Journal of Narrative Theory

The Return of the Repressed in Women's Narrative

Author(s): Susan Stanford Friedman
Source: The Journal of Narrative Technique, Vol. 19, No. 1 (Winter, 1989), pp. 141-156
Published by: Journal of Narrative Theory
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 The Returnof the Repressedin
Women'sNarrative
SusanStanford
Friedman

My title invokesFreud'sfamouswarningabout"thereturnof the repressed"

notto suggestthatwomen'swritingis a symptomof history'sdis-ease,butrather
to proposethathis hermeneutic for recoveryof the repressedcanbe usefulfirst
for readingwomen'snarrativesas the repressedof historyand second, for
nterpreting the repressednarrativesin women'swriting.'As the returnof the
repressed,women'snarrativeservesas the textualandpoliticalunconsciousof
the dominantphallocentricnarrativetradition.Women'snarrativehas within
itselfas wella textualandpoliticalunconsciousthatcanbe deciphered in relation
to the repressionand oppressionof womenin history.AdaptingFreudto a
feministproject,I willproposea psycho-political hermeneutic forreadingwomen's
narrativesthat decodesthem as articulationsof what has been forbiddento
women,thatreadsthemas effectsof ideologicalandpsychologicalcensorship,
andthatoverinterprets themas partof an endlesswebof intertexts.I will begin
by articulatingsome generalprinciplesfor this approachand then show how
it canbe usedto decodethereturnof therepressednarrative in textualclusters-
that is, in serial texts by the same authoror "drafts"for a "final" text.
Threeautobiographical narrativesby H.D. will serveas a textualclusterwhose
intertextualplay of meaningscan be identifiedwith this psycho-political
hermeneutic.
Literarynarrativesareneitherdreamsnorsymptoms. Butas indirectfictionaliza-
tions,theyoftensharewiththesearticulations of the unconsciousthe linguistic
mechanisms of production
thatFreudassociatedwiththegrammar of thedream-
workandthe psychodynamics of repressionanddesire,governedby the "cen-
sor,"thatmysterious personificationof the forcethatforbids.Whetherin dream
or novel,narrativeis a formof linguisticdisguise-in Freud'sterms,a manifest
formthatrevealslatentandforbiddendesireas a compromisebetweenthe con-
flictingneedsof expressionandrepression.Themechanisms of thedream-work
thataccomplishthe compromiseare like, accordingto Freud,the strategiesof
a politicalwriterwho mustdisguisedangerouscontentso as to fool the censor
whoworkson behalfof theoppressivestate.Externalandinternalcensors,Freud
writes,bothcompel"apparently innocentdisguise":

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142 The Journal of Narrative Technique

A similardifficultyconfrontsthepoliticalwriterwhohasdisagreeable truths
to tell to thosein authority.
If he presentsthemundisguised,theauthorities
will suppresshis words. . . A writermustbewareof thecensorship, andon
its accounthe mustsoftenanddistortthe expressionof his opinion.Accor-
dingto thestrengthandsensitiveness of thecensorshiphe findshimselfcom-
pelledeithermerelyto refrainfromcertainformsof attack,or to speakin
allusionsin placeof directreferences,or he mustconcealhis objectionable
pronouncement beneathsomeapparently innocentdisguise. . . . Thestricter
the censorship,the morefar-reaching will be the disguiseandthe morein-
genioustoo maybe the meansemployedforputtingthe readeron the scent
of the truemeaning.(Interpretation of Dreams,175-76)2

Freud's hermeneuticin turn fools the censor-undoes the suppressionof the

social order,the repressionof the psyche-by a process thathe names "decoding"
and variously images as an archeological dig, a journey into the labyrinth,an
unravelingof woventhreads,a translationof pictographicrunes,a detectiveanalysis
of mystery and disguise, a removal of the layers in a palimpsest-all resonant
metaphorsfor a correspondingliterarydecoding. Beginning in determinacy,his
methodends in indeterminacy.Dreamshave "authors,""intentions,"and "mean-
ings" to be decoded, he affirms. But their "overdetermination" necessitates an
unending"overinterpretation," in infinite regressof interpretationthat ultimately
leads to the thresholdof mystery."There is," Freudwrites in TheInterpretation
of Dreams, "atleast one spot in every dreamat which it is unplumbable-a navel,
as it were, that is its point of contact with the unknown"(143).3
As the dream's "navel," the unplumbableaporia of the dream-textfor Freud
is the point of contact with the maternalbody, the irretrievablesite of origins.
Freud's metaphorfor the gap or knot in the dream-textand the text of dream
interpretationprivileges woman--specifically the maternal-as origin of what
is censored, what is disguised in the grammarof the dream-work.Ultimately,
his figurative formulationsuggests, the returnof the repressed is the return of
woman, of that mother/other, to him forever unknown, untranscribable,
untranslatable.
But for women, situatedin the subjectposition as knowerand knowing within
a culture that denies them that status, what could "the returnof the repressed"
mean for their writing?If women themselves are what is forbiddenand forbid-
ding in their insistent returnin male narratives,how do we decipher their own
narratives?Readingwomen's narrativeas "the returnof the repressed," I want
to suggest, means readingpsycho-politically-seeing women's writing as an in-
sistent record-a trace, a web, a palimpsest, a rune, a disguise-of what has not
or cannot be spoken directly because of the externaland internalizedcensors of
patriarchalsocialorder.Operatingwithinthe dialecticof speechandsilence, women
(or women's texts) often consciously or unconsciously negotiate a compromise
between revelationand concealment of the forbiddenthrough textual disguise.
Often, the more public the text, the greaterthe disguise; the more privatethe text,
the greaterits revelations.Paradoxically,the price of public speech is sometimes
the silence of protectivedistortion. The price of privatespeech is the silence of

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 The Returnof the Repressedin Women'sNarrative 143

its absence from the public domain. Womenmay talk louder and more directly
in the closet; but a closet is a closet is a closet.
The psycho-politicalapproachI am proposing for unravelingthese disguises
builds not only on feminist criticism in general, but also on the work of critics
like FredericJameson,ShoshanaFelman,MichaelRiffaterre,andJonathanCuller,
all of whom posit the existence of what Culler calls a "textualunconscious"that
can be interpretedthroughan adaptationof Freud'shermeneutic("TextualSelf-
Consciousness"). For Riffaterre,this textual unconscious is linguistic, with re-
pressed words buried etymologically and syllepsistically as a "sub-text"inside
the words of the surface text. The manifestwords of a text have, in other words,
a latent "intertext"so that the critic must read "intertextually."The "intertext"
is a "verbalunconscious"thatcan be "deciphered"with the aid of Freud'sgram-
mar for the dream-work."While meaningis wholly presentin the text," he con-
cludes, "significancerestson the inseparabilityof a visible sign from its repressed
intertextualhomologue"(385). His approachto readingthe unconsciousintertext
stresses the figurativeaspect of language-the decoding of repressedmeanings
in metaphorand metonym, for "while the text is narrative,the intertextis not"
(385).
For Jameson, the textualunconsciousis narrative,not lyric. It is "the political
unconscious,"which he definesas the repressednarrativeof class struggle,a story
concealed within the narrativesof literaryhistory.In ThePolitical Unconscious,
he proposes a hermeneuticin which the interpreteroccupies the privilegedposi-
tion of the analystwho uses his theoryto decode the storiesforbiddenby the social
order:

The assertionof a politicalunconsciousproposesthatwe ... explorethe

multiplepathsthatleadto theunmasking of culturalartifacts
as sociallysym-
bolic acts .... It is in detectingthe tracesof thatinterrupted narrative[of
classstruggle],in restoringto thesurfaceof thetexttherepressed andburied
realityof thisfundamental history,thatthedoctrineof a politicalunconscious
finds its functionandits necessity.(20)

Felmanand Cullerlocate the textualunconsciousin the interactionbetweentext

and reader, in the reading process analogous to the dialogic exchange between
analystandanalysand.Readinginvitestransference-thereader/interpreter repeats,
is literally and literarilycapturedby, the complexes of the text. The readerplays
out the roles of bothanalystandanalysandcaughtin the compulsionsof transference
and counter-transference triggeredby the text.4Culler points out as well another
type of textual unconscious, one centered on the writing author. For some, he
writes,

theliteraryunconscious is anauthorial
unconscious,anunconscious involved
in theproduction andthenotionis thususefulfor raisingques-
of literature;
tionsaboutthe relationbetweenwhatgets intothe workandwhatgets left
out, andaboutthe sortsof repressionthatmayoperatein theproduction of
literature.(369)

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144 TheJournalof NarrativeTechnique

All fourconceptsof the textualunconsciousare usefulfor decodingwomen's

narrative-ifwe setasidetheMarxistimperialism of Jameson's privileging of class
struggle,thehermeneutic pessimismof Culler'sinsistence on thereader's inevitable
repetitioncompulsion,the reductionism of readinga textas biography.Readin
relationto anauthor,a woman'snarrative canbe decodedfor "whatgetsintothe
workandwhatgets left out"-focusing,in otherwords,on the mechanismsof
censorship(bothexternaland internal)in the productionof the work.Readin
relationto transference, a woman'snarrative canbe interpreted as a site (cite)of
resistanceandwhatFreudcalled"working through" the "repetitioncompulsion"
to "remembering" (Therapy and Technique, 157-66).Readin relationto history,
a woman'snarrative canbe translated as a forbiddenstorythatexistswithinand
threatensto disruptthe social order.
Suchan integrated psycho-political hermeneuticunitesconsiderations of op-
and
pression repression-theverybinary according that to Elaine Marks has di-
videdthe twomaincurrentsof Frenchfeminism:the writers,includingH6lne
Cixous,LuceIrigaray, andJuliaKristeva,whovariouslyarguethatphallogocen-
trismhas repressedthe discourseof the Other,the feminine,the different;and
the inheritorsof the existentialist-Marxist-feminism of Simonede Beauvoir,
feministslikeMoniqueWittig,whoarguethatwomenareoppressedbythesocial
construction of "femininity" by thedominantpatriarchal order.5Thisintegration
of oppressionandrepressiondoes not transcendthe binary;ratherit maintains
thedistinctionto focuson theinterplayof eachdynamicon thenarrative inscrip-
tionandits translation, an integrative movefosteredby Freud'sownexplanation
of censorship.
LikeFreud'soverinterpretation of dreams,a psycho-political overinterpretation
of women'snarrativeneedsto be fundamentally intertextual.By "intertextual,"
I wantto suggesta broaderrangeof "intertexts" thanthe linguistictropesthat
Riffaterre proposes in his concept of verbal Freudrejectswhathe
intertextuality.
calls the "symbolic"methodof dreaminterpretation whichanalyzesthe dream
as an autonomousunit with interrelatingparts. He proposes instead his
psychoanalytic method,in whichfragments of thedreambecomedeparture points
intoa labyrinth of associationsthatradiatewithoutendintothedreamer'srecent
anddistantpast, the linguisticandvisualartifactsof culture,andthe eventsof
history.Thedream'smeaning,howeverindeterminate, emergesin thedialogicex-
of a
change analysisthrough re-telling-the creation of a new narrativewhose
constitutivepartsare the intertextsof the individualandculturalpast.6In rela-
tion to an intertextual overinterpretation of women'soverdetermined narratives,
a psycho-political methodwouldnotfocuson a novelas an autonomous text,but
wouldinsteaddeciphera web of associationsthatinterconnect textualtracesof
theauthor,thereader,andhistory.Analysiswould,in otherwords,includereadings
of biographical, generic,historical,andculturalintertextsin relationship to the
narrative.7
Ratherthanproposea typography of intertextual,
psycho-political hermeneutics,
I wantto explorehow suchan approachmightworkin decipheringthe textual
andpoliticalunconscious inclustersof textsbythesameauthor.Onekindof cluster

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 The Returnof the Repressedin Women'sNarrative 145

is madeup of whatwe conventionally considerthe "final"textandits surviving

"draft"or "drafts."Anotherkindis composedof serialtextson relatedsubjects
andcharacters. NewCriticismwouldseparateeachtextintoa harmoniously con-
structedautonomous text.Mosttextualcriticismwouldprivilegethe "final"text
overthe aestheticallyinferior"drafts."And a Barthesianpost-structuralist ap-
proachwouldignoreauthorialandhistorical(con)textsto readthesetextsas part
of an infiniteseriesof signifyingchainsemptyof meaning.8A psycho-political
hermeneutic, in contrast,wouldreadtheseclustersintertextually,psychoanalytical-
ly, and politically-as sitesof disguisedrepressionandoppressionproducedby
an authorwho reflectsandre-presents a specificmomentandprocessin history.
Readintertextually, "drafts"are potentiallythe "textualunconscious"of the
"final"text. The "draft,"in otherwords,maycontainnarrativeelementsthat
are repressedand transformed as the authorrevisesthe text by the linguistic
mechanismsof the dream-work: by condensation,displacement,non-rational
modesof representability, andsecondaryrevision.9In becomingmore"artful,"
the "final"versionmayindeedsubjectthe "draft"to the processof linguistic
encodinganalogousto the productionof a dreamout of the forbiddendesires
restrictedto theunconscious.In politicalterms,therepressionof whatis forbid-
den in the changefrom"draft"to "final"textmayreflectthe role of ideology
as an internalized censorthatallowsthe revelationof a givenstoryonly if it is
concealedthroughthe mechanisms of the dream-work.'0 Existenceof the "draft"
potentiallyaidstheinterpretation of whatis hiddenin the "final"text.Theearlier
textmayeruptintothegapsof thelatertextjustas culturalandpoliticalrebellion
disruptsthesocialorder.Textualrepressioncanreflectculturalandpoliticalop-
pression.Representing "thereturnof therepressed," the "draft"
versionmaycon-
taina powerfulandforbiddencritiqueof the socialorderreflectedin the "final"
text.
Serialtextsbythesameauthorcanalsobe readas a compositetextwhoseparts
arelikethedistinctbutinterconnecting layersof a palimpsesticpsyche.Analysis
of thewholerequiresinterpreting thediscontinuitiesamongthepartsas disguise,
as cluesto the dynamicsof repressionandoppression.Freudsuggestsjust such
a methodof superposition in his discussionof decodingserialdreams."Awhole
seriesof dreams,"he writes,"continuing overa periodof weeksor months,is
oftenbaseduponcommongroundandmustaccordinglybe interpreted in con-
nectionwithoneanother"(563).In "consecutive dreams," onedream often "takes
as its centralpointsomethingthatis only on the peripheryof the otherandvice
versa" (563). Or, aboutdreamsoccurringin the samenight,he writes:

of alldreams
Thecontent thatoccurduringthesamenightformspartof the
samewhole;thefactof theirbeingdividedintoseveralsections,as wellas
thegrouping
andnumber of thosesections-allof thishasa meaningand
maybe regarded as a pieceof information
arisingfromthelatentdream-
of Dreams,369)
thoughts.(Interpretation

Readingserialtexts,like serialdreams,requiresan analysisof the gapsin each

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146 The Journal of Narrative Technique

thatcan be filled in by the other-the tracesof displacementandcondensation

thatcanbe decipheredbyjuxtaposingandsuperimposing the textsin the whole
series.Thesepointsof intertextual becomethefocusof interpretation.
intersection
Textualclusterscanalso be readin the lightof Freud'stheoryof repetition."
Serialtextsor a successionof "drafts"arerepetitionsof similarmaterialin dif-
ferentforms.As Freudwritesaboutserialdreams,

shouldnotbeoverlooked
thepossibility thatseparate
andsuccessive
dreams
of thiskind. . . maybe givingexpressionto the sameimpulsesin different
dreamsto occuris oftenthe
If so, thefirstof thesehomologous
material.
andtimid,whilethesucceeding
moredistorted onewillbe moreconfident
anddistinct."(Interpretation
of Dreams,369)

Thisformulation of repetitivedreamsanticipatesFreud'sconceptsof the repeti-

tioncompulsionandtransference. Represseddesires,Freudargues,leada person
to "repeat"patternsof behavioras theperson"transfers" thefeelingsfromearly
childhoodontothecontemporary adultscene.Theanalyticsituationtriggersthe
"transference": the analysandactsout withthe analystthe repressedpatternshe
or she once enactedwithothers,particularly parents,a repetitionthatis botha
resistanceto analysisandthe clue thatallowsthe analysisto proceed.The goal
of analysis,Freudbelieves, is to move the analysandfrom "repetition"to
"remembering" by "workingthrough"the transference.Once an adult can
"remember" the past, he or she is no longerdoomedto "repeat"it.'2
Writing, as well as reading,canbe regardedas a sceneof transference, where
the dramaof repetition,resistance,and workingthroughis enacted.Different
"drafts"of a finaltext can be interpreted as "repetitions"in whichthe author
is "workingthrough"conflictsin an effort(consciousor unconscious)to move
from"repetition" to "remembering." Withinthiscontext,theearlierdraft(s)might
wellbe themostrepressed,mostsubjectto resistanceandtransference. Thefinal
versionmightrepresentin certainrespectstheauthor'scapacityachievedthrough
languageto bringto consciousmemorythe issuesrepressedin theprior"drafts."
Similarly,in a seriesof textson the samesubject,theearlytextmaybe the most
distortedor "timid,"whilethe last textmightrepresentthe author'ssuccessin
workingthrougha performative repetitionto remembering. The "talkingcure"
suggeststhe dynamicsof an analogous"writingcure."'3
This intertextual approachto textualclustersfostersthe necessityof reading
"bothways,"insteadof regarding the "final"textas theendpointandteleological
goalof "drafts," or insteadof readingtextssolelyas autonomous entities.Repres-
sionandresistance canbe presentatbothendsof theprocess.Ratherthansearching
for the "authentic" version,thisapproachregardsall versionsas partof a larger
composite,palimpsestic textwhosepartsor imperfectly erasedlayersinteractac-
to a
cording psycho-political dynamic. What I am suggestinghasimplications far
broaderthattheinterpretation of women'snarrative as thereturnof therepressed.
It proposesa new formof intertextual analysisfor textualcriticism,as well as
a palimpsesticinterpretation of serialtexts.Superimposed on Portraitof theAr-

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 The Returnof the Repressed in Women'sNarrative 147

tist as a YoungMan,Joyce'sStephenHero,for example,can be readas textual

unconsciousof the "finalversion,"whichtransforms the fully drawnfeminist
characterEmmaClearyin the earliertextintothe initialsE.C., whichfloatin
Stephen'sfantasyas a projectionof his desirein the latertext.Joyce'sreturnfor
the thirdtimeto StephenDedalusin Ulyssessuggestsa textual"repetition" that
canbe readintertextuallyforwhatit revealsaboutthe projectof memory.Other
kindsof textualclustersmightyield newmeaningsif readintertextually, witha
focuson interpretingtheirpointsof intersection.D.H. Lawrence,for example,
wroteandre-wrotethe plot of SleepingBeauty'sawakening throughthe magic
wandof theprince'sphallusin manynovelsandstories,withthepenultimate ex-
amplebeingLadyChatterley 'sLover,writtenat a timewhenLawrencewasvery
ill andprobablyimpotent.WilliamFaulknerkilledoff QuentinCompsonin The
Sound and the Fury and then resurrectedhim in writing Absalom, Absalom!, a
novel that recapitulates the complexesof the earliernovel as it lays out the
and
epistemology compulsion of repetition
andmemory.Textualclusterswithmore
thanone authormightalso reveala psycho-political dynamicof (self)censorship.
EzraPoundslashedEliot's"draft"of TheWaste Land,makingthefinaltextmore
fragmented andmodernist,butless personalandhistoricallyspecific.Whatdoes
this collaborationtell us aboutthe politicalunconsciousof modernism?
Whilea psycho-political, intertextualhermeneutic
for readingtextualclusters
canbe usefulformaleas wellas femalewriters,I wantto focuson its applicabili-
ty to readingthe returnof the repressedin women'snarrative.H.D.'sthreeavant
garde,autobiographical narratives aboutthe GreatWarperiodcan serveas ex-
emplarytexts:PaintIt To-Day;Asphodel;and Bid Me to Live (AMadrigal). They
aredramatically differentnovelsaboutthe sameperiodin herlife, althoughshe
cameto regardtheearliertwoas "drafts" forthefinaltext.Sheprepared all three
for publication,but she suppressedthe firsttwo, at leastpartiallybecausethey
dealtwithlesbiandesireandillegitimatemotherhood. 14The novelsemergedout
of the GreatWar,whichleft H.D.'spersonallife in shambles,a mirrorimage,
she believed,of a shatteredEuropeancivilization.As a moredirectlygendered
andhistoricized modethanherdepersonalized lyric,narrativefictionallowedher
to (re)construct
theshattered selfin thehealingactof autobiography, a self-analysis
thatparalleledFreud'sownin TheInterpretation of Dreams.Usingthebasicevents
in herlife fromabout1911until1919,thethreenovelsclusterunderthenameH.D.
gavethegroup-"theMadrigal cycle"-butremaindistinct,as theirdifferenttitles
andauthorialsignaturesemphasize.The firstis PaintIt To-Day,writtenin 1921
andsignedHelgaDart,a namethatfleshedouthergender-free initialsandsignified
her lesbianself. The secondis Asphodel,writtenin 1921-1922, its titlepageun-
The
signed. third, Bid Me to Live, is a novelshe calledMadrigal signedDelia
and
Alton, a condensed and displaced form of her married name,HildaAldington.
Writtenin 1939andrevisedafterWorldWarII, Madrigalwaspublishedin 1960
underthe name"H.D."andthe titleBidMe to Live (AMadrigal),changesthat
she strenuouslyprotested.'5 AftercompletingMadrigalin 1949,H.D. returned
to themanuscripts of theearliertexts,whichshedecidedwithhindsightwerein-
adequate"drafts"for the final text. Across the title page of Asphodel, she wrote

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148 The Journal of Narrative Technique

"DESTROY Draft for Madrigal," and in a meditativeessay on her own work,

H.D. by Delia Alton, she reflects:

is runthrougha vintner'ssieve,the
or fermenting,
Madrigal,leftsimmering
dregsarethrown out.Really,thisis notbad.Webeganon thatvineyard in
1921.Itwasstony.Wegrubbed updeadroots,trimmed andpruned. Butthe
grapesweresour.Wewenton. It wasa pityto letthatfield(1914-1918) lie
utterly Wereturned
fallow. to it, fromtimetotime.Atlast,winter1949,we
tastethe1939gathering.
Impossible buttrue.TheWarI novelhasbeenfermen-
tingawayduring War II. This is theredgrapesof-
intoxicating,
War? Love? (59-60)
TheeventsthatH.D.transmutes canbe simplysummarized. Afterheron-again-
off-againengagement to EzraPound had essentiallydissolved,H.D.lefttheStates
forEuropein 1911in thecompanyof thewomansheloved,FrancesJosephaGregg,
andMrs.Gregg.In 1912,Greggrefusedto stayin LondonwithH.D., andshocked
H.D.bymarrying.Inturn,H.D. fell in lovewithBritishpoetRichardAldington,
withwhomshe translated the Greeks,wrotepoetry,andtraveledin Italy.They
marriedin 1913andas poet-companion-lovers becameleadersin theimagistmove-
ment.In 1915,H.D'spregnancy endedin thestillbirthof a daughter,whosedeath
she linkedto the sinkingof the Lusitania.Aldingtonunwillinglyenlistedin the
armyin the faceof imminentconscription,begana seriesof affairswithwomen
in theircircle,andwentoff to the frontin 1917,returninghomefor leavesthat
becameincreasinglydisastrous.H.D.'scerebralintimacywith Lawrenceinten-
sifiedas theyfed off eachother'sflameandsharedmanuscripts. H.D. sheltered
Lawrenceandhis wife in LondonaftertheywereexpelledfromCornwallin the
fallof 1917.WithAldington's encouragement, butLawrence's disgust,H.D. went
for healingto CornwallwithcomposerCecil Grayin the springof 1918.There
she metthe adoringWinifredBryher,the feistybutsuicidallyunhappydaughter
of Britain'swealthiestshipowner.H.D.'sunexpectedpregnancyinterrupted the
Cornwallidyll. Aldingtonurgedherto abortthe pregnancy, butshe refused.He
alternately
promised totakecareof her,theninsistedthathecouldnotleaveDorothy
Yorke.H.D.'sbrotherwaskilledin the war,herfatherdiedfromthe aftershock,
andshecontracted thedeadlywarinfluenzain theninthmonthof herpregnancy.
Aftersheandthebabymiraculously survived,H.D. agreedto go backto a shell-
shockedAldington,whothentoldherto leaveandthreatened to haveherarrested
if she registeredthe childwith his name.Terrified,she nonethelessdefiedhis
threats,usedthenameAldington onthebirthcertificate,andtooka flatwithBryher,
whomshe creditedwith savingher life andsanity.'6Beginningthe decadeas a
unitof twodaughters witha mother,she endedit in a familyof twomothersand
a daughter.
fromthe "raw"to the "cooked,"eachnovelenacts
As thesiteof transformation
the dynamicof repressionanddesiredifferently.The ingredientsare the same,
butthe recipeis different.Readintertextually, eachtextformsa differentlayer
of thepsyche,a differentsurfaceof thepalimpsest,eachone of whicheruptsinto
the other.The gaps andomissions in one text are filled by the surfaceof the other.

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 TheReturnof the Repressedin Women's
Narrative 149

Onetext,in otherwords,servesas thetextualunconsciousof the other.Thedif-

ferencesamongthe texts-interpretedwith the aid of Freud'sgrammarfor the
dream-work-pointto waysin whichall threetextsconstitutethe politicalun-
consciousof history,the repressednarrativesof forbiddenfemaledesire.
The lasttextin the series,Madrigal,is in somewaysthemostcondensedand
displaced,suggesting theartfuldisguiseof thedream-work. theframe
Establishing
of herautobiographical account,Madrigalis set in LondonandCornwallduring
1917and 1918,withflashbacksto scenesof an idylliccourtshipin 1912-1913 and
the stillbirthin 1915.Outsidetheframeof thepublictextis H.D.'sloveforFrances
GreggandBryherat the beginningandendof the decade.Repressedwithinthe
frameis the storyof her pregnancyin 1918.The storiesof the lesbianandthe
motherof an "illegitimate" childarerepressed,censoredoutof a textthatfocuses
on thestoryof heterosexual marriagein war-time.Thistextualrepressionof for-
biddennarrative reflectstheoppressionof mothersandlesbianswithinthedomi-
nantpatriarchal discoursesof the father.Nonetheless,Madrigaldoes represent
"thereturnof therepressed." Inrelationshipto phallocentric of Love
articulations
andWar,Madrigaldeconstructs the binaryof publicandprivateto examinenot
only the warat homefacedby civilians,butalso the warin the home,the mar-
riagebed as battlefieldof sexualpolitics.ForRafe,the Aldingtonfigurein the
novel,homeis a refuge;loveis a respitefrombattle.Forhis wifeJulia,theH.D.
figure,love existsin a post-lapsarian worldstructured by violence.Rafe'skiss
poursthe deathof battleintoher lungswiththe gas thatneverleaveshim. As
H.D. laterreflectson herself-in-Julia, "I hadacceptedthe Establishment. That
is, I hadacceptedthe wholecosmic,bloodyshow.Thewar was myhusband"
(ThornThicket,13).
LikeWoolfin ThreeGuineas,H.D. regardsthe battlefieldsof waras exten-
sions of the politicsof the patriarchal family-not thathusbandandwife were
implacable enemies,butratherthattheconfigurations of desiremade"Love"and
"War"interpenetrating, likeFreud'sdialecticof erosandthanatos.'7As bothpoet
and wife, Juliafindsherselfcaughtin the representations of the men who love
her.BothRafeandRico,theLawrence figure,dividewomenintomindsandbodies,
a versionof thevirgin-whore dichotomy. Forthem,Juliais untouchable,cerebral,
spiritual;forsex, theyturnto earthy,stereotypicallyfemininewomen.Juliaturns
to herpoetryas theone loopholeoutof thismaletrap.Butwithherwritingcriti-
cizedby eachman,she mustalso writeherselfoutof theirtextualandlinguistic
authority. Thenovelconcludeswitha longletterto Rico,in whichtheabandoned
Juliaenvisionsthe poemshe writesas a childbornin an androgynous gloire.
Madrigaluses the metaphor of thegapto pointto the storyof the motherthat
it hasrepressed. WhileRafeis makinglovetoJulia,sheremembers theannihilating
"wound"of the stillbirth"thatgapedat her" (14). It was "a gap in her con-
sciousness, a sortof blackhollow,a cave, a pit of blackness;blacknebula ... The
greaterthe gap in consciousness,the moreblack-hole-of-Calcutta
the gap;the
more unformedthe black nebula"(13-14).Julia'smemoryof the stillbirthis
Madrigal'sblackhole,aninvisiblesourceof immensepowerintowhichthestories
of PaintIt To-DayandAsphodelhavedisappeared.

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150 TheJournalof NarrativeTechnique

Asphodelfills the black hole of Madrigal in two ways-by restoringthe lesbian

frameand by narratingthe story of the poet-motherin war-time.As the most ex-
pansiveand longestof the three,Asphodelopens with the figuresof two women-
Hermione and Fayne-entering Europe in 1911and closes with two women-
HermioneandBeryl-setting up house to care for the new baby.Butthis textualiza-
tion of H.D.'s love for Frances and Bryher is not what motivates the narrative
middle. PartI of Asphodelrecordsthe dissolutionof the lesbianpair into the plots
of heterosexualcourtship.PartII of Asphodel,whichparallelsMadrigalquiteclose-
ly, highlightsfirst the stillbirthof 1915,and then the illegitimatepregnancyof 1918.
The story of marriageforegroundedin Madrigal is still presentin Asphodel, but
mutedin comparison.ReadingPartII of Asphodeland Madrigalas superimposed
layersof a palimpsest, we can interpretthe public text as a critiqueof the sexual
politics of marriageand the repressedtext as a critique of the sexual politics of
motherhood.The stillbirthis not simply the "wound"thathas been coveredover,
as it is in Madrigal. Rather,it is the narrativefocus-the returnof the repressed
narrative-a death caused by an air-raidin a social order where women (re)pro-
duce cannonfodder,where mothersand soldiers "go over the top" in a symbiotic
systemof war and birth.'8"Men and guns, womenand babies,"Hermionethinks;
"she had had a baby in an air raidjust like Daily Mail atrocities"(16-17).Her-
mione's metonymicthought-"Khaki killed it"-applies directly to the child and
more figurativelyto whatthe child represents,the lost renewalof civilization(2-4).
The choice thatHermionemakes in Asphodelnot to aborther seond pregnancy
marksher defiance againstthe death-drivenwar machine of modern life. Sitting
Druid-likeon the rocks in the clear, brightsun-lightof Cornwall,Hermioneiden-
tifies with the mortalwomen impregnatedby the gods and gives her coming child
a Divine Father.Witch-like,a "Morganle Fay,"Hermionespeaks in a discourse
of pregnancythatanticipatesKristeva'sconceptof the preoedipal"semiotic"register
of language,the rhythmicdiscourse of the maternalbody-one thatdeconstructs
the oppositionof inside/outside,container/contained; one thathypnoticallyweaves
a web of meaning based in sound, color, and cadence instead of reference;one
that refuses the pronoundistinctions that separate self and other.19When Her-
mione's interior monologue turns to her pregnancy,the semiotic modality of
discourse is especially heightened. To quote a few instances of this discourse of
pregnancyin the unsigned text of the repressed mother:

Youtastedgrapeandgrapeandgold grape(canyou imagineit?)andgold

on goldandgoldfilledyourpalate,pushedagainstyourmouth,pusheddown
yourthroat,filledyouwithsomedivineweb,a spider,goldwebandyouwove
with it, wovewith it, wovewiththe web insideyou. . . . (68-69)
I feel no differencebetweenin andout. . . . for insideandoutsidearethe
same,God in andout, all god, gorse,pollen-dust,gold andgold of rayed
light slantingacrossthe low spikesof whiteorchidand fragrancein and
out . . . . (87-88)
Weave,thatis yourmetierMorganle Fay,weavesubtly,weavegrape-green
by grape-silver andlet yourvoice weavesongs,songsin the littlehut that

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 TheReturnof the Repressedin Women's
Narrative 151

getssoblithely thatyouarelikea flower

cold,coldwithsuchclarity ofgreen-
grapeflowering globe,inaniceglobefortheairthatyoubreathe
ina crystal
intoyourlungsmakesyoutoopartofthecrystal,youarepartoftheair,part
of the crystal. .. (119)

Theimagesof pregnancy repeatedin passagesliketheseeruptintothe surface

of Madrigal,butshornof theirassociationwithprocreativity. Thepregnancy in
Cornwallis repressedin Madrigal,butits erasureis imperfect.Juliawalksand
sitsin thesamecircleof Druidstoneson Cornwall's harshshorelineinMadrigal.
Asphodel's imagesof pregnancy-the"crystal globe,"thecocoon,theHolySpirit,
the fragrance,theweb,weaving,andso forth-reappearrepeatedly in Madrigal.
Asphodel's imagesof pregnancy-the"crystal globe,"thecocoon,theHolySpirit,
the fragrance,theweb,weaving,andso forth-reappearrepeatedlyin Madrigal,
butcut off fromtheirfertilereferentsin pregnancy. Eventhe name"Morganle
Fay"-Hermione's pregnant self in Asphodel-has beendisplacedinMadrigalonto
"Morgan," the "witch" who is the firstto stealRafe in the plot of heterosexual
romance.Asphodel'snarrative of illicitprocreation is displacedintoMadrigal's
narrativeof relativelyless forbiddencreation-the(re)creation of the poetJulia
and her child-poemout of the ashes of war.As separatetexts,Asphodeland
Madrigaltell differentstories-one of the mother,the otherof the lover.But
superimposed as tracesin a palimpsesticpsyche,they articulatea poeticsof
(pro)creativity.
Asphodel,however,alsohasitsblackholeintowhichPaintIt To-Day-thenar-
rativeof lesbianlove-has beenabsorbed.As the storyof desiremostforbidden
bythephallocentric of history,PaintIt To-Dayis thetextualandpolitical
narratives
unconsciousof Asphodel.Whatexistsas thestaticlesbianframeof Asphodelim-
plodesintothe middleto becomethe narrativekinesisof PaintIt To-Day.Paint
It To-Daycutstheframeon theeventsin H.D.'slifemuchlikeAsphodel-thenovel
beginsand ends with a lesbianpair.But the middlemovementestablishesan
Artemisian discourse,a lesbianwildernessof landscapeanddesirethatis literal-
ly anotherworldawayfromthe materialconditionsof history:the heterosexual
scriptsof loveandwar.Thesescriptshaveanexistenceinthenovel-Josephaleaves
Midgetto marry;Midgetherselfmarries;and"Therewasa war.A cloud.Five
years . . . . Time had them by the throat, shakingand shaking,evil and vicious"
(V,1).Butmenandwarexistat the peripheryof the narrative-thePoundfigure
scarcelyhasa name;he is calledmostoftenthe "erstwhilefinanc6,"thensimply,
"theerstwhile."At the narrativecenteris a wild pastoralof hyacinthian desire,
imagedin the partof HydeParkthat"hasbeenleft wild andfree in homageto
the tall blue hyacinths[that]rise like islandsin the shortgrass"(VIII,9-10).
WithJosepha's betrayal,Midgetfindsherescapefromthesocialorderthrough
a "trick"-sheleavesherbodycaughtin the coordinates of narrativespaceand
time and imaginatively travelsto a timeless,placelesslyric stateof mindgov-
ernedby the spiritof Artemis.Thereshe meetsAlthea,a healingprojectionof
one partof her self in the psychodrama text. Dressedin
of this transferential
the
"tunics,"with "bareupperlegs," two womenbattlea fiercestormin their

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152 TheJournalof NarrativeTechnique

canoe,stripoff theirwetclothes,andstandon a whortle-berry blanketto warm

theirnakedbodiesbeforethe"smoldering brazier"(VIII).Likemaidsof Artemis,
the womenarestrong,athletic,chaste.Eroticismis covertlypresent,sublimated
intotheirbattleagainstthe storm,theirundressingbeforethe fire, the pastoral
landscapewherethe windcatches"thebranchesof the whiterose-tree,"where
the "plumesof the wild willow . . . driftacrossMidget'sshoulder"(VII, 8).
Midget'staskis to bringthis neo-Platoniclesbianrealmintothe realspaceand
time of history,to inscribethis Artemisiandiscoursein her art.
In the contextof the dominantphallocentric narrativesof history,PaintIt To-
Dayrepresents thereturnof therepressed-thelesbiannarrative of women'swriting
as thepoliticalunconscious culturalscripts.Butin relationto writing
of patriarchal
as thesceneof theauthor'stransference, PaintIt To-Dayis onlythefirstnarrative
of a storyH.D. repeatedagainandagain.Toread"bothways"in an intertextual,
psycho-political hermeneutic, we shouldavoidprivilegingthe earliesttextas the
mostradicalin a "political"sense. To do so wouldmerelyreversethe current
practiceof privilegingthelasttextas theteleologicalendpointof artisticrevision.
In relationto H.D.'slife, eachtextual(re)creation of the wardecaderepresents
a "repetition" of thoseevents.As thewritingself, H.D. wascaughtin the round
of repetitions
thatsignalthetransference. Insteadof remembering thepast-gaining
controloverit by makingan orderlystoryaboutit-the writingself gets swal-
lowedup by the narrated self andis compelledto repeatthe past.The re-vision
of thestoryineachsuccessivetextcanrepresent thewritingself'sattemptto reassert
her authorityby interpreting insteadof repeatingwhatshe has repressed.From
this perspective,we couldexpectthatthe latertextsmightincludestoriesthat
were repressedin the earlierones.
Thisis indeedthecasein H.D.'sMadrigalCycle.Hersufferingduringthewar
yearsmadethemorepoliticallyacceptablestoriesof motherandwifemorepain-
fulto remember thantheculturally tabooedstoryof herlesbianlove.Consequently,
PaintIt To-Dayrepressestheseheterosexual episodes,whichexistas meretraces
or notatall in thesurfaceof thiscelebration of Artemisian maidenhood. Asphodel
confrontshead-onthepainof thestillbirthandthetraumaof thesecondpregnan-
cy.Butit doesnottouchtheloss of Lawrence,it scarcelyhintsof theintenselove
H.D. felt forAldington,andit onlybarelysuggeststheartisticcrisisthatis cen-
traltoMadrigal.Inthetransferential sceneof writing,H.D.movedfromrepeating
to remembering whatshe had repressed.
The threetextsof the Madrigalcycle standaloneand together.As a cluster,
theyforma palimpsest of imperfectly erasedlayers.Ratherthancontradicting each
are
other,they "mutuallycomplementary," to quoteFreudon serialdreams(In-
terpretation,369). Neverthe equivalentof the writingself, they nonetheless
originatein H.D.andloopbackto her.Thewife-layer, Madrigal,tellsthefamiliar
storyof triangulated desirein anunfamiliar way,transposing theconventional in-
terplayof love andwarintoan unconventional expos6of sexualpoliticson the
homefront.The mother-layer, Asphodel,challengesthe dominantnarratives of
historythroughproposing the discourseof pregnancy in oppositionto theengines
of war.The lesbian-layer, PaintIt To-Day,suffersthe mosterasurein the pro-

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 TheReturnof the Repressedin Women's
Narrative 153

cessesof rewritingbecausewithinthecontextof history,its narrative is themost

forbidden.Eachnovelhasitsownchallengetopose,itsownhermeneutic of history.
Genderis centralto eachwork'sinterpretive self-creation.
Buteachnovelgenders
historydifferently,highlightingdifferentaspectsof thegendersystem.Inpatriar-
chy, the storiesof motherhood,lesbianlove, and heterosexuallove are not
"autonomous texts,"butratherintertextualnarratives withinthe gendersystem.
Reading textualclusterslike H.D.'sMadrigalCycleas the returnof repressed
texts suggestssome basic strategiesfor readingthe returnof the repressed
in women'snarrative.First,the repressionof women'sspeechandsubjectivity
in historymeansthatwomen'snarrativesshouldbe readoppositionally against
and intertextuallywithinthe dominantphallocentric discoursesof history.As
the repressedof history,womenhavereturnedagainandagainto the sceneof
writingto make their mark, howeverdisguisedand undecipherable readers
withindominanthermeneuticframeshave foundthat writingto be. Second,
women'snarratives arethemselvesthe sceneof repression-theyhavetheirown
politicaland textual unconsciousto be deciphered.Readingstrategiesneed to
unravelthedisguise-theinterlocking psycho-politicaldynamicsof repression and
oppressionin the textualization of women'sdesire.We need to read, in other
words,forthetracesof internalandexternalcensorshipin theauthors'andtexts'
negotiationbetweenthe desire for speech and the need for disguise. Both
strategiesfor readingthe returnof the repressedin women'snarrativesinvite
an intertextualapproachthatintegratesconsiderations of the author,the text,
and history.

Universityof Wisconsin
Madison,Wisconsin

NOTES
1. Thephrase"thereturnof therepressed" appears in Freud,"Negation"(1925),reprinted
in GeneralPsychologicalTheory,111-12.
2. Onlyin his so-called"speculativewriting,"in whichhe theorizedabouttheconnec-
tionbetweenthepsycheandsociety-about,in otherwords,thepsychological dimen-
sionsof socialcontract-didFreudseriouslyconsiderthesignificance
of hiscomparison
betweenstatecensorshipandtheinternalcensor.See especiallyTotemandTabooand
Civilizationand Its Discontents.
3. See also 564. Freuduses the terms"overdetermination" and "overinterpretation"
throughoutthisvolume,as well as the metaphors citedabove."AnalysisTerminable
andInterminable,"Freud'sfinalessayon clinicaltechnique,
stressestheindeterminacy
of interpretation
(Therapyand Technique, 233-72).
4. See Culler,"Textual
Self-Consciousness" (369-70);Felman,"Turning theScrew"and
"TheCaseof Poe"in Lacan(27-51);Gallop,"LacanandLiterature."
5. See Marks,"WomenandLiterature in France"andNewFrenchFeminisms (28-38).

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154 The Journal of Narrative Technique

6. See Freud,TheInterpretation of Dreams(128-54);for discussionof narrative in the

analyticsituation,see Shafer.Riffaterre's
analysisof "slang"as the "unconscious in-
beyondthe confines
tertext"of the surfacetextsuggeststhe use of culturalintertexts
of the textunderdiscussion.
7. As Jamesonsaysabout"history"in general,we canapproachthe authorwho lived
andwroteas well as herhistoricalcontextonly throughtheir"textualizations"
(35).
Theyare "inaccessible does not
to us exceptin textualform,"butthistextualization
meanthat"author"and "history"are only fictionalconstructsas Barthessuggests
in "TheDeathof the Author"andFoucaultarguesin "WhatIs an Author?"
8. SeeforexampleBarthes.SeealsoCuller'sdistinctionbetweenBarthesianandBloomian
of
concepts intertexuality in Pursuitof Signs(100-18).
of thedream-work's
9. ForFreud'sinitialdefinitions grammar,seeInterpretation ofDreams
(311-546).
10.I usetheconditionalthroughout thatall revisionis necessari-
becauseI amnotsuggesting
ly motivatedby a psycho-political ButI amarguingthat
dynamicof (self)censorship.
aestheticrevisionmaybe overdetermined andpolitcalfactors.
by psychological
11.Forpsychoanalytic readingsof repetition
compulsion seeforexampleMiller.
innarrative,
12. See Freud,Beyondthe PleasurePrinciple(12-17); "The Dynamicsof the Trans-
ference"(1912)and"FurtherRecommendations in theTechnique of Psychoanalysis:
Recollection, andWorking
Repetition Through"(1914)in TherapyandTechnique(105-16;
157-66).
13.Forextended discussion
of theautobiographical sceneina "writing
textas a transferential
cure,"see Friedman,"TheWritingCure."
14. See Friedman andDuPlessis,"Foreword"; we havepublishedthe firstfourchapters
of PaintIt To-Day.
Asphodel remains Fora discussion
unpublished. of H.D'ssuppression
of otherlesbiantexts,see FriedmanandDuPlessis,"'I HadTwoLovesSeparate.' "
15.Fordiscussionof thesenomsdeplumein relationto H.D.'simagistlyricandnarrative
fiction,see Friedman,"Theoriesof Autobiography" and "HildaDoolittle."
16.See Friedman,"HildaDoolittle."
17.See Freud,Beyondthe PleasurePrinciple,for a discussionof sado-masochism and
forhis hypothesisaboutErosandthedeathinstinct.H.D. wasawareof his workand
re-scriptedhis ideasin Helenin Egypt.
18.See Hustonfora relatedcritiqueof mothersandsoldier-heroes
in patriarchal
ideology.
19.See Kristeva,Revolution
(22-30)andDesire(237-70).

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