.

d. Development of problem solving skill.

e. Development of observational slull.

Harlen and ElstGeest (1993) '' opine that 'practical activity must

involve planning based on hypothesizing and prediction, gathering of information by

observation and by measurement, the control of variables, interpretation of data and

the recording and communication of results'

The objectives under the three mental domains viz., cognitive,

affective and psychomotor are acheved with the help of practical work. Psychomotor

skills include manipulative skill, dissectional skills, observational skills, drawing

skills, reporting slulls, etc. and this can be developed only by practical work.

Therefore, according to Singh (1996) ' ' development of skills is the most predominant
objective of practical work in sciences and he identifies two aspects of performance,

viz. process of performance and product of performance.

10. Wynne Harlen and Jas Elst Geest. (1993). UNESCO source book for science
teaching in the primary school. National Book Trust, India in association with
UNESCO Publishing, pp.20-2 1,70.
11. Pritam Singh. (1996). A Monograph on improving practical examinations in
science. In Ediger, Marlow and Digumarti Bhaskara,Rao. (Ed.), Science
Curriculum. New Delhi : Discovery Publishing House. p. 97.
 Process of performance includes selecting, checking, handling,

arranging, setting appropriate tools and instruments, detecting errors, taking

necessary precautions, performing experiments, etc., while product of performance

includes recording, interpreting data, drawing conc~usions, summarizing and

reporting the result.

Millar (1989) recommended that experiments could be used in school

science as a means of communicating abstract concepts through examples,

demonstrating what counts as good practices and identifying approaches to problem

solving.

Science practical work as proposed by Kerr (1 963)13 is intended to:

- encourage accurate observation and careful recording.

- promote simple, common sense scientific methods of thought.

- develop manipulative skills.

- give training in problem solving.

- fit the requirements of practical examination.

- elucidate the theoretical work so as to aid comprehension.

12. R. Millar. (1989). Bending the evidence: The Relationship between Theory and
Experiment in Science Education. In R. Miller (Ed.), Doing science: Images of
science. Phiiadelpha: Falmer Press, pp.38-6 1.
13. J. Kerr. (1963). Practical work in school science. Leicester: Leicester University
Press. pp.63-65.
 - verify facts and principles already taught.

- be an integral part of the process of finding facts by investigation and arriving

at principles.

- arouse and maintain interest in the subject and

- make biological, chemical and physical phenomena more real through actual

experience.

2.4 Approaches in Science Teaching.

In teaching science, many approaches have been developed and it has

given a new shape and structure to the concept of science. Science is taught adopting

different approaches. The place and role of the teacher and the learner is different in

different approaches and the aim of all approaches is to help students understand

science in an effective manner.

The following are some accredited approaches in science teaching

commonly accepted.

2.4.1 Process vs. product approach.

In the past, science has been considered as a body of knowledge to be

transmitted from the older to the young. In recent years, much more emphasis has

been placed on the intellectual process used in science and the attitudes that govern
the application of these process, and we strongly believe that students will learn best

by actually engaging in experimental activities by touching, manipulating and

observing their environment 14'

In the product approach 15, the learner is interested only in the

acquisition of knowledge. The product or conceptual approach is regarded fruitful in

the acquisition of readymade knowledge concerning scientific facts, principles,

generalizations and theories.

2,4.2. Integrated Approach

In this approach, efforts are being made to organise the learning

experiences in an integrated way as to achieve the unity of knowledge by avoiding

their artificial compartmentalization. In the words of ~urd(1970)'"'a well organised

curriculum is a succession of backgrounds that make next step in learning

reasonable". The integrated approach aspires to help pupils obtain a coherent view of

science by establishing numerous links between the various branches of science. This

becomes a difficult exercise to achieve when science is taught as three separate

14. UNESCO-RECSAM, Intenated Science Teaching in Asia (1972). Kualalampur.

pp.5-41.
15. S.K. Mangal. (1990). Teaching of Science. New Delhi: Arya Book Depot.
pp.3 12-317.
1 6. Paul DeHart Hurd.(1970). New direction in Teaching Secondary School Science
(2ndedn). Chicago: Rand McNally. pp.72-74.
subjects, more so when taught by three separate science teachers. Teaching three

separate subjects may require too much school time. Most schools allocate four

periods per week to integrated science, which means instead of six periods a week,

there is a saving of two periods per week. The integrated approach for teaching

science i s widely used in India as it results in some reduction of the need for

laboratories and equipment. Many other countries are using the integrated science

teaching approach particularly in the early years of schooling.

2.4.3. Theoretical Approach

This approach17 emphasises on meaningful integration of the

theoretical aspects of science education with its applied and practical aspects. In the

organisation of learning experiences for a particuIar grade or level it is being

considered that the theoretical knowledge should find a practical shape in all its

possible ways and means. Similarly while planning for the strategies and methods of

teaching, sincere efforts are being made to coordinate theory with actual practice i.e.,

emphasising and discovering the use of facts and principles of physics and chemistry

and other aspects of daily life.

1 7. Paul DeHart Hurd.(I970). Ibid. pp.72-74.

2.4.4. The Inquiryffroblem solving approach

In the inquiry approach, the students inquire into a problem with a

view to finding some answers or reasons why the problem exists. Dewey (1933) l8

maintained that the learner should develop the intellectual tact and sensitivity to solve

problems by inquiring constantly in the classroom. An inquiry oriented teaching

strategy must provide an opportunity for the learners to identify and clarify a purpose

for inquiry, formulate a hypothesis, test the hypothesis by collecting data, draw

conclusions, apply the conclusions in new situations. Three types of inquiry/problern

solving have been identified: they are guided inquiry, free inquiry and modified free

inquiry.

2.4.5. The environmental approach

The course in the environmental approach1' is structured around the

social relevance and utility of science. Here content and processes become organised

so that they become meaningful and relevant to the child in his present environment

and make sense of it. Probable activities include: handling of apparatus and

specimens, observation, use of references, photographs, charts, audio-visual aids, etc.

18. John Dewey. (1933). How we think. Boston D.C: Heath. p.34.
19. Eugene P. Odum. (1975). Ecology (zndEdition). New Delhi: Oxford and IBH
Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd. p. 1.
2.5 Conventional Science teaching methods.

The main aim of science teaching is to bring about desirable behaviow

change in the students and this can only be achieved if the teaching is effective and

based on the principles of learning. How the pupils will learn effectively depends on

the method the teacher adopts. The methods can be classified under the following two

major categories: 1) teacher centred methods and 2) pupil centred methods.

In the teacher centred approach, teaching is mainly expository in

nature and the focus is on telling, memorizing and recalling information. The students

are passive recipients of knowledge.

In pupil centred approach, the whole teaching-learning process is

geared to the needs of the individual ,his requirements, capabilities and interests. The

classroom climate is flexible and the teachers and students jointly explore aspects of

the problem.

Some examples of the teacher-centred methods are Lecture method,

Lecture-Demonstration method, Historical method, etc.. Examples of pupil-centred

methods are Heuristic method, Assignment method, Project method, Discussion

method, Laboratory method, etc.

Brief elaboration of some select teachingllearning methods are given

below.
2.5.1 Lecture method

This is the most dominating method in the classroom. The teacher is

only the active participant in the teaching-learning process and the pupils are the

passive listeners, as a result they take little interest in learning.

Some of the merits of the lecture method are that : it is economical ,

generally because no laboratory, teaching aids, etc. are needed. It requires a single

teacher who can teach any number of pupils at a time and it minimises the work of the

teacher, since the teacher has to put in much less effort to prepare his lesson. It turns

out to be an efficient method if one plans to present the teaching material in a highly

systematic and logical manner. It is a method of imparting voluminous and factual

information relating to some of the thrilling historical incidents of science, within a

short period of time.

But the defects of the lecture method outnumber its merits. There is

little two-way communication and there is only limited interaction between the

teacher and the taught since students are not directly involved in the teaching-learning

process. There is no provision for pupil activities and development of scientific skills.

A poorly planned, poorly delivered lecture fails to motivate the students and there is

no assurance whether the students are attentive and understanding all what the teacher

is saying. The rate of imparting information by the teacher may be too rapid for the

learner to get necessary connections of thought.

2.5,2 Lecture-Demonstration method

This method includes all the merits of lecture method and the teacher

demonstration in the classroom is proved as one of the best methods, if the

demonstrations are well planned and rehearsed by the teacher. The students,

especially in the science classes, see the actual apparatus and operations and help the

teacher in demonstrating the experiment and thereby feel interested in learning.

The merits of the lecture-demonstration method are that it is

psychologically based because the students are shown the actual apparatus and

materials. It is especially usefid where the apparatus is costly and sensitive to break,

the experiment involves some danger, difficulty and complexity in operations, the

apparatus require some special techniques of handling, etc, It is economical as it saves

both time and money.

'Learning by doing' - the important principle in the psychology of

learning has no place in this method, since the students get little chance to have the

direct experience of performing the experience themselves because they only observe

what the teacher does, which forms the main defect of this method.
2.5.3 Historical Method

In this method, the topic is developed from its very beginning of the

development of the idea and carried through various stages of evolution. The students

feel very much interested and fascinated in listening to stories and may be motivated

to read more on the life of scientists and pursue on the same lines. All science subjects

especially Chemistry, Physics, Astronomy, Geology,etc., have an interesting historical

background and a historical treatment can prove very useful.

The merits of the historical method are that it is very interesting and is

suitable for lower classes while the defect is that the historical treatment of each and

every topic at every stage may not prove practicable and possible.

2.5.4 Heuristic method

The term 'Heuristic' is derived from the Greek word 'Heuriskin'

meaning discovery. The student is placed in the position of a discoverer and is

expected to take observations or conduct experiments following instructions and

recording observations and conducting experiments. This method opposes the

dogmatic methods of teaching and makes pupils more exact, truthful, observant and

thoughtful. The observing and reasoning powers of pupils become more excited and

they work and think for themselves. Heuristic method is a method to provide training

and knowledge is considered only secondary. The principles involved in the Heuristic
method are2': principle of activity, principle of logical thinking, principle of

proceeding from known to unknown, principle of purposeful experience and principle

of self thinking and self study

The merits of heuristic method are that it stresses on practical work,

careful observation and independent thinking, it also imparts knowledge of scientific

method of thinking and inculcates scientific attitude among students. It is based on

important psychological principle of learning by doing. Individual difference can be

catered and each student works at one's own pace and develops research skills

including setting up and fitting apparatus, conducting experiments, habits of neatness,

etc.

The main defects of this method are that it is uneconomical in terms of

lime and it requires suitable infrastructure to follow this method. It cannot be used in

all classes and demands too much from the students. Evaluation of learning outcome

is very difficult.

2.5.5 Laboratory method

Science laboratory work is a unique way of instruction that is an

integral part of science teaching. It helps students understand complex, abstract ideas

20. Radha Mohan (1 995). op.cit. p. 96.

and gives students an opportunity to participate in and have an appreciation of the

niethods of science. Laboratory work involves students in hands-on activities that help

them participate in scientific investigations and to verify by themselves in scientific

concepts, principles and laws.

Some of the merits of the laboratory method are that the student gets a

chance of learning by doing, and develop science process skills as well as habits of

neatness and discipline, They will always feel a sense of achievement in their

involvement.

The main defects of this method are that it is costly and the

management in the laboratory poses some problems to the new science teacher such

as seating, grouping, discipline, safety regulations and monitoring student activities.

2.5.6 Assi~nmentmethod

For the teaching of science, assignment method is better suited because

it combines the best of individual laboratory work and the lecture-demonstration

method. This method, with proper planning enables both theory and practical to go

hand-in-hand. An assignment consists of two parts the Preparation part and the

Laboratory part. In the preparation part, the student goes through the prescribed

textbook and answers a few model questions of practice and content. The laboratory

part consists of the student doing practical in the laboratory or elsewhere as directed.
 The merits of the assignment method are that students can work at their

own pace and learn by doing. They develop attitudes of self reliance, independence

and self study as well as training in scientific method can also be developed. The

laboratory facilities can be used maximally as a large number of the same kind of

apparatus is not required by the class and dificult experiments can be demonstrated

and individual attention can also be paid by the teacher.

The defects of this method are that textbooks written along these lines

are not much available in India. Several assignments should be planned for the whole

class, which may not be welcomed by the teacher. A good library is as necessary as a

well-equipped laboratory. Weak students may not be able to cope always with this

method. It is a time consuming process and all topics can not be taught using tlus kind

of teaching.

2.5.7 Discussion method

This method can be adopted in two ways depending upon the time and

resources available in a particular institution.

a) The teacher gives a brief introduction of the topic for discussion. This is followed

by supervised study by the pupils in groups or individually or by referring in the

library. After the scheduled time, the discussion is initiated by some questions

posed by the teacher and the main points are presented through the chalkboard.
b) The class is divided into as many convenient groups as possible and each group is

assigned one part of the topic, which has to be prepared thoroughly. After two or

three days of discussion, the leaders initiate the discussion result and a summary

on the discussion is developed and presented by the group.

The merit of the discussion method is that it results in healthy

competition among group, which provides better and more learning on the part of

pupils. They think deep about the subject and gather as much information as possible.

Better communication skills of pupils can also be developed by this method. The

defects of this method are that it is time consuming and evaluation of learning

outcomes of pupils is difficult.

2.5.8 Project method

This method consists chiefly of building a comprehensive unit around

an activity which may be carried on in the school or outside. The project method

offers an approach to education which is consistent with psychological principles of

'Learning by Doing' and 'Learning by Living', and is an ideal way of promoting

creativity and the spirit of enquiry in students. This method involves the steps of

scientific method as providing a problem, purposing, planning, executing, evaluating

and recording.
 The merits of the project method are that this method is based on

l~sychologicalprinciples such as law of readiness, law of exercise and law of effect. It

also promotes habits of critical thinking, social interaction, co-operation, keenness

and accuracy of observation among pupils and imparts development of skills of

reference, interpretation and correlation. It develops dignity of labour and widens the

mental horizon of the student.

The defects of this method are that it is uneconomical in terms of time,

as the syllabus cannot be completed on time. It involves more work on the part of the

teacher and the teacher should have an all round knowledge of every subject. It is

expensive in the sense a well equipped library and laboratory are required. Textbooks

and materials written on these lines are not easily available.

2.6 Modernization of Science teaching

2.6.1 Need to modernize science teaching

If science is taught using the conventional methods, it will not become

effective, and as a result this subject becomes dull, uninteresting and difficult. This

will lead to less number of pupils opting it. A country's progress is based on scientific

and technological advancement and if this trend of deterioration in science teaching

continues, India will be left far behind in development. The interest in science among
pupils should be created from early school days, which is possible only through

adopting effective and interesting methods in science teaching.

2.6.2 Participatory learning: Concept and Need.

Participatory learning is the strategy in science teaching in which there

is maximum pupil involvement through individual activities. Here pupils actively

participate in self directed or assigned activities and experiments and so they learn by

doing. They develop skill in arranging the apparatus, doing the activity, observing,

recording, arriving at conclusions, etc. Participatory learning also includes

improvisation of apparatus, models, etc., which facilitates effective learning. Certain

projects are also undertaken by pupils where there is maximum participation by them.

Visiting places of scientific importance, collecting specimens and reporting it also

requires full involvement of pupils. Pupils devise apparatus, find out new experiments

by themselves for verifying the theory learned in the class room. Since pupils are

directly and fully involved in all activities, they acquire mastery over the topics

besides developing self-reliance, confidence, etc., which will lead to further interest in

science. The methods like project method, heuristic method, discussion method,

laboratory method and assignment method previously discussed can more or less be

considered as participatory learning methods.

The role of the teacher is different in this approach. They provide

opportunities for the pupils to take part in activities, experiments, improvise

apparatus, etc, in its maximum way possible. The teacher should not occupy a

dominant position in the classroom but should facilitate learning by acting as a guide,

a counsellor and facilitator. If this approach is followed in all topics in science, it can

revolutionize the entire science teaching strategy, which will help in the emergence of

a new science era. Due encouragement should be given to teachers to take up this

method, by the school authorities and the Government alike. The timetable also

should be made flexible for the maximum fulfillment of this method.

2.7 Curriculum Innovations

Most of the science curriculum innovations are mainly based on the

principle of pupil participatory learning to maximise the pupil learning and attainment

of objectives. Curriculum planning is a new subject in some ways and Plato was

interested in what should and should not be taught, and to whom various subjects

should be taught. Curriculum is likely to be controversial at the time of rapid social

change. When teachers are doing what everyone expects from them, at no extra cost,

and in the ways the teachers have traditionally carried out their duties, there is likely

to be little discussion of the content of education or the curriculum. So curriculum

studies can be strongly associated either with social and educational change, or with

movements towards accountability. The different social events behind curriculum

change will tend to give rise to different curriculum models, the better known is the

Objectives model.
2.7.1 Curriculum Objectives ~ o d e l * ' ,

This approach has stood the first of time in the USA, despite frequent

and powerfbl attacks on the model. The four fundamental questions that must be

answered in connection with any curriculum are:

1. What education purposes should the school seek to attain?

2. What educational experiences can be provided that is likely to attain

these purposes?

3. How can these educational experiences be effectively organized?

4. How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained?

This gives rise to a very simple fow stage model:

1. Aim and objectives.

2. Content.

3. Organization and

4. Evaluation.

A famous elaboration of the model is that of Bloom and others who

produced the 'Taxonomy of Educational Objectives'. This is a categorisation of

objectives, which has lent much support to the use of the model, especially in the

USA.

21. Lawton Dennis.(1981). Models of Planning. In Peter Gordon.(Ed.) The Study of

t h e Curriculum. London: Batsford Academic and Educational Ltd. pp. 105-107.
 Curriculum innovation programmes were developed in the USA, UK

and other countries to improve the quality of teaching, especially science teaching,

2.7.2 -
Major Curriculum Innovations in Science world wide.

Since the launch of Sputnik, the teaching of science became a major

concern and that it received global attention. This period was one that of intense and

vigorous development of the science cwriculum, marked by the publication of many

major projects. The major curriculum innovations launched as a revolt against the

traditional product-led approach are the Physical Science Study Committee Physics

(PSSC Physics), Chemical Education Material Study (CHEM Study), Chemical Bond

Approach (CBA), Biological Science Curriculum Study (BSCS), Harvard Project

Physics (HPP), Science - A Process Approach (SAPA), The Elementary Science

Study (ESS), The Science Curriculum Improvement Study (SCIS), The Elementary

School Science Project (ESSP), School Science Curriculum Project (SSCP), The

s Science Teaclung Project (MINNEMAST), Conceptually

Minnesota ~ a t h e m k i c and

Oriented Programme in Elementary Science (COPES), Science in Process, Warwick

Process Science, various Nuffield courses for Sciences and Mathematics in the UK

and ASEP in Australia are some of them.

*

A recurring and significant feature of most of these curriculum

proposals was a major shift in emphasis away from the teaching of science as a body
of established knowledge, toward science as a human activity with increasing

emphasis on the processes and procedure of science. The curriculum projects are

framed in such a way that children should enjoy science through direct engagement in

scientific activities and gain an awareness of what scientists do and should be

encouraged to pursue the study of science at an advanced level. Some of the major

curricular studies are reviewed below to illustrate this point.

2.7.3 Curriculum developments: An Overview.

2.7.3.1 The need and intention of curriculum developments.

Curriculum developments took place in Physics and Chemistry with an

intention to modernise the approach of teaching the subjects and to create among

students increased interest towards the subjects by stressing more on practical work,

not only to verify theory but also to develop skill in drawing inferences. The

curriculum developments took place in Physics and Chemistry separately and also in

Physical Sciences, as a result the subject developed elaborately and more students

were attracted to such courses. The following are the discussions on few curriculum

developments in relation to Physics and Chemistry education.

The most visible revolution in Physics curricula began in the late

1950's at the secondary school level pioneered by the PSSC physics. These initiatives

received extensive financial support from Government and Private agencies both in

USA and UK.

2.7.4 Curriculum overview in Physics Education:

2.7.4.1 Physical Science Study Committee Project (PSSC Proiect).

The PSSC considered as the pioneer in the modern curriculum

developments; was meant to improve physics teaching at school level. This course

was started at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, USA in 1956. The project

had the following objectives22:

1. To present physics as a unified, but ever changing subject.

2. To demonstrate the inter play between experiment and theory in the

development of physics.

3. To learn to observe nature closely and to interrogate it, thus learning not

only the laws and principles of physics but also the evidence on which

they are based.

4. To extend the capacity of students to read critically.

5. To provide foundation for those students who will go for further study in

science and technology.

The hub of the PSSC project is the laboratory where the students are

encouraged to open ended experiments, which help them to develop skill in drawing

inferences.

22. PSSC Physics (2naEdn.) (1965). Boston D.C: Heath and Company.(preface).
 The materials developed by the PSSC project are: a text book, a

teacher's guide, laboratory experiments, films, achievement tests, supplementary

textual materials and simplified low cost experiment kits.

2.7.4.2 TheProject Physics Course.

Another project was The Project formerly Harvard Project

Physics initiated in the United States in 1964. Project Physics was intended to

increase the appeal of physics to a broader range of high school students by

emphasizing the humanistic roots and consequences of physics. It hoped to present

physics as an intellectual pursuit rather than as an applied technology, to reduce

dependence on complex mathematical skills, personalizing instruction, managing the

classroom and evaluating students' progress. The other aims of the project are to help

students increase their knowledge of the physical world, to increase the opportunity

for each student to have immediately rewarding experiences in science and to make it

possible for teachers to adapt the course to the wide range of interests and abilities of

their students.

23. The Project Physics Course text (1970). New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston,
INC.(preface).
 The materials developed by the course are a text book, hand books,

programmed instruction booklets, film loops, documentary films, transparencies,

laboratory apparatus and teachers guide.

2.7.4.3Nuffield Foundation Science Curriculum Projects.

In Britain, the Nuffield Foundation initiated a number of science

was intended for the

c,urriculurn projects in 1962. The Nuffield Physics ~roject,'~

upper 25 percentage of students based on academic ability and programme. It was to

make science intellectually exciting for students and to bring them through their own

illvestigation and arguments, and to develop an understanding of what science is, and

as far as possible of what it is like to be a practicing scientist. An advanced form of

this project was Advanced Physics Project, a two year course for students starting in

the 6Ih form; which emphasized use of numerical method and selective development

of mathematical skills.

The essence of changed 0-level physics programme was a change from

teaching hampered by insistence on rote learning towards more learning for

understanding which, it was felt, would provide greater chances of pupils' learning of

science being transferred towards long lasting benefits.

24. NufieId Foundation, Science Teaching Project (1 967) Physics: Teachers'Guide

Vol. I. London: Longman, Harlow and Penguin, p.2.
The approach of the Nuffield Physics Project is that something learnt by students in

one place proves usehl somewhere else. The most important change in the Nuffield

Secondary Science Project was the production of the pupils' text in four volumes, to

help young scientists in experimentation and discussion of ideas.

2.7.4.4 Other projects in Physics education.

Many other courses in physics were initiated during the science

curriculum development during 1960's. One among this was Engineering Concept

Curriculum designed with an applied physics orientation intended to

contribute to the technological literacy of high school students of average to above

average ability. The course presented some of the ideas covered in conventional

physics courses but went beyond them to examine systems and to present concepts

and processes such as stability, change feed back, optimization, simulation, modeling

and programming. Another course in physics was the Berkeley Physics Course

which
(1 9 7 3 1 ~ ~ included the production of a series of electronic analogue laboratory

activities.

Some excellent activity centered science programmes were developed

that included the exploration of many physical phenomena. These materials include

25. Engineering Concepts Curriculum Project (1971). The Man Made World. New
York: McGraw-Hill.p.70.
26 The Berkley Physics Course (2ndEdn.) (1 973). New York: McGraw-Hill.p.72.
the Elementary Science Study (ESS) ( 1 9 7 3 ) in
~ ~the United States and The Science

5-13 Project (1974)'"n the United Kingdom, that developed outstanding course

materials for physics curricula at all levels.

2.7.5 Curriculum overview in chemistry Education.

In 1872 chemistry was accepted for the first time in the United States

as a subject for college entrance. In the beginning of the 2othcentury, the development

of modem high schools eased the domination of higher education and brought about a

change in the presentation of science to students. According to Woodburn and Obourn

the first world war helped in shifting the emphasis from basic scientific
(1965)~~

principles to an emphasis on practical, applied and industrial chemistry.

Two parallel programmes were developed in chemical education, they

are The Chemical Education Material Study (CHEM study) and The Chemical Bond

Approach (CBA).

27. Education Development Centre (1973). Elementary Science Study (ESS). New
York: McGraw-Hill.p.73.
28. The Science 5-1 3 Project (1 974). London: McDonald Educational Company.p.69.
29. J.H. Woodbum and E.S.Obourn. (1 965). Teaching the Pursuit of Science. New
York:McMillan. pp. 190-198.
2.7.5.1 The CHEM study3*.

The CHEM study or the Chemical Education Material Study was

developed to diminish the separation between scientists and teachers in the

understanding of science, to encourage teachers to undertake further study of

chemistry courses, to stimulate and prepare high school students whose purpose is to

continue the study of chemistry.

The central theme of CHEM study programme are:

a) Energy and its role in chemical reactions.

b) Conservation of mass and energy.

c) Kinetics and mechanics.

d) Dynamic equilibrium

e) Competitive factors acting in chemical system.

f) Electron structure and geometrical arrangements.

The materials produced by the study include a textbook, a laboratory

~nanual, a teachers guide, two series of tests, two programmed sequences in

mathematical skills, 26 motion pictures for classroom use, 17 motion pictures for

teacher training, several short loop films and teachers guides for all filmed materials.

30. Richard J. Merrill and David W, Ridgway (1969). The CHEM study story. San
Francisco: W. H. Freedman and Co. pp. 1-2.
2.7.5.2 Chemical Bond Approach (CBA)~ '

The course of Chemical Bond Approach stresses logical schemes

permitting pupils to investigate and interpret a variety of chemical systems and

laboratory work. The main aims of CBA are that to make an improved introductory

course in chemistry and to help high school chemistry teachers update and improve

the backgrounds in chemistry.

A set of achievement tests, a number of programmed instruction

materials including programmes in electrostatics, charge cloud models and

thermochemistry are the materials developed by this course. The CBA text has five

parts viz, The nature of chemical change, Electric nature of chemical systems,

Models as aids to interpretation of systems, Bonds in chemical system and Order,

disorder and change.

2.7.5.3 Nuffield Foundation Project

Two main projects for chemistry education32were established in the

early 1960s and funded by the Nufield foundation, one at '0' level and the other at

3 1. Radha Mohan (1995).op.cit.pa48.

32. Nuffield Foundation Science Teaching Project (1 960). Chemistry: Teachers'

Guide Vol. I. London: Harlow and Penguin.p.2.
'A' level. The '0' level course was aimed at students most of whom could not

continue to study science thereafter. Chemistry was presented as an integrated subject,

theory and practical work were integrated and boundaries between pure and applied

chemistry was broken. Laboratory work in high school has been influenced by two

opposing philosophies; a) The use of experiments as a means for verification of

previously studied facts and b) The laboratory as the focus of the learning process.

The Nuffield programme provides reading material in the form of

books, films dealing with processes, illustrating experiments and showing the

sequence of a technique, tests made up of objective based questions and a teacher's

guide.

One of the unique features of the course is that, meetings are organised

each year following the examinations in which teachers discussed about the

examinations with the examiners and among themselves and exchange ideas about

the teaching of the course.

2.7.6 Curriculum Development Programmes in other countries.

2.7.6.1 Australian Science Education Project (ASEP) 331

This project is the most important national curriculum development

projects undertaken in Australia. ASEP is significant in that it was one of the major

33. ASEP (Australian Science Education Project) (1974). A guide to ASEP.

Melbourne: Victorian Government Printer.
science curriculum reforms to make laboratory work the centre paint of the teaching

of science. The laboratory was intended to develop skills and attitudes and to provide

experience in the process of designing investigations and acquiring and interpreting

data. The activity-based approach to teaching is one of the most widely used

variations of laboratory based teaching. Four of the major characteristics of ASEP are;

it is child centered, it is activity centered, it is self paced and it is designed to c.ater for

a range of student ability and interest.

2.7.6.2Introductory Physical Science of the United States.

The objectives of Introductory Physical Science - IPS ( 1 9 6 3 ) ~ ~

developed in Massachusetts was to develop a one-year course in physical science for

use in junior high schools. Student laboratory work is of primary importance.

Equipment have been designed in such a way that students can perform experiments

in ordinary classrooms. The method of instruction were discussion groups., laboratory

investigations, lectures, pre and post laboratory discussions and homework

assignments,

2.7 -6.3 The New Jersey Science ~ u r r i c u l u r n ~ ~

In May 1996, the New Jersey State Board of Education adopted Core

34. David J. Lockard. (1970). 7'" Report of the International Clearing, House on
Science and Mathematics Curricular Developments. AAAS. p. 7 1.
35 . New Jersey department of Education, www .state.nj.us/njded/frameworks/science/
Curriculum Content Standards. Later, the Board developed a framework to assist

scientists, educators and industry leaders throughout the state. Twelve process

standards were developed in this framework. In all the twelve areas students will

identify systems of interacting components, develop problem solving, decision

making and inquiry skills, plan experiments, conduct systematic observations and

interpret and analyze data.

The curriculum materials developed by this framework are sets of we11

illustrated, full colour text books with teacher's guide, resource book, video tapes,

video discs, computer software and a series of inquiry centered science modules.

2.7.6.4The Ontario Curriculum - 1 9 9 8 ~ ~ .

Students graduating from Ontario Schools require the scientific and

technological knowledge and skills that will enable them to be productive members of

the society. They also need to develop attitudes that will motivate them to use their

knowledge and skills in a responsible manner. They must also develop broad based

skills, they must leam to identify and analyze problems and to explore solutions in a

wide variety of contexts. Scientific investigation involves exploration,

experimentation, observation and measurement and analysis and dissemination of

data. These activities require specific skills and habits of mind, for example, accuracy,

discipline and integrity in the application of scientific principles. The Ontario

curriculum is designed to develop these skills and habits of mind.

36. The Ontario Curriculum www.edu.gov.on.ca

 The Ontario curriculum has two main elements; expectations and

achevement levels. The expectations identified for each grade describe the

knowledge and skills that students are expected to develop and to demonstrate in their

class work and investigations. The achievement levels focus on three goals of science

education; understanding the basic concepts of science and technology, developing

the skills and strategies required for scientific inquiry and technologicai design,

including the techniques involved in the safe use of appropriate tools and equipment,

and developing the ability to relate scimce and technology to each other and to the

world outside.

Concepts covered in the curriculum are, life systems, matter and

materials, energy and control, structures and mechanisms and earth and space

systems.

2.7.6.5 The Ontario Curriculum-199937.

The 0ntario curriculum, grades IX and X: Science, 1999 has been

implemented in Ontario Secondary schools starting in September 1999 for students in

grade IX and in September 2000 for students in grade X. The overall aim of the

secondary science programme is to ensure scientific literacy for every secondary

school graduate. This aim is to be achieved by meeting three overall goals for every

student:

37. The Ontario Curriculum www.edu.gov.on.ca

 - to understand the basic concepts of science

- to develop the skills, strategies and habits of mind required for scientific

inquiry and

- to relate science to technology, society and the environment.

The expectations in science courses call for an active, experimental approach to

learning, with all students participating regularly in laboratory activities. Laboratory

activities can reinforce the learning of scientific concepts and promote the

development of the skills of scientific investigation and communication. Where

opportunity allows, students might be required, as part of their laboratory activities to

design and research a real scientific problem for which the results are unknown.

2.7.6.6 The Mississippi Science ~urriculum-2001

38,

The physics 1 and II course provides opportunities for students to

develop and communicate an understanding of matter and energy through laboratory

based activities, mathematical expression and concept exploration. Concepts covered

in the school include kinematics, dynamics and energy, mechanical and

electromagnetic waves and electricity. Laboratory work will allow students to observe

and analyze physical situations as they relate to physical laws and concepts. The

emphasis of this curriculum is on developing the ability to ask questions, to observe,

to experiment, to measure, to use computers and calculators, to solve problems, to use

tools of science, to gather data and to communicate findings.

3 8. The Mississippi Science Curriculum www.mde.kl2.ms.us/acad/id/science.

 The chemistry I and 11 course provides opportunities for students to

develop and communicate an understanding of structure, physical and chemical

properties and chemical changes. Laboratory experience allow students to manipulate

compounds, observe changes, collect and analyze data and to draw conclusions.

2 -7.6.7British Columbia Science ~ u r r i c u l u r n ~ ~ .

Science education is given due importance in these regions because a

scientifically and technologically literate population is more important than ever.

Science education will be a key element in developing scientific literacy among

today's m d tomorrow's youth. They will need to understand the key concepts and

principles of science and be able to use this knowledge and ways of thinking in

everyday life. Science education will help and enable tomorrow's population to have

a better understanding of the world around them and to make sensible decisions.

Science curriculum developed in British Columbia takes a more 'depth' rather than

'breadth' approach. The Third International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS)

1995 and 1999 was designed to investigate the Mathematics and Science literacy of

students in grade VIII and senior science and Hands-on problem solving abilities.

This was implemented in Canadian science classrooms where science Hands-on

problem solving tests were conducted to test student's knowledge in reasoning and

problem solving situation. Students are given opportunities to design and conduct

experiments to develop the abilities to plan, conduct and evaluate scientific

39. The British Columbia Science Curriculum

www .qca.org.uWca~5-14/revised2000/subjects.asp
investigations and to communicate about science through activities that allow them to

present, explain and apply knowledge using a variety of media and methods.

2.7.6.8 Science Curriculum Reform in Southern ~ f r i c a ~ '

The general direction of the curriculum in countries in Southern Africa

like Zimbabwe, Botswana, Lesotho is toward more student-centred education and the

development of useful skills. It is recommended that less emphasis be put on leaming

ever increasing amounts of information and conceptual knowledge and more

emphasis on the development of inquiry skills and the gathering and processing of

information. Practical work in the laboratory can be made more effective, by making

more distinctions between learning objectives. Attempts to provide more cost-

effective and simple alternatives to the traditional fully equipped laboratory have been

made in the Southern African region through the development of science kits.

2.7.6.9 The K- 12 Science Curriculum frame work4'.

The K-12 Science cuwiculurn frame work was developed to positively

impart science education in New Hampshire. It is a thoughtful response to the variety

of reform efforts currently occurring nation wide. The broad goals for science

education through the K-f 2 Science Curriculum are that the students:

40. Technology 2005.(1999),National Task Team. The HESDCOM Technology 2005

Project: Final Report to HEDCOM.
4 1 . The K- 12 Science Curriculum mv.ed.state.nh.us/curriculum frarneworks/k-
124.htrn
 - will use problem solving strategies to investigate and understand the

natural world.

- will know and employ safe practices and techniques in the laboratory, in

filed work or any other scientific investigation.

- will display a sense of curiosity and wonder about the natural world, and

demonstrate an increasing awareness of the interdependence between all

living things and the environment.

2.8 Science Education Worldwide

2-8.1 Indonesia ''

General Science is taught to all students from 4-16 years of age. After

the age of 17, the students can choose to specialize in any specific discipline of their

choice. Science is taught as an integrated topic with other subjects in pre-school, with

a view to ensuring wholesome intellectual development, integrated science or general

science is taught in primary school, combined science which consists of biology and

physics is taught in lower secondary school, while the separate subjects of chemistry,

biology and physics are taught in the upper secondary phase when the students reach

17 years of age.

42. UNESCO statistical yearbook, (1999) Paris: UNESCO. pp. 26-30.

 Many secondary schools have some serviceable laboratories with a

moderate to good range of usable equipment. Very few make more than occasional

use of these expensive facilities. This is because teachers lack training in the use of

equipment. Furthermore, the highly theoretical science curricula, time constraints and

an examination system that does not reward a laboratory approach to science have all

conspired to stunt growth in this respect.

This is in line with implementation of law on Regional Autonomy,

where by education becomes the responsibility of each district. A competency-based

curriculum under the 2000 school Science Curriculum reform was developed in

Indonesia, based on the realization that the country is multicultural with numerous

ethnic groups. The districts will thus have more flexibility in adapting the science

curriculum to optimize learning skills among students.

The National Education Act of 1999 emphasises science and

technology education and the Institute for the Promotion of Teaching Science and

Technology (IPST) plays a major role in the teaching of science, mathematics and

computer education in Thailand.

43. UNESCO statistical yearbook, Tbid. pp. 69-72.

 IPST has set the following goals to improve and promote science

education from 2000, and they are:

1. Use information technology in the science class to investigate, collect

data and to seek information.

2. Develop teaching / learning instruction packages.

3. Encourage and develop local curricula.

4. Promote the improvement of science teachers with self-learning

packages, seminars and symposia that encourage the exchange of ideas

and experience.

5. Encourage science teachers to teach science as a process of inquiry and

problem solving.

As far as teaching Aearning approaches and strategies are concerned,

IPST has incorporated the inquiry approach in teaching I learning science. However,

there are limitations such as class sizes, lack of science equipment and shortage of

qualified teachers that affect the outcome. IPST also emphasizes the following aspects

for quality science teaching:

1. Inquiry-based teaching / learning process.

2. Higher-order thinking processes.

3. Scientific process.

4. Communication.

5. Proj ect-based skills.

6. Using Information Technology (IT) for teaching / learning.

 7. Learning how to learn.

2.8.3 Sri iLanka4"

Practical work in the science is not made compulsory at any grade, but

pupils do some practical work and investigations. The teacher guides the pupils

during practical work and indicates the tasks that can be done. However, the amount

of time allotted to science practical work varies among schools. The problems

associated with teachlng science in Sri Lanka are difficulties in conducting practical

classes, shortages in the production and printing of textbooks and supplementary

reading materials, delays in implementation of school based assessment programmes

and absence of regular teacher training and upgrading programmes. Most of the

instruments and equipment in schools are not in good working order since there is no

compulsion to conduct practical classes. This reflects a general lack of interest on the

part of both teachers and pupils to spend time on practical work and the necessary

follow up activities; but some teachers take the initiative in producing their own

materials to facilitate learning, such as posters, hand-outs with explanatory notes and

exercises.

Project work in schools is of two types; individual projects and group

projects. Individual projects involve investigation and application of theory in a

subject of the pupil's choice. The work will involve reading, information gathering,

44. UNESCO statistical yearbook, Ibid. pp. 62-68.

theoretical formulation, analysis and presentation of results and production of the

report. Group projects involve a practical problem, which they study in depth to

identify means to solve it. They involve making systematic observations, analysing

data, searching for feasible and optimum solutions, verifying their effectiveness and

presentation of their results through demonstrations and reports.

2.8.4 Republic of iYorea4<

The Republic of Korea has a centralised education system that

determines educational policies and curriculum and sets the standards for textbooks.

The elementary school familiarises students with basic concepts of science and

experience, middle school exposes students to scientific ways of thinking and high

school develops an understanding of the system of scientific knowledge.

The main problems of science education are that science classes lack

excellent teachers, materials and models and most of the teachers at the middle and

high school levels use similar materials and methods relying on lectures and

blackboards rather than laboratory activities, fieid trips and discussions. The other

problems are discipline centred curriculum that does not adequately prepare students

for daily life and their future, knowledge centred instruction, lack of specialists in

teacher training and over crowded classrooms.

45. UNESCO statistical yearbook, Ibid, pp. 57-61.

 Some reforms of Science education in Republic of Korea are;

introduction of open education designed to respect the student's personality and

individuality, introduction of accreditation for information technology, introduction of

Science and Technology in Society (STS) in science education and application of

educational technology in science education.

Other innovative reforms of science education are introduction of

Science Park, National Science museum and Provincial Science Centre, mass media

and science magazine and science exhibitions and science fairs.

Science is one of the subject areas in the elementary and secondary

education curricula. The Engineering and Science Education Project (ESEP) was a

project of the Department of Science and Technology (DOST) funded by World Bank

through which science and technology classes were organized in 110 secondary

schools.

The problems in teaching science and technology are due to

overcrowded curriculum, unavailability and inadequacy of learning materials such as

books and science equipment and shortage of science teachers.

46.UNESCO statistical yearbook, Ibid. pp. 5 1-56.

 The following are some of the reforms in science education adopted in

Philippines with the help of financial aids from other counties:

1 . The Science and Mathematics Education Manpower Development

Programme (SMEMDP) of the Japan Bank advocated the Practical Work

Approach (PWA) in teaching science and development of appropriate

instructional materials.

2. The Project in Basic Education (PROBE) funded by the Australian

Agency fox International Development (Aus AID) supported the

improvement of instruction in science. The project promoted the creation

of teacher support unit and development of curriculum and teacher

support materials.

3. The National Science Teaching and Instrumentation Centre, a project

with a German Government, produces prototype science equipment that

is mass produced and provided to public schools.

Science is a core subject in the school curriculum and comprises

science for primary, science for secondary, physics, biology, chemistry and additional

science. At the Primary and lower secondary levels, science is compulsory to all while

at the upper secondary level, students either take core science or choose science

electives.

47. UNESCO statistical yearbook, Ibid. pp. 39-45.

 Central in the teaching learning approach in the science curriculum at

all levels is the mastery of scientific skills, which comprise process skills,

manipulative skills and thinking skills. Process skills are mental processes that

encourage critical, creative, analytical and systematic thinking and include observing,

making inferences, classifying, measuring and using numbers, predicting,

communicating, using time and space relationships, interpreting, defining

operationally, controlling variables, making hypotheses and experimenting.

Manipulative skills are psychomotor skills used in scientific investigations such as

proper handling of scientific equipment, substances, living and non living thins.

Thinking skills comprise critical thinking and creative thinking which when combined

with reasoning lead to higher order thinlung skills such as conceptualizing, decision

making and problem solving.

In studies conducted on science education, it is observed that practical

work is oftenconducted in groups rather than individually or in pairs. Such practices

limit active work to two to three students while the other members tend to be passive

observers. In some cases, this occurs due to the large classes and limited apparatus

and equipment to allow small group or individual work.

The inquiry-discovery approach, necessary in science teaching and

learning, has been actively advocated but science is being taught in a didactic manner.

A small number of teachers do not do experiments with their students and a handful

of them concentrate more on demonstration. Many teachers instruct students to carry

out experiments following procedures stated in text books and make conclusion for

them without having much discussion with them or giving them more room to

discover or inquire as is required in the inquiry-discovery approach. This has

seriously affected the student's interest in and their ability to engage in scientific

inquiry.

As recommended by the Curriculum Council, the science and

technology syllabus is a selection of quintessential topics such as scientific

phenomena commonly encountered by students in day today life. The aim is to

trainstudents in the practical aspects of science learning through laboratory and other

experiments develop their powers of observation and ability to interpret and apply

their knowledge.

The reforms made in science education in Japan are that, reforming the

Standard National Curriculum to help a child develop hidher individuality and to help

a child develop humanitarian values and develop the ability to learn and think

independently. Other reforms are introduction of integrated study which came into

effect from 2002 where science teachers need to make use of facilities outside the

school such as museums and human resources in order to enrich science curriculum.

48. UNESCO statistical yearbook, Ibid. pp. 3 1-38.

 The science and technology in the curriculum is an accompaniment to

instruction in the basic skills of reading, writing and arithmetic. Science teaching at

senior secondary school revolves round the practical work done by the pupils

themselves. Special purpose facilities, modem scientific equipment and laboratory

staff is available. Although this is the system of science teaching prevailing in France,

practical work was considered as a negligible part of teaching and leaning process.

A reform in science teaching called 'hands-on science' was introduced

where the pupils observe an object or a phenomenon and experiment on it.

Throughout the investigation, the pupils reason, argue and discuss ideas and results.

Hungary50

A general feature of Hungarian Science curricula are that no integrated

science subjects exists from Grade VI onwards. Practical and experimental work have

been in the weak side of Hungarian science education especially in Physics and

Chemistry, but Biology is an exception, which follows the empirical approach to

49. UNESCO statistical yearbook, Ibid, pp. 74-81.

50.UNESCO statistical yearbook, Ibid. pp. 83-89.
teaching. The content of physics and chemistry became theoretical due to lack of time

and overload of content. Even the basic objectives could not be attained for lack of

equipment and shortage of time for student experiments.

2.8.10 The etherl lands^'

In primary education, integrated science is part of the subject 'World

Studies'. In basic secondary education, the curriculum contains subjects like physics,

chemistry, biology, information science and technology. In all senior secondary

streams, subjects like physics, chemistry and biology are taught as optional courses.

h the basic secondary science curricula, practical work is strongly

recommended. Studying science in daily life contacts, making use of the computer,

developing general skills such as communication and decision making and relating

science to a variety of vocations are also recommended. Field studies are not

recommended as such in senior physics and chemistry curricula. In both the science

curricula, emphasis is given to skills, applications, practical work, role of the

computer, health education, environmental aspects, science in jobs and the

connections with other subjects.

51. UNESCO statistical yearbook, Ibid, pp. 93-98.

2.8.1 1 New Zealand 52

In New Zealand, science and technology teaching are both mandatory

curriculum areas from class 1 to 10. The major aim of science teaching according to

the new science curriculum published in 1993, is to develop knowledge and coherent

understanding of living, physical, material and technological components of their

environment, skills for investigating the above in scientific ways, opportunities to

develop attitudes on which scientific investigation depends.

The problems encountered in teaching science in New Zealand are

lack of teacher confidence, knowledge of the subject content and knowledge of the

subject pedagogy, lack of specialist, facilities in primary schools, newness of

technology and difficulties of attracting and retaining teachers especially in the field

of physical sciences.

2.9 Science Teaching:in India

Science teaching in was influenced by science education in

Western countries. The place of science in the school curriculum was very poor, but

later due to the recommendations of the Calcutta University Commission, Secondary

52. UNESCO statistical yearbook, Ibid. pp. 46-50.

53. Narendra Vaidya. (1976). The Impact Science Teaching. op.cit. pp.26-28.
Commission and the All India Seminar on the teaching of science in secondary

schools, there was a little improvement in the expansion of science teaching.

Consequently an improved system of science teaching, suited to the needs and

requirements of an Indian child was drawn up and introduced in schools.

The science education set up is not exactly the same in all States of the

country. Science teaching has been and is still oral in character with demonstrations

occasionally shown. The teachers in the laboratory rigidly follow a prescribed list of

experiments, which is mostly in the nature of verification or working according to set

rules.

2.9.1 National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT)

The NCERT, an autonomous organisation with its headquarters in New

Delhi was originally the National Institute of Education (NIE) which was concerned

with research, instruction and evaluation. The Council also runs four Regional

Colleges of Education at Ajmer, Bhopal, Bhubaneswar and Mysore.

The following are some of the areas of work of the N C E R T ~ ~ :

a. Preparation of curriculum materials including textbooks, teachers guide,

54. N&ndra Vaidya. (1976). a i d , pp.26-28.

 laboratory manuals, preparation of syllabi and supplementary reading

materials.

b. Conducting in-service education for teachers.

c, Publication of the school science journal for disseminating information

regarding scientific advances, methods of teaching and book reviews.

d. Establishment of science clubs and providing technical and financial help

in the organisation of science fairs,

e. Conducting central workshops for improving and constructing scientific

apparatus.

f. Organising laboratory for the department to tackle problems in science

education experimentally and constantly to improve science teaching,

g. Organisation of workshops and seminars.

h. Prepare instructional materials, teaching aids and reference materials.

i, Conduct research in science education.

The Summer Institute Programme was organised by the NCERT in

collaboration with the University Grants Commission and the USAID to familiarise

teachers of Science and Mathematics with the recent development in science and

mathematics. This programme had successfilly carried out every year as the teachers

of schools and colleges are highly benefited by the programme.

2.9.2 Department of Science Education

The Department of Science ' ducat ion:^ established in 1961 is

engaged in developmental activities like curriculum development projects and the

preparation of instructional materials. The main projects undertaken by the DSE are:

1) The General Science Project to improve the curriculum at Primary stage. 2) The

Secondary Science Teaching Project undertaken in collaboration with UNESCO for

curriculum revision at secondary stage and 3) Project for improvement of science

education throughout the school stage which are assisted by the UNESCO and

UNICEF.

Another important activity of the Department of Science education was

the initiation of Science Talent Search Scheme, started in 1963 with the following

objectives:

a, to identify boys and girls at the close of secondary stage who possess
marked aptitude for science.

b, to stimulate scientific talent.

c. to help such students to pursue courses in basic sciences.

d. to provide special programmes in science to such scholars with a view to

nurture their talent.

e. to encourage schools to take more active interest in the search for scientific
ability and

f. to help in building up a body of scientists who will contribute to the scientific

achievement of India both in pure and applied fields.

5 5 . Narendra Vaidya. (1976). Ibid. p. 28.

 The Department also provides technical assistance to the Ministry of

Education, the Planning Commission, the State Institutes of Science Education, etc. It

also provides financial as well as academic assistance to the professional bodies of

science teachers and institutions in the conduct of their science education

programmes. The Department also has Summer schools and science community

centres.

2.9.3 Operation Black Board.

The scheme for a substantial improvement in facilities in primary

education has symbolically been named Operation Black Board. (OB). OB lays down

the minimum level of facilities to be provided in all primary schools and its three inter

dependant components are56;(a) provision of at least two reasonably large rooms that

are usable in all weather conditions, (b) provision of at least two teachers and (c)

provision of essential teaching and learning material including blackboard, maps,

charts, a small library as well as some equipment for work experience.

Owing to all these efforts, we can proudly say that the condition of

science teaching in India has improved very much and much remains to be done both

by educational authorities and teachers.

56. Veena Balasu and D.B. Rao. (1996). Operation Blackboard. New Delhi: APH
Publishing Corporation. pp. 35-37.
2.9.4 Science Education in different States af India.

Some states have established State Councils of Educational Research

and Training (SCERT) on the pattern of the NCERT. In these states, SCERT

incorporates the functions of the State Institutes of Education.

State Institute of Science Education have been set up in the states with

a view to improve the quality of science education in schools. The main functions of

these institutes are to provide in-service training to science teachers in the new

developments in the field of science education, prepare instructional materials in

science, conduct research studies in science education of their respective states,

provide guidance service in science to schools, take up innovative programmes in

science education and participate in the National Science Programme.

Conclusion

In this chapter the investigator tried to analyse the various aspects of

science teaching, the objectives of science teaching, the different approaches in

science teaching relatively elaborate. There is also a discussion on the conventional

teaching methods as well as modem pupil participatory methods of teaching/learning

with their merits and defects. Different curriculum innovation programmes in Physics

and Chemistry and in Physical Sciences are also discussed. The status of science

education in different countries and that in India is deah with elaborately. From all
this it can be concluded that science has got a very important place in the school

curriculum world over and also in every society since it shapes the destiny of any

nation. But in certain countries, due stress is not given in teaching science. Many

arguments are laid down to support this dearth such as lack of expert teachers,

facilities, etc. It should be noted that most of a country's resources are spent for the

development of science and it is the duty of each science teacher to develop the

scientific temper among students by choosing appropriate teaching methods in

science, so that the pupils are to be converted into useful and productive members of

the society.