IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT IN

AEROBIC RICE

By

G. SAI KIRAN
B.Sc.(Ag)

THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE

PROFESSOR JAYASHANKAR TELANGANA STATE
AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT
OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF THE
DEGREE OF

MASTER OF SCIENCE IN AGRICULTURE

(AGRONOMY)
CHAIRMAN: Dr. M. SHIVA SHANKAR

DEPARTMENT OF AGRONOMY
COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE
RAJENDRANAGAR, HYDERABAD-500 030
PROFESSOR JAYASHANKAR TELANGANA STATE
AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY

2015
 CERTIFICATE

Mr. G. SAI KIRAN has satisfactorily prosecuted the course of research and that
the thesis entitled “IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT IN AEROBIC RICE”
submitted is the result of original research work and is of sufficiently high standard to
warrant its presentation to the examination. I also certify that neither the thesis nor its
part thereof has been previously submitted by him for a degree of any University.

Date: (Dr. M. SHIVA SHANKAR)

Chairman
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the thesis entitled “IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT IN

AEROBIC RICE” submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of
MASTER OF SCIENCE IN AGRICULTURE of the Professor Jayashankar
Telangana State Agricultural University, Hyderabad, is a record of the bonafide
original research work carried out by Mr. G. SAI KIRAN under our guidance and
supervision.

No part of the thesis has been submitted by the student for any other degree or
diploma. The published part and all assistance received during the course of
investigations have been duly acknowledged by the author of the thesis.

(Dr. M. SHIVA SHANKAR)

CHAIRMAN OF ADVISORY COMMITTEE

Thesis approved by the Student’s Advisory Committee

Chairman : (Dr. M. SHIVA SHANKAR)

Professor of Agronomy
College farm, ________________
College of Agriculture, PJTSAU,
Rajendranagar, Hyderabad – 500 030

Member : (Dr. V. PRAVEEN RAO)

Registrar and Special Officer
PJTSAU, ________________
Rajendranagar, Hyderabad – 500 030

Member : (Dr. A. SIVA SANKAR)

Professor
Conptroller of Examinations,
ANGRAU, Hyderabad-30

Date of final viva-voce:

 DECLARATION

I, G. SAI KIRAN, hereby declare that the thesis entitled “IRRIGATION

MANAGEMENT IN AEROBIC RICE” submitted to the Professor Jayashankar

Telangana State Agricultural University for the degree of Master of Science in

Agriculture is the result of original research work done by me. I also declare that no

material contained in the thesis has been published earlier in any manner.

Place: Hyderabad
(G. SAI KIRAN)
Date: I.D. N0. AAM/11-05
IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT IN
AEROBIC RICE (Oryza sativa L.)

G. SAI KIRAN
B.Sc. (Ag.)

MASTER OF SCIENCE IN AGRICULTURE

(AGRONOMY)

2015
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It is by the blessings of the almighty, that I have been able to complete my studies, and the piece of

work successfully for which I am eternally indebted.

It gives me immense pleasure to express my profound sense of gratitude and respect to my Major

Advisor and Chairman of the Advisory Committee Dr. M. Shiva Shankar, Professor of Agronomy,

College Farm,, College of Agriculture, Rajendranagar, for his constructive criticism, learned counsel,

meticulous guidance, encouragement in planning and execution of research work and affectionate treatment

during the course of investigation, writing and presentation of thesis.

I am highly indebted to the member of Advisory Committee Dr. V. Praveen Rao, University

special Officer and Registrar, PJTSAU, Admn. Office, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad for his untiring

help, valuable suggestions and timely moral support which enabled me to accomplish this task.

I am greatly indebted to other members of my advisory committee, Dr. A. Siva Sankar,

Comptroller of Examinations, ANGRAU, Hyderabad for his benign help and marked advice in planning of

research work and presentation of thesis work.

I really thankful to Dr. A.Sreenivas,ADR Palem and Dr.M. Madhavi Head of the

department (Agronomy) for their valuable support and encouragement to me during this research programme.

I wish to express my deep sense of gratitude to Dr. K. Avil Kumar, Principal Scientist, WTC,

Rajendranagar for his timely and valuable suggestions during the period of M.Sc. programme.

My heartfelt thanks to Dr. K.B. Sunitha Devi and Dr. P. Leela Rani, Professors,

Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, Rajendranagar for their valuable help and providing all

facilities for the research work. I am also thankful to the staff of Dept. of Agronomy, and Water

Technology Centre, Rajendranagar for their timely help and co-operation.

 I am profoundly indebted to my beloved parents Sri &SmtLaxmiNarayana andAnuradha for

their encouragement and affection throughout my educational carrier and for their moral support to carry out

this work peacefully.

I greatly thankful to my beloved seniors G. RamulooNaik ADA,Siddappa,Thulasi, Sai leela

and Sai Rameshfor their moral support and encouragement while doing this programme.

I very thankful to my dear friend Naveen Kumar Bacha who cares me in all problematic situations

and solve the problems in such a way that to reach the success ahead.

And also I really thankful to my dear friends GogineniCnu, Oum, Bolishetty, Santhosh, Bandi,

Reddaiah, Jaksani, Bhanu, Gundu, Panthuloo, Mahesh, Krishnam, Sandeep and R.C. who loves me a

lot and shares all good and odd things and gives moral support in my life.

I very thankful to my childhood friends Srilatha, Swapna, Madhavi, Kavitha, Latha,

Poornima, Vandana, Rojaand Laxmi who cares me and gives encouragement for all acivements in my life.

I am also thankful to my Juniors SrikanthandPrashanthichennafor their help and co-operation

during the period of my thesis work.

And also I’m thankful to non-teaching staff in Dept. of Agronomy while doing my laboratory work

in the Dept. lab.

I wish to extend my thanks to staff of the PG Academic section, College of Agriculture,

Rajendranagarfor their co-operation throughout my PG programme.

Finally, the financial assistance provided by PJTSAU authority and Government of

TELANGANA in the form of stipend is sincerely acknowledged.

(G. SAI KIRAN)

 LIST OF CONTENTS

Chapter Title Page No.

No.

I INTRODUCTION

II REVIEW OF LITERATURE

III MATERIAL AND METHODS

IV RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

V SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

LITERATURE CITED

APPENDICES
 LIST OF TABLES

Table
Title Page No.
No.

3.1 Physical, physico chemical and chemical properties of the

experimental soil.
3.2
Moisture retention characteristics of the experimental soil

Previous crop history of the experimental site

3.3
Seedlings (m-2) as influenced by different irrigation
4.1
schedules in aerobic during rabi 2014-15
Plant height (cm) as influenced by different irrigation
4.2
schedules in aerobic during rabi 2014-15
4.3 Plant height (cm) as influenced by different irrigation
schedules in aerobic during rabi 2014-15

4.4 Number of tillers m-2as influenced by different irrigation

schedules in aerobic during rabi 2014-15
Leaf Area Index as influenced by different irrigation
4.5
schedules in aerobic rice during rabi 2014-15
4.6 Dry Matter Production (g m-2) as influenced by different
irrigation schedules in aerobic during rabi 2014-15

4.7 Days to 50% flowering as influenced by different irrigation

schedules in aerobic rice during rabi 2014-15
Panicles m-2 and panicle length (cm) as influenced by
4.8
different irrigation schedules in aerobic rice during rabi
2014-15

4.9 No of grains panicle-1, no of filled grains panicle-1 and test

wt (g) as influenced by different irrigation schedules in
aerobic rice during rabi 2014-15

4.10 Grain Yield (kg ha-1), straw yield (kg ha-1) harvest index (%)
as influenced by different irrigation schedules in aerobic rice
during rabi 2014-15
Table
Title Page No.
No.

4.11 Irrigation water applied and total crop water requirement

under different irrigation schedules of aerobic rice during
rabi, 2014-15
4.12 Water productivity (kg/m3) and WUE (kg/ha mm) as
influenced by different irrigation schedules in aerobic rice
during rabi 2014-15

4.13 Crop coefficient (Kc) values as influenced by different

irrigation schedules in aerobic rice during rabi 2014-15

4.14 Available soil Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium status

after harvest (kg ha-1) as influenced by irrigation schedules
in aerobic rice during rabi, 2014-15
4.15 Root volume cc clump-1as influenced by irrigation schedules
in aerobic rice during rabi, 2014-15
Effect of irrigation schedules on Gross Income (Rs ha-1),
4.16
Cost of cultivation (Rs ha-1), Net return (Rs ha-1) and BC
Ratio of aerobic rice during rabi, 2014-15

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Fig No. Title Page No.

3.1 Weekly mean meteorological data observed during the

experimental period (rabi, 2014-15)

3.2 Weekly mean meteorological data observed during the

experimental period (rabi, 2014-15)

3.3 Lay-out plan of the experimental site

4.1 Crop coefficient curves for different irrigation schedules in

different stages of aerobic rice during rabi, 2014-15.

4.2 Optimization of irrigation water for different irrigation

schedules in aerobic rice during rabi, 2014.
 LIST OF APPENDICES

Table
Title Page No.
No.

A Weekly meteorological data during rabi 2014-15 recorded at

A.R.I., Rajendranagar
B ETo values for the month of November 2014 using Pan
evaporation method
C Calendar of operations in aerobic rice during rabi, 2014-15

Gravimetric soil moisture content (%) measured in aerobic

D
rice under different irrigation schedules one day before and
after irrigation
E Pan coefficient (Kp) for open pan for different ground
covers, RH and wind velocity
 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

% : Per cent

@ : At the rate of
o
C : Degree centigrade

B: C ratio : Benefit : Cost ratio

B.D. : Bulk density

CD (P=0.05) : Critical difference at 5 per cent level

cm : Centimetre

CPE : Cumulative pan evaporation

DAS : Days after sowing

day-1 : Per day

DMP : Dry matter production

dSm-1 : Deci siemen per meter

EC : Electrical conductivity

Epan : Pan evaporation

ER : Effective rainfall

et al. : And others

FC : Field capacity

Fig. : Figure

g : Gram

g m-2 : Grams per square meter

h : Hour

ha : Hectare

ha-1 : Per hectare

ha mm : Hectare millimeter

HI : Harvest index

i.e. : That is

IRRI : International rice research institute

K : Potassium

kg : Kilogram

kg ha-1 : Kilogram per hectare

kg/ha-mm : Kilogram per hectare millimeter

kg m-3 : Kilograms per cubic meter

km : Kilometre

l : Litre

l ha-1 : Litre per hectare

m : Metre

m : Million

m2 : Metre square

m-2 : per square meter

mg cm-3 : Milligram per cubic centimeter

ml : Millilitre

mm day-1 : Millimeter per day

mm : Millimeter

mt : Million tonnes

N : Nitrogen

N-E : North-east

No. : Number

NS : Not significant
P : Phosphorous

Panicle-1 : Per panicle

pH : Potential hydrogen

PI : Panicle initiation

Plant-1 : Per plant

PWP : Permanent wilting point

RH : Relative humidity

RH I : Morning relative humidity

RH II : Afternoon relative humidity

Rs ha-1 : Rupees per hectare

S. Em + : Standard error mean

t ha-1 : Tonnes per hectare

T max. : Maximum temperature

T mean : Mean temperature

T min. : Minimum temperature

viz., : Namely

vs. : Against

WR : Water Requirement

WUE : Water Use Effeciency

Name of the Author : G. SAI KIRAN

Title : IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT IN AEROBIC RICE

Degree : MASTER OF SCIENCE IN AGRICULTURE

Faculty : AGRICULTURE

Major Field : AGRONOMY

Major Advisor : Dr. M. SHIVA SHANKAR

University : PROFESSOR JAYASHANKAR TELANGANA STATE

AGRICULTURAL UNIVARSITY
RAJENDRANAGAR, HYDERABAD-30.

Year of submission : 2015

ABSTRACT

The experiment was conducted at College farm, College of Agriculture,

Rajendranagar, Hyderabad during rabi 2014-15 to study the ‘Irrigation management in
aerobic rice’. The experiment was laid out in a randomized block design with five
irrigation schedules viz., Irrigation scheduling at 1.00, 1.25, 1.50, 1.75 and 2.00
IW/CPE ratios with four replications. The experimental soil is sandy clay loam with low
in available nitrogen, medium in available phosphorus and high available potassium.
The plant height of aerobic rice was obtained comparatively high with irrigation
scheduled at IW/CPE ratio 2.00 to the remaining irrigation schedules. Irrigation
scheduled at IW/CPE ratio 2.00 has recorded highest LAI values at all growth stages.
However, at 50 DAS and 90 DAS the LAI values were statistically on par with
irrigation scheduled at IW/CPE ratio 1.75. The tillers were significantly influenced by
irrigation scheduling practices at all the stages of crop growth except 20 DAS. Among
the irrigation schedules, significantly higher number of tillersandhigher dry matter
production at 50, 90, 110 DAS and harvest stages were recorded with irrigation
scheduling at IW/CPE ratio 2.00 and which were statistically on par with irrigation
scheduled at IW/CPE 1.50 and 1.75 ratios. The highest number of panicles m-2 was
observed with irrigation scheduling at IW/CPE ratio of 2.0 which was significantly
higher than with the other irrigation scheduled. However, it was statistically on par with
irrigation scheduled at IW/CPE ratio 1.50. Comparatively highest values of Number of
days taken for 50 per cent flowering, panicle length, test weight and number of grains
panicle-1 were observed with irrigation scheduled at IW/CPE ratio 2.00. Significantly
higher number of filled grains panicle-1 and yield hil-1 were observed with irrigation
scheduled at IW/CPE ratio 2.00 and however, it was statistically on par with irrigation
scheduled at IW/CPE 1.50 and 1.75 ratios. Irrigation scheduled at IW/CPE 2.00 ratio
was obtained significantly highest grain yield and straw yield and were statistically on
par with that of in irrigation scheduled at 1.75 and 1.50 IW/CPE ratios. Comparatively
highest harvest index value and root volume was observed in case of aerobic rice
scheduled at 2.00 IW/CPE ratio. Significantly highest N uptake of plant at harvesting
stage was observed with irrigation scheduled at IW/CPE ratio 2.00.
 In this study the total water used was in different irrigation schedules in the
range of 540.20 to 990.20 mm including 40.20 mm of an effective rainfall. The highest
WUE and water productivity was observed with irrigation scheduled at IW/CPE ratio
1.00 ratio and lowest for IW/CPE ratio 2.00 treatment. The crop coefficient values for
total crop period in different irrigation schedules were ranged between 1.01 to 1.19. The
highest crop coefficient values were observed with irrigation scheduled at IW/CPE
ratio 2.00. Optimization of irrigation water for different irrigation treatments of aerobic
rice was obtained at optimization equation y= 2.033x + 1241 and R2= 0.970.
The results of the present study clearly indicated that, perceptibly higher yields
in aerobic rice could be obtained when irrigation was scheduled at 1.5 to 2.00 IW/CPE
ratio and in limited water conditions when irrigation was scheduled at 1.50 IW/CPE
ratio was found to be economically viable.
 Chapter-I

INTRODUCTION
Rice is one of the major food crop of Asia. Food security of Asia mainly
depends on irrigation as about 75% of rice is produced from 79 million ha of
flooded/wetland paddy production system. In India rice is the staple food of the people
of the eastern and southern parts of the country and is cultivated round the year in one
or the other part of the country, in diverse ecologies spread over 43.9 M ha with a
production of 106.5 MT of rice and average productivity of 2.424 t ha-1 (MOA, Gov. of
India, 2013-14). West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh stands first, second
and third in production of rice with 15.30 mt, 14.6 mt and 13.00 mt respectively in the
country.

In India, it is mainly grown under canals, tanks and wells. Traditionally rice
requires approximately 3000-5000 liters of water to grow one kilogram (Bouman 2001).
Due to the climate change and modern man made activities causing more changes in
weather conditions especially delay and late onset of monsoon and finally leads to low
effective rainfall. With such constraints, producing more rice in the future to feed
additional population is a great challenge. To fulfill the increased rice demand with
shrinking resources, it will be necessary to increase yield in a unit area with less water.

Rice cultivation has been taken largely on irrigated low land, which produces
three quarters of all rice harvested. Water is a looming crisis due to competition among
agricultural, industrial, environmental and domestic users. By 2025, 1/3rd of the human
population would be threatened by water scarcity because worldwide, 70 per cent of
water withdrawals are used in irrigated agriculture. In Asia, more than 50 per cent of
irrigation water used to irrigate rice. A growing scarcity of fresh water will pose
problems for rice production in future years.

Rice and rice based system are predominant in Indian agriculture. Rapid
degradation of rice ecologies due to imbalanced use of fertilizers and unscientific water
management has put tremendous pressure on the rice growers to make rice farming
economically viable and ecologically sustainable.

But, over coming decades farming community, policy makers and researchers
alike will need to adapt to several threats to rice productivity. Of the potential threats,
water scarcity and increasing competition for water in irrigated rice systems are perhaps
the most pressing in terms of potential impact on overall production levels. Since rice
receives more irrigation water than other grain crops, the increasing water scarcity for
agriculture and competition for water from non agricultural sectors dictate to an urgent
need to improve crop water productivity. Hence, water-saving irrigation technologies
for rice are seen as a key component to deal with water scarcity nowadays.

In water-short irrigated and rainfed rice areas, ways must be sought to reduce
water requirements and increase its productivity. Researchers are developing water-
saving technologies, such as alternate wetting and drying, continuous soil saturation,
direct dry seeding, ground cover systems and system of rice intensification (SRI), but it
is noteworthy that all these systems use prolonged periods of flooding and hence water
losses still remain high. Rice production system, without constant standing water in
non-puddled soils, referred as ‘aerobic rice’ is considered to be one of the most
promising technologies in terms of water saving. In this system, rice is sown directly
into dry soil and irrigation is given to keep the soil sufficiently most for good plant
growth, but the soil is never flooded (Bouman, 2001). The concept of aerobic rice holds
promise for farmers in water-short irrigated rice environments where water availability
at the farm level is too low or where water is too expensive to grow flooded lowland
rice. Aerobic rice has been identified as a potential new technology, which can reduce
water use in rice production and also recognized as an economically attractive crop.
Among various systems of rice culture, aerobic rice in a unique, in which rice is sown
directly into dry soil, like wheat or maize, and irrigation is applied to keep the soil
sufficiently moist for favorable crop growth, but the soil is never saturated. Aerobic rice
is grown under non-flooded and non-puddled situation. It is growing rice just like any
irrigated dry (ID) crop. Hence, it is different to that of rainfed rice, semi dry rice or rice
grown under alternate wetting and drying.

Aerobic rice is the latest technology that reduces water inputs by growing rice
as any other irrigated upland crop. In irrigated aerobic rice systems, rice grows in non-
flooded and non- saturated soil under supplemental irrigation. The development of such
systems should start with the identification of promising varieties and the quantification
of yield potential, water use, field water outflows, and water productivity. This system
of rice is grown without constant standing water in non puddle soils, referred as the
aerobic rice and is considered to be one of the most promising technologies for water
saving. In this system, rice is sown directly into dry soil and irrigation is given to keep
the soil sufficiently moist for good plant growth, but the soil is never flooded (Bouman,
2001).

The dry seeded irrigated rice culture is characterized by sowing of dry seed
with the help of monsoon rains and irrigation is given to keep the soil sufficiently moist
by using tank, canal or ground water. Dry seeded rice offers scope to advance crop
establishment and to increase the effective use of early season rainfall (Tuong, 1999).
In Andhra Pradesh, dry seeded irrigated rice system of cultivation is in practice in
tankfed commands and high rainfall regions of Adilabad, Karimnagar, Warangal and
Khammam (Godavari basin) in North Telangana region, Vizianagaram, Srikakulam and
Visakhapatnam districts of North Coastal Andhra Pradesh, parts of Nellore and KC
canal command area in Kurnool district (Reddy, 2005).

The successful transition from traditional lowland cultivation to aerobic rice

production should be invariably under conditions of effective water management, to
keep the soil ‘wet’ but not flooded or saturated. In practice, irrigation has to be applied
to bring the soil water content up to field capacity once a lower threshold has been
reached. For upland crops such has wheat or maize, this threshold is usually the soil
water content halfway between field capacity and wilting, but, for aerobic rice, the
optimum threshold for re-irrigation still needs to be determined.

The irrigation scheduling in irrigated dry rice plays major role in obtaining
higher yields. It has been reported that similar yields were obtained when irrigation
scheduled 3-5 days after disappearance of 7 cm ponded water in dry rice (Prasad et al.,
1992). These results indicated that there is greater scope for scheduling the irrigation
water for rice crop under unpuddled condition. Further, providing need-based irrigation
by taking rainfall into consideration, considerable quantity of irrigation water can be
saved. Hence, irrigation treatments were included in this study.

With this background information, the present study was proposed with the
following objectives.

1. To evaluate the performance of Tella Hamsa (RNR-10754) to varied water

application levels on growth, yield and water productivity under aerobic
condition in Southern Telangana Zone in Andhra Pradesh.
2. To optimize the crop water requirement and estimate crop coefficients for
different stages for Tella Hamsa (RNR-10754) under aerobic condition.
 CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

As the concept of aerobic rice is of recent origin, much research work has not been
carried out pertaining to irrigation methods and schedules. The pertinent literatures
available are reviewed here under. There is still a need to investigate various agro-practices
in aerobic rice production and their standardization for optimization of irrigation water
input, weed control and nutrient management in different soil and agro-climatic conditions.

Unlike lowland rice, upland rice is grown in non-puddled, non-saturated (i.e.,

aerobic) soil without water. When rainfall is insufficient, irrigation is applied to bring the
soil water content in the root zone up to field capacity. Rice could be grown aerobically
under irrigated just like upland crops. Such as wheat or maize (Bouman and Toung, 2001).

The new concept of aerobic rice entails the use of nutrient-responsive cultivars that
are adapted to aerobic soils (Bouman, 2001), aiming at yields of 70-80 per cent of high-
input flooded rice.

Aerobic rice like irrigated rice (anaerobic) would be better served by higher root
number plant-1, root hair density and root volume that play a role in efficient and effective
uptake of the readily available water (Girishetal.,2006).

A new development in water-saving technologies is the concept of aerobic rice

(Bouman 2001 and Bouman et al., 2005). In aerobic rice systems, fields remain
unsaturated throughout the season. Rice has been grown under non flooded, aerobic soil
conditions in uplands for centuries, but yields are on an average only 1-2 t ha-1 (Maclean et
al., 2002).

The direct seeded aerobic rice is characterized by sowing of dry seeds with the help
of monsoon rains and irrigation is given to keep the soil sufficiently moist by using tank,
canal and ground water. Dry seeded rice offers scope to advance crop establishment and to
make use of early season rain water (Tuong, 1999).
 Saving in irrigation water and increase in water productivity is possible if rice is
grown under aerobic conditions like an irrigated upland crop. For rice to succeed as an
aerobic crop, it should tolerate intermittent water deficits and high soil impedance created
due to aerobic conditions (Lafitte et al., 2002).

Direct seeding reduces labour requirement, shortens the crop duration by 7 - 10 days
and can produce as much grain yield as that of transplanted crop. It needs only 34% of the
total labour requirement and saves 29% of the total cost of the transplanted crop (Ho and
Romil, 2000).

Aerobic rice management eliminates water required for puddling and reduces water
losses due to evaporation and percolation and there by reduces the total irrigation
requirements by 30 - 50% (Castaneda et al., 2001).

Irrigated aerobic rice is a new system being developed for lowland areas where
water shortage occurs and also favorable for upland areas with access to supplemental
irrigation. It entails the cultivation of nutrient responsive cultivars in non saturated soil with
sufficient external inputs to reach yields of 70-80 per cent of high input flooded rice
(Belder et al., 2005).

Rice could be grown aerobically under irrigated condition just like upland crops,
such as wheat or maize (Bouman, 2001).

Aerobic rice is the practice of rice cultivated on un-puddled and un-flooded soil,
just like upland rice, but with higher inputs such as supplementary irrigation and fertilizers
(Bouman et al., 2002). The aerobic rice cultivation saves 40-50 per cent of water with
marginal reduction in grain yield of about 10-20 per cent (Singh and Chinnuswamy, 2006).
Wang et al. (2002) reported that in aerobic rice, water use was 60 per cent less than
that of flooded rice, requires less labour (55 per cent) and facilitates mechanization than
that of low land rice.

An analysis of the energy requirements for the aerobic rice (Oryza stiva L.) was
conducted by Chaudhary et al. (2008) at the Research farm of Project Directorate for
Cropping Systems research, Modipuram, Meerut during the year of 2000-01 to 2003-04
revealed that the energy use by irrigation represented the major part of total energy use,
accounting about 47.6 per cent followed by fertilizers about 32 per cent.

In early 1970’s, De Datta et al. (1973) tested the lowland variety IR-20 under
aerobic soil conditions with furrow irrigation at IRRI and observed 55 per cent water saving
as compared to flooding conditions, but the yield reduced to 3.4 t ha -1 as that of 8 t ha-1
under flooding condition.

In Australia, high yielding lowland rice cultivars grown under aerobic conditions
with supplemental irrigation saved water, with reduced yields as compared to flooding
situation (Blackwell et al., 1985).

Studies on rice grown under aerobic conditions reported that irrigation water was 20
to 50 per cent less than that of grain under flooded conditions (Westcott and Vines, 1986
and Cauley, 1990).

In Asia, ‘Upland rice’ is grown aerobically with minimal input use under upland
environment, as they are low-yielding in the adverse environment conditions (Lafitte et al.,
2002).

George et al. (2002) and Lafitte et al. (2002) identified some improved tropical
upland and lowland rice varieties that performed well under high-rainfall aerobic
conditions.

The IRRI has initiated its work on tropical aerobic rice systems and identified that
lowland variety ‘Magat’ and some upland genotypes like ‘APO’ and ‘CT 6510-24-1-2’
perform well under aerobic conditions (Amudha et al., 2009).

Reddy et al.(2010a), reported that Naveen recorded significantly higher grain yield
(4.57 t ha-1) and cultivars Erramallelu, Naveen and hybrid ARB 17(1) X 06 recorded 0.56,
0.43, 0.63 and 0.34, 0.62, 0.32 kg grain m-3 of water under aerobic and transplanted
conditions respectively from fifteen cultivars tested under aerobic condition.

Reddy et al. (2011b) reported that DRRH 1 (6.75 t ha-1) showed higher grain yield
under stressed as well as under normal flooded irrigation which might be due to the
maximum number of panicles m-2i.e., 341 under aerobic cultivation and 389 under flooded
conditions.

In aerobic systems high yields could be situated when aerobic rice is grown once in
four seasons, but not under continuous monocropping (Guimaraes and Stone, 2000).

Rajakumar et al. (2009) reported that important yield reducing factors in aerobic
systems are weeds, micronutrient deficiencies and nematodes. Yield decline under
monocropping of aerobic rice has been reported by George et al. (2002).

Chaudary et al. (2008) reported that under aerobic conditions, micro-nutrient

deficiencies (Iron and Zinc) and nematodes suppress the grain yields grown on raised beds
or flat beds and observed that weeds and instability of beds are important constraints under
this system.

2.1 Irrigation Schedules

2.1.1 Plant height

Nguyen et al. (2009) reported that there was no significant difference in plant height
and tiller number in aerobic rice grown on flat beds compared with saturated soil culture
treatments.

Hugar et al. (2009) reported that aerobic rice grown on flat beds recorded shorter
plants (71.3 cm). Jat et al. (2009) reported that plant height was shorter in direct seeded rice
than in transplanted rice.

At Coimbatore in semi dry rice, irrigation at weekly intervals upto 45 days after
emergence (DAE) recorded significantly higher plant height and tiller number than that of
irrigation at weekly intervals upto 60 DAE, fortnightly irrigations upto 45 and 60 DAE
(Asokaraja, 1998). Narayanasamy et al., (1991) reported that continuous wet condition
significantly produced higher total tiller number m-2 than the weekly wettings upto 15, 30 and
45 DAE and semi dry upto 15, 30 and 45 DAE in dry seeded irrigated rice. The crop raised as
semi dry upto 15 DAE was on par with weekly wetting upto 15 DAE and these two treatments
recorded significantly more no of tillers than that grown with weekly wettings upto 30, 45
DAE and semi dry upto 30 and 45 DAE.
 Nguyen et al. (2009) observed no significant difference in plant height andtiller
number among flooded (FL), aerated (AR) and saturated soil conditions (SSC),with 15 cm
(SSC15) and 30 cm (SSC3O) standing water below the soil surface.

2.1.2 Tiller number

Shekara et al. (2010) reported that irrigation scheduled at IW/CPE ratio of 2.5
recorded significantly more number of tillers hill-1 whereas in upland rice the plant
height and tiller number did not influence significantly due to different irrigation scheduled
at 0.8, 1.0 and 1.2 IW/CPE ratio (Vairavan et al., 1999).

More productive tillers were observed in direct sown crop over transplanted crop
due to more number of main culms and plant population per unit area (Gill et al., 2006 and
Peng et al., 2006 and Awan et al., 2007).

Awan et al. (2007) reported maximum productive tillers m-2 (336) in direct seeded
rice than in manual transplanted crop (229 tillers m-2). Similar results of higher effective
tillers under direct seeding method were also reported by Gill et al. (2006), which was
attributed to more plant population per unit area in direct sown crop under puddle
conditions. In contrast, Peng et al. (2006) reported maximum tillers m-2 under flooded rice
than under aerobic rice.
Ockerby and Fukai (2001) reported that crop growth was generally slower on furrow
irrigated raised beds than in normal flooded rice.

2.1.3 Leaf area index (LAI)

Gill et al. (2006) reported that maximum LAI ranging from 4.37 - 4.97 and 5.24 -
6.06 was recorded at 90 DAS, under direct seeding in 2002 and 2003, respectively.

Belder et al. (2005) reported that there was no significant difference in dry matter
production between the water regimes of continuous submergence and alternate
submergence at Philippines. However LAI was significantly higher with continuous
submergence.

LAI in aerobic plots was considerably lower than that in flooded plots (Bouman
et al., 2005). Contrarily Sudhir et al. (2011) reported that LAI was significantly higher at
all growth stages in direct seeded rice on flat beds than puddle transplanted rice. The
studies conducted by Gill et al. (2006) on growth and yield of direct seeded rice indicated
that more vegetative growth and maximum leaf area index (4.37 - 4.97) was obtained as
compared to transplanted rice (3.97 - 4.2) at 90 DAS.

2.1.4 Dry matter production (DMP)

Chunlin (2010) reported that the dry weight of the conventionally irrigated aerobic
rice was slightly higher than furrow irrigated rice on raised beds at the early growth stage,
but it was significantly higher in former rice culture at the final stage.

Kukal et al. (2009) found that the dry matter of rice grown on furrow irrigated beds
did not differ significantly from conventional rice. Nguyen et al. (2009) observed that total
dry matter production in aerobic rice on flat beds was lower than saturated soil systems and
flooded rice. At Los Banos, the Philippines, flooded rice produced maximum total biomass
than aerobic rice (Peng et al., 2006 and Belder et al., 2005).

Peng et al. (2006) observed that flooded rice produced maximum total biomass
(1202 g m-2) than aerobic rice (1091 g m-2) during both wet and dry seasons. However, there
was no significant difference between aerobic rice and flooded rice in bio-mass production
during early vegetative stage to mid tillering stage. In contrast, Gill et al. (2006) reported that
direct seeded rice produced significantly more dry matter as compared to transplanted rice.

Field trials by Kato et al. (2006) showed that the total dry matter (TDM) of cultivar
Nipponbare in rainfed conditions (1101 g m-2) was 15 per cent lower than that in flooded
lowland (1302 g m-2).

Patel et al. (2010) reported that total dry matter production was higher under
flooded condition as compared to aerobic condition. Contrarily, Nguyen et al. (2009)
recorded higher dry matter (DM) at harvest in the saturated soil condition (SSC) systems
than that of flooded system (FL). Peng et al. (2006) observed that the flooded rice produced
more above ground total biomass than aerobic rice.

Shekara et al. (2010) also reported that increased dry matter production at IW/CPE
ratio of 2.5 was comparable to lower IW/CPE ratios. Ramamoorthy et al. (1998) observed
significantly higher DMP at 1.5 IW/CPE ratio as compared to 1.0 IW/CPE ratio in upland
rice.
2.1.5 Days to 50 per cent flowering

Patel et al. (2010) reported that aerobic rice took more no of days to 50 per cent
flowering compared to flood irrigated rice. Ockerby and Fukai (2001) reported that paddy
rice reached anthesis l1-15 days earlier than the rice grown on furrow irrigated raised beds.

Days taken to 50 per cent flowering were significantly higher in rainfed compared
to continuous submergence (5.0 ± 2.5 cm ponded water) and 7.5 cm irrigation water one
day after disappearance of ponded water (Hugar et al., 2009).

2.1.6 Number of panicles m-2

Jat et al. (2009) reported that number of panicles were higher (307 m-2) in direct
seeded rice than in puddled transplanted rice whereas Hugar et al. (2009) observed lower
number of panicles in aerobic rice compared to SRI and transplanted rice. Prasad et al.
(1992) reported that number of panicles were significantly lowest in rainfed rice due to
paucity of moisture in root zone during dry periods of rainy season compared to irrigation
as different intervals. Reddy et al. (2010b) reported that maximum number of panicles m-2
were observed under flooded condition (389) compared to aerobic cultivation (341).

In semi dry rice, the number of panicles m-2 were significantly higher in weekly
irrigations upto 60 DAE than weekly irrigations upto 45 DAE, fortnightly irrigations upto
45 and 60 DAE (Asokaraja, 1998).

The number of panicles m-2 of the rice varieties were higher under aerobicconditions
than that under flooded conditions (Yang et al., 2001 ). In dry seeded irrigated rice, the panicle
number m-2 were significantly higher than that of continuous wet condition, semi dry upto 15
DAE and than that of weekly wettings upto 30 and 45DAE and semi dry upto 30 and 45 DAE
(Narayanasamy et al., 1991).

In dry seeded upland rice, Vairavan et al. (1999) did not observe significant impact of
irrigation schedule (0.8, 1.0 and 1.2 IW/ICPE ratio) on panicle number. Contrarily,
Ramamoorthy et al. (1998) found significant increase in productive tillers m-2 with increasing
moisture regime from 1.0 to 2.0 IW/CPE ratio. Samui et al. (1979) observed no significant
difference in effective tillers among the irrigation levels (0.4, 0.7 and 1 atm tension) in pre-
kharif direct seeded rice.
 Aerobic rice had lower grain filling percentage than flooded rice resulting in highest
per cent of unfilled spikelets (16.05) in aerobic rice and lowest per cent of unfilled spikelets
(12.53) in transplanted rice (Peng et al., 2006).

2.1.7 Number of grains panicle-1

Kukal et al. (2009) reported that the no of grains panicle -1 were more (151)
in rice grown on flat soil with flood irrigation than on furrow irrigated raised beds (146). In
flooded rice, spikelet number panicle -1 was greater than aerobic rice (Peng et al., 2006).
Sharma and Singh (2006) also reported an increase in number of grams panicle-1 (4.4%) in
rice grown on beds with furrow irrigation compared to conventional flat bed system.

Belder et al. (2005) recorded higher per cent of filled spikelets panicle-1 under
flooded condition (86.1 and 85) as compared to aerobic condition (75.7 and 73.5). Vories et
al. (2002) reported slightly higher grains paniele-1 for flooded rice than thatunder furrow
irrigated rice on beds.

The studies conducted at Ludhiana on direct seeded rice under irrigated conditions,
revealed that filled spikelets panicle-1 were significantly more with transplanted rice than
aerobic rice.

Similarly, higher number of grains panicle-1 (109 grains panicle-1) in transplanted

rice and lower grains (92 grains per panicle-1) in direct seeded rice were also reported by
Awan et al. (2007) because of favorable conditions for more availability and uptake of
water and nutrients to the transplanted crop during panicle growth period.

Xiaoguang, et al. (2001) observed lower number of filled spikelets panicle-1

under aerobic conditions than flooded conditions.

Patel et al. (2010) reported that spikelets panicle-1 were greater in flooded rice than in
aerobic rice. In direct seeded upland rice, the number of filled spikelets panicle-1 increased
significantly with increase in moisture regime from 1.0 to 2.0 IW/CPE ratio (Ramamoorthy et
al., 1998).

Significantly higher number of spikelets were recorded with irrigation scheduled at

weekly intervals upto 45 DAE as compared to irrigation scheduled at weekly intervals upto 60
DAE and irrigation scheduled at fortnightly intervals upto 45 and 60 DAE in semi dry rice
(Asokaraja, 1998). The spikelet number panicle-1 was not significantly influenced by irrigation
treatments of 0.8, 1.0 and 1.2 IW/CPE ratio in upland rice (Vairavan et al.,1999).

2.1.8 Test weight (gms)

Kukal et al. (2009) reported that test weight of rice grown on beds with furrow
irrigation was statistically at par with conventional puddled rice. Sharma and Singh, (2006)
observed that an increase in thousand grain weight (1.58 %) in rice grown on beds. Aerobic
rice had lower test weight than flooded rice (Peng et al., 2006).

Gill et al. (2006) reported that the panicle length and grain weight (test weight) did
not differ significantly on account of method of crop establishment. In contrast, than in direct
seeded rice (20.01 g) which was due to enhanced growth during grain development period.
Awan et al. (2007) recorded higher grain weight (22.49 g) in transplanted rice.

Significantly higher test weight was observed with irrigation scheduled at weekly
intervals upto 45 DAE as compared to irrigation scheduled at weekly intervals upto 60 DAE
and irrigation scheduled at fortnightly intervals upto 45 and 60 DAE (Asokaraja, 1998). In dry
seeded irrigated rice, test weight did not differ significantly with semi dry conditions upto 15,
30 and 45 DAE, weekly wettings upto 15, 30 and 45 DAE and continuous wet condition
(Narayanasamy et al., 1991 ).

Irrigation levels (0.4, 0.7 and 1 atmosphere tension) did not show any significant effect
on test weight in pre-kharif direct seeded rice (Samui et al., 1979).

Yang et al. (2001) found that the test weight was comparable when soil water content at
the root zone was maintained at 80-90 per cent throughout the season, 60-70 per cent
emergence to panicle initiation and 80-90 per cent at panicle initiation in aerobic rice.

2.1.9 Grain yield (kg ha-1)

Gathala et al. (2011) reported that rice yield was consistently highest in puddle
transplanted plots and lowest in rice grown on bed and furrow system. Kukal et al. (2010)
reported that difference in yield of rice grown on raised beds with furrow irrigation was 7-15
per cent lower to yield of puddle rice.
 Kukal et al. (2009) reported that the average grain yield of rice on furrow irrigated
beds was statistically on par with the conventional puddled rice, Gupta et al. (2003) reported
six per cent higher rice yield in raised bed - furrow irrigation method than in puddled
transplanted flats on farmer's fields. In contrary, Jat et al. (2009) reported that yield of direct
seeded rice on raised beds with furrow irrigation as compared with flat puddled rice was low
because rice on raised beds suffered from water stress, Ladha et al. (2008) reported that both
dry-seeded and transplanted rice on beds yielded less by 8 - 25 per cent, than that of
conventional puddled transplanted rice.

Field experiments by Xie et al. (2005) with seeding-rate treatments showed that a
seeding rate of 60-80 kg ha-1 produced a significantly higher yield (more than 6.0 t ha-1)
because of the higher proportion of productive tillers. They also suggested that nitrogen
fertilizer of no more than 120 kg N ha-1 could meet the need for aerobic rice growth with a
yield of 5.0-6.0 t ha-1.

Choudary et al. (2007) observed that rice yields on furrow irrigated raised beds that
were kept around field capacity were 32 - 42 per cent lower than that observed under flooded
conditions. On the other hand the flat beds and raised beds that were kept at field capacity
resulted in comparable grain yields and lower than that of flooded transplanted conditions.

Neiuwenhuis et al. (2002) observed 12 per cent reduction in yield of aerobic rice
`when compared to continuous submergence.

Experiments conducted at Rajendranagar and Jagtial with aerobic rice indicated that
the highest grain yield of 4.0-5.3 t ha-1 was recorded with water savings of around 50 per cent
compared with lowland transplanted rice (Reddy, 2005).

Continuous flooding had the highest irrigation water inputs, followed by alternate
wetting and drying irrigation, saturated soil culture in raised beds, flush irrigation in aerobic
soil, and fainted treatments. Rice yields did not differ significantly among water treatments
(Lu et al., 2002).

Kato et al. (2006) reported that the super-high-yielding cultivar Takanari achieved
yields greater than 10 t ha-1 with no yield penalty under aerobic conditions in three out of four
experiments. The favorable agronomic characteristic of Takanari was its ample sink capacity
(grain number x grain weight).

Shanna and Singh (2006) reported 17.30 per cent increase in yield kg ha-1 in rice
grown on furrow irrigated raised beds as compared to conventional system.

In irrigation experiments with HD297 close to Beijing, Bouman et al. (2006) obtained
yields of 2547-5289 kg ha-1 with 500-900 mm (irrigation plus rainfall) total water input.

Bouman et al. (2002) stated that the highest recorded aerobic rice yields were 4.7-6.6 t
ha-1, compared with 8-8.8 t ha-1 of lowland rice. The variety Han Dao 502 is most promising
because of its relatively high yield under both aerobic and Hooded conditions and because of
its good quality fetching a high market price.

Ockerby and Fukai (2001) reported that grain yield was slightly greater in
conventional flat bed system than that on raised beds. The yield of rice grown on raised
beds with continuous furrow irrigation to form a water table under the bed was similar to that
of rice grown in traditional method of transplanted rice.

Studies conducted on economic effect of different plant establishment techniques on

rice production at Lahore during 2001-02 and 2002-03 by Awan et al. (2007) indicated higher
grain yield with transplanting method (4.97 t ha-1) than with direct seeding method (3.01 t ha-1)
Similarly, higher grain and straw yields were also reported by Peng et al. (2006) in
transplanted rice over aerobic rice.

In contrast. Gill et al. (2006) reported significantly more grain yield with direct
seeding method over transplanted method, Gangwar and Tamar (2010) also stated that the
mean grain yield of direct seeded rice was 8.24% higher than that of transplanted rice.

Higher harvest index (HI) in case of flooded rice over aerobic rice was also reported
by Peng et al. (2006).

Patel et al. (2010) reported that grain yield of rice under aerobic conditions was 27.5
per cent lower than that recorded under flooded condition. Contrarily higher yields
under aerobic conditions were obtained with improved upland variety APo (Bouman etal.
2005).
 Prihar and Sandhu (1987) observed that irrigation at soil saturation/soil
cracking/alternate wetting and drying gave comparable yields to that of continuous shallow
submergence. Irrigation at booting alone or in combination with other growth stages
relieves the water stress caused by a dry period and significantly increases yield (Angadi
and Impathy 1996). On the other hand, irrigation did not affect yield when there was
sufficient rain.

In a field experiment done on wetlands at Agricultural college and Research

Institute, Tamilnadu Agricultural University, Coimbattore by Maheswari et al. (2007),
irrigation at IW/CPE of 1.2 recorded significantly higher crop growth rate and yield with
minimal proline accumulation, no moisture stress and sterility coefficient.

In a field experiment conducted by Jadhav et al. (2003) with upland rice cv,
Sugandha revealed that irrigations scheduled at 1.8 and 1.2 IW/CPE ratios recorded
significantly higher grain yield than the other irrigation at IW/CPE of 0.6.

In an experiment conducted by Choudhury and Singh (2007) at New Delhi during

rainy season of 2001 and 2002 on aerobic rice (Oryza sativa L.) cultivated on raised-beds
under different soil-moisture regimes (field capacity, 20 and 40 k Pa tensions), the yield
was considerably less on raised-beds, varying from 12-24per cent at field capacity to 40-
46per cent in beds irrigated at 40 k Pa soil-water tension compared with the direct-seeded
flat land at 20 cm row spacing.

Rice crop irrigated at 1.2 IW/CPE ratio resulted in highest yield compared to other
treatments (Singh et al., 2003).

In semi dry rice, weekly irrigations upto 45 DAE has registered significantly higher
grain yield over that of fortnightly irrigation upto 45 and 60 DAE (Asokaraja, 1998).
Maheswari et al. (2007) in aerobic rice reported that irrigation at 1.2 IW/CPE ratio recorded
significantly higher grain yield than 0.8 and 1.0 IW/CPE ratio and micro sprinkler irrigation
once in 3 days.

Vairavan et al. (1999) observed that the grain yield did not differ among irrigation
scheduled at 0.8, 1.0 and 1.2 IWICPE ratio. Ramamoorthy et al. (1998) recorded higher
grain yield at 2.0 IW/CPE ratio than 1.5 and 1.0 IW/CPE ratio in direct seeded upland rice.
 Samui et al. (1979) reported that grain yield was significantly reduced due to
irrigation at 1.0 atm tension over more frequent irrigations i.e. at 0.4 and0.7 atm tension, but
there was no significant difference in yield between 0.4 and 0.7 atm tension.

2.1.10 Straw yield

The straw yield did not vary significantly in aerobic rice grown on flat beds compared
to drum seeder, zero tillage method and transplanted rice (Hugar et al., 2009).

The superiority of aerobic cultivars under upland conditions appears to be a function of

their higher harvest index (HI) under aerobic conditions. Both aerobic and irrigated varieties
achieved m of over 45 per cent in lowland environments, but the HI of irrigated varieties
declined in upland environments, whereas that of aerobic varieties remained relatively high
(Atlin et al., 2004).

Weekly irrigations upto 45 DAE has registered significantly higher straw yield over
fortnightly irrigations upto 45 and 60 DAE in semi dry rice (Asokaraja, 1998). In dry seeded
irrigated rice, Narayanasamy et al. (1991) recorded comparable straw yields among semi dry
upto 15 DAE, weekly wettings upto 15 and 30 DAE and continuous wet.

Straw yield recorded at 2.0 IW/CPE ratio was higher than 1.5 and 1.0 IW/CPE ratio in
direct seeded upland rice (Ramamoorthy et al., 1998). Samui et al. (1979) reported that straw
yield was significantly reduced due to irrigation at 1.0 atm tension over more frequent
irrigations (0.4 and 0.7 atm), but there was no significant difference in straw yield between 0.4
and 0.7 atm tension.

In direct seeded medium duration rice there was no significant difference in straw
yield among irrigation schedules of 3, 5 and 7 days after disappearance of 7 cm ponded water
(Pradeep et al., 1994).

Sudhir et al. (2011a) reported that straw yield declined as irrigation threshold
increased from 20 to 70 kPa, with a greater decline in direct seeded rice than that in puddled
transplanted rice.
2.2 Water use studies
2.2.1 Water requirement (mm)

The direct seeded aerobic rice is a typical technology, wherein an additional 130-150
mm of water input can be saved by foregoing the wet land preparation (Bouman et al., 2005).
The conventional transplanting method of rice used higher quantity of water (16,200 m3 ha-1)
whereas aerobic rice used minimum quantity (9,687 m3 ha-1) and observed a water saving of
32.9 to 43.9 per cent over transplanted rice (Geethalakshmi et al., 2009). Similarly Reddy et
al, (2010a) found 31-37 per cent of water saving in aerobic rice as compared to transplanted
rice. Water requirement was less in aerobic rice (842 and 940 mm) as compared to flooded
rice (1233 and 1473 mm) in 2002 and 2003 (Belder et al., 2005).

Under moisture stress condition, the moisture extraction pattern by dry seeded rice is
more uniform with extraction of more water from deeper layers, Singh et al. (2005) reported
that during drought period, dry seeded crop registered significantly lower soil moisture tension
levels and more uniform water tension profile with respect to different soil depths than in wet
seeded and transplanted rice soil.

Flooded rice used three times more irrigation water (358 mm) than aerobic rice(89
mm) for land preparation and twice during the crop growth period (1148 and 481 mm). There
was a yield reduction of 27-29 per cent during dry season and 20 per cent during wet season,
when shifted from flooded to aerobic conditions (Casteneda et al., 2004).

Water requirement of low land rice varies from 1500 to 3000 mm. In aerobic rice
production system, continuous seepage and percolation and evaporation losses are greatly
reduced, it effectively utilizes the rainfall and help in enhancing the water productivity
(Bouman et al., 2005).

A study conducted at IARI, New Delhi indicated that the lower water input, kept at
field capacity in direct seeded rice reduced the rates of evapotranspiration (22-31%) and
percolation (22-38%) as compared to flooder (Choudhury et al., 2008).

In 2003-2004, irrigation vs nitrogen experiments carried out near Beijing using variety
HD297 (Xue et al., 2008), the highest yields was 4460 kg ha-1 with 688 mm of total (rain plus
irrigation) water input in 2003 and 6026 kg ha-1 with 705 mm of water input in 2004.
 Singh and Chinnusamy (2006) reported that irrigation scheduled at 20 kPa soil
moisture tension in aerobic rice system helps in saving of 35 per cent water. Ghosh and Singh
(2010) reported that irrigation at 20 and 40 kPa soil moisture tension resulted in more than 40
per cent water saving and produced grain yield at par with the irrigation scheduled at 0 kPa.
Contrarily in Philippines, irrigation scheduled at 30 kPa moisture tension led to 40 per cent
water saving but with 27 per cent yield reduction(Bouman et al,, 2005).

A Four-year experiment conducted in Beijing (China) from 2001 to 2004 by Jun etal.
(2008) indicated that the highest daily ET occurred at the stage from booting to heading stage
with the average value of 9.8 mm day-1. Therefore, booting to heading is the key stage of
water requirement for aerobic rice.

Shekara et al. (2010) observed that in aerobic rice irrigation scheduled at 2.5
IW/CPE ratio required more water (154.8 cm), compared to irrigation scheduled at IW/CPE
ratio of 1.0 (91.48 cm). Ramamoorthy et al. (1998) found that the water requirement in
upland direct seeded rice was more under moisture regime of 2.0 IW/CPE ratio than 1.5
and 1.0 IW/CPE ratio. Singh et al. (2003) reported that in paddy the irrigation should be
applied at 1.2 ratio IW/CPE (4-5 irrigations) for getting at par grain yield with irrigations
given at field capacity (10-11 irrigations).

Sudhir et al. (2011b) reported that there was 30-50 per cent irrigation water saving
in direct seeded rice compared with puddled transplanted rice when irrigation scheduled at
20 kPa wherein the aerobic rice system offers reduced seepage and runoff, which more than
compensated for the increased deep drainage in direct seeded rice.

The results from the pot culture experiments indicated that the evaporation,
evapotranspiration, and seepage using the furrow irrigation technique decreased by 23.6,
29.6, and 74.1 per cent with the total water saving of 37.84 per cent as compared to
conventional irrigation (Chunlin, 2010).

Gill et al. (2006) studied the growth pattern and yield of direct seeded rice as
influenced by different seeding techniques and seed rates and reported higher water
productivity in direct seeded rice ranging from 0.40 to 0.46 kg m-3 as against transplanted
rice (0.29 to 0.39 kg m-3).
 In experiments at Japan by Kato et al. (2006) in aerobic fields, the total amount of
water supplied (irrigation plus rainfall) was 800-1300 mm. The average water productivity
under aerobic conditions was 0.8-1.0 kg grain m-3 water. The average yield under aerobic
conditions was similar to or even higher than that achieved with flooded conditions (7.9 t
ha-1 in 2007 and 9.4 t ha-1 in 2008 for aerobic conditions versus 8.2 t ha -1 for flooded
situation).

Jat et al. (2009) observed that the total water application in direct drill seeded rice
on furrow irrigated raised beds was lower than puddled transplanted rice by 8-20 per cent
and also reported that rice on raised bed had 6 per cent less water use than flat bed
Choudary et al. (2007) reported that the furrow irrigated raised beds consumed 100-120
mm less water than the flat bed dry seeded rice with 20 cm row spacing. Further, in raised
beds irrigation scheduled at 20 kPa received 70 mm less irrigation water than raised beds
kept at field capacity.

2.2.2 Water use efficiency (WUE) (kg ha-1 mm- 1)

Kukal et al. (2009) reported that irrigation water applications to furrow irrigated
beds tended to be lower than that of permanent beds and puddled transplanted rice (by 11
and 24 %) on sandy loam and loam soils. Gill et al. (2006) reported that the irrigation
water productivity of rice on beds and furrow system was significantly higher (0.69 g kg-1)
than that of paddy raised on puddled flat plots. Jat et al. (2009) reported that water
productivity in direct drill seeded rice on raised beds was lower than other crop irrigation
methods.

Sudhir et al. (2011) reported 30-50 per cent higher water productivities with 20 kPa
irrigation in case of direct seeded rice as compared to puddled transplanted rice.

Reddy et al. (2010a) reported that the water productivity was higher under aerobic
(0.20 to 0.60 kg m-3 of water) than that under transplanted (0.14 to 0.43 kg m-3 of water)
condition. Gill et al. (2006) reported that water productivity in direct seeded rice was 0.34
and 0.76 kg grain m-3 in 2002 and 2003, respectively.

Under aerobic conditions, the WUE of aerobic rice cultivars was higher (0.65 0.83 g
grain kg-1 water for HD 502) compared to the WUE of lowland cultivar JD 305,which was
0.26 to 0.66 g grain kg-1 water (Xiaoguang et al., 2002).

The WUE was higher with irrigation at weekly interval upto 60 DAE followed by
weekly irrigations upto 45 DAE and whereas fortnightly irrigations both upto 45 and 60
DAE registered lower WUE in semi dry rice (Asokaraja, 1998).

Patel et al. (2010) found higher WUE of aerobic rice compared to flooded
condition. Similar results were also reported by Singh et al. (2008). Shekara et al.
(2010) reported that irrigation scheduled at IW/CPE ratio of 2.5 required more water
(154.8 cm) leading to lower WUE (41.31 kg ha-1 cm-1), whereas irrigation scheduled at
IW/CPE ratio of 1.0 consumed lowest total water (91.48 cm) and recorded higher WUE
(52,09 kg ha-1 cm-1). Maheswari et al. (2007) reported higher water consumption in
aerobic rice under microsprinkler irrigation due to high irrigation frequency followed by
1.2, 1.0 and 0.8 IW/C PE ratios. Ramamoorthy et al. (1998) found that the WUE was
the highest under moisture regime of 1.5 IW/CPE ratio than 2.0 and 1.0 IW/CPE ratio in
upland direct seeded rice.

Hira et al. (2002) reported that irrigation with 160 ± 20 cm soil matric suction, the
WUE was the maximum (32.6 kg ha-1 cm-1) followed by 30.4 kg ha-1 cm-1 under 120 ± 20
cm suction and 26.1 kg ha-1cm-1 under 80 ± 20 cm suction, It was minimum (22.2
kg ha-1 cm-1) under the recommended practice of irrigation.

In direct seeded medium duration rice, no significant difference in WUE was

observed among irrigation schedules of 3, 5 and 7 days after disappearance of 7
cm ponded water (Pradeep et al., 1994). Pathak et al. (1999) recorded higher WUE
with application of water 6 days after disappearance of ponded water over 3 days
after disappearance of ponded water in upland summer rice.

A study conducted on farmers field at Chintalapudi, Guntur (Andhra Pradesh)

during 2004-05 on clay loam soils with five rice production systems indicated that the
water saving through semi-dry rice with rotational irrigation was 20% with a water use
efficiency of 6.1 kg ha-1 mm-1 compared to farmers practice of transplanting with
continuous flooding (5.2 kg ha-1 mm-1) (Jat et al., 2009).

According to Wang et al. (2002) total water productivity of aerobic rice was 1.6 to
1.9 times higher and water use about 60 per cent less than lowland rice.

According to Bouman et al. (2002) experiments on aerobic rice have shown that
water inputs were more than 50 per cent lesser (only 470-650 mm) and water productivities
were 64-88 per cent higher than the lowland rice, but require improved varieties bred
specifically for aerobic condition.

From the pertinent literature available, it could be concluded that rice can be
grown under aerobic conditions like any other upland crop by developing different agro-
practices like nutrient management, irrigation methods and schedules for reaping a
bountiful yield while saving water.

2.2.3. Crop coefficient (Kc)

For rice the Crop coefficient(Kc) values were more than 1.0 for all the growth
stages. The highest being from middle to last stage. The crop water requirement was
measured under 6 cm continuous submergence and hence the higher Kc values (Reddy et
al., 1983).

The weekly average Kc values derived for groundnut, paddy, tobacco and sugarcane
crops in the Tirupati, Nellore, Rajahmundry and Anakapalli regions of Andhra Pradesh,
India respectively using lysimeter measured ETc and PM ET0 were compared with those
recommended in FAO. The Kc curve, fitted to follow the trend similar to that
recommended in FAO, significantly deviated for most of the crops at different stages of
crop growth, barring a few exceptions. A third order polynomial Kc model for different
crops in the regions was developed for reasonable ETc estimation. The weekly ETc values
computed based on Kc values estimated using the models proposed were comparable with
those of lysimeter measured ETc. The Kc models proposed may therefore be applied in the
regions selected for the present study for satisfactory weekly ETc estimation (Jyothy et al.,
2011).

2.3 Root studies

Root studies conducted with 20 rice genotypes in pot culture revealed that the
higher root length was resultant of highest grain yield under upland conditions (Kumari et
al., 2005). APHR 2, Erramallelu, MTU 9993, MS Vari, Rasi and MTU 1001 recorded
maximum root length at 35 days after sowing.

Maheswari et al. (2007) reported that there was a significant increase of plant root
volume (29.33 cc plant-1) and productive tillers (361.9 m-2) under irrigation at IW/CPE of
1.2 as compared to 0.8 and 1.0 ratios.

Aerobic rice like irrigated rice (anaerobic) would be better served by higher root
number plant-1, root hair density and root volume that play a role in efficient and effective
uptake of the readily available water (Girish et al., 2006).

Deep rooting has been emphasized as an important adaptation to stress in rice.

Among the thirty hybrids evaluated by Amudha and Thiyagarajan (2008) at Coimbattore,
twelve hybrids had significant mean values for root length under aerobic conditions (20-
25.25 cm).

According to Naoki, et al. (2009) large genotypic differences in root hydraulic

conductivity in response to water regime, and that root hydraulic conductivity was highly
correlated with shoot dry weight only under repeated water stress conditions and hence is a
promising trait for breeding new rice cultivars adapted to aerobic rice systems.

Kondo et al. (2000) reported that root length was largely suppressed under severe
stress (no water supply) compared with mild stress (intermittent water supply).

An experiment conducted on upland rice cv. IR50, in Assam revealed that the 3-day
intermittent irrigation significantly increased root volume compared the rainfed treatment
(Pathak et al., 2001).

Higher root length (17.32 cm) in line transplanted and lowest root length (12.08 cm)
in soaked seed drilled in zero-tilled soil was reported by Awan et al. (2007). Gangwar and
tomar (2010) reported higher root dry weight under direct- seed rice compared to
transplanted rice.

Rice plants grown under intermittent irrigation management have higher root
activity, produce more tillers per hill and biomass and in general, their leaves have higher
chlorophyll content (Shi et al., 2002).
2.4 Soil NPK status after harvest

Majumdar et al. (2007) observed increased N, P and K uptake by upland rice with
increased levels of N from 0 to 60 kg ha-1.

Yan et al. (2007) reported that the apparent use efficiencies of applied N, P and K
were 33.4 per cent, 3.0 per cent and 8.5 per cent for rice. Producing one tonne of rice grain
required 14.9 to 33.7 kg N, 2.9 to 5.9 kg P and 17.9 to 38.1 kg K and N is the main factor
affecting the yield of aerobic rice.

Prasad and Rafey (1995) reported that the average increase in nutrient uptake by
upland rice was 16.6 kg N ha-1, 11.0 kg P ha-1 and 27.0 kg K ha-1 with integrated weed
management.

The N, P and K uptake by upland rice crop was found to be the highest when
supplied with 90 kg N ha-1 (Ramana et al., 2005).

The literature on semi-dry rice (Nalini et al.,2008) revealed that green manure dual
cropping resulted in reduced weed flora, higher weed smothering efficiency, lower nutrient
removal by weeds, higher growth and yield of rice, nutrient uptake and improved soil
fertility status.

2.5 Economics

Samar et al. (2008) recorded that Aerobic Direct Seeded Rice (ADSR) treatment
produced yield and net economic returns similar to Conventionally Puddled Transplanted
Rice (CPTR) treatment when weeds were controlled. The ADSR was as effective as
conventionally puddle-transplanted rice in attaining higher rice grain yield and net returns
when weeds were kept under control.

The findings of Awan et al. (2007) indicated that the cost-benefit ratio was high in
case of transplanting method (1 : 1.62) than in direct seeded method (1 : 1.47) due to higher
grain yield obtained in transplanted rice. In contrast, direct sown rice recorded the highest
net returns (Rs.22,061 ha-1) and B : C ratio of (1: 1.90) as compared to transplanted rice net
returns (Rs.17,515 ha-1) and (B: C ratio, 1: 1.65) indicating that direct seeded rice fetched
26% higher net returns than traditional transplanted rice (Gangwar and Tomar 2010).
 Chapter III

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The present investigation entitled “Irrigation management in aerobic rice’’

was conducted during rabi 2014-15. Details of the materials and methods followed
during the course of investigation are briefly presented in this chapter.

3.1 Location of the Experimental Site

The experiment was carried out at College Farm, College of Agriculture,
Rajendranagar, Hyderabad. The farm is geographically situated at 78˚ 24 43.7
East Longitude and 17˚ 19 16.4 North Latitude and an altitude of 542.6 m above
mean sea level. The climate zone of Hyderabad is Tropical semi-arid.

3.2 Weather during the Crop Growth Period

The data pertaining to various weather parameters prevailed during the

experimental period were collected from the meteorological observatory, Agromet cell,
Agricultural Research Institute, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad and are presented in
Appendix –A.
The mean weekly maximum and minimum temperatures during the crop growth
period ranged from 28.3 C to 33.7 C and 10.8 C to 19.7 C respectively. The
mean relative humidity varied from 46.4 to 63 % and the mean daily bright sunshine
hours in a week varied from 1.5 to 9.2. The mean weekly wind velocity values ranged
from 1.7 to 14.8 kmph while the mean pan evaporation data (USDA- Class A pan)
recorded during the crop growth period ranged from 3.2 to 5.8 mm d-1 with an average
of 4.5 mm d-1. A total rainfall of 40.2 mm was received including 4 rainy days during
the entire crop growth period (appendices-A).

3.3 Characteristics of the Experimental Site

3.3.1 Physical and chemical properties of soil

Soil samples were drawn at random from 0 to 30 cm soil depth from the
experimental plot were analyzed for their physico-chemical properties by adopting
standard procedures and the results are summarized here under (Table 3.1).
 The soil was sandy clay loam in texture, alkaline in reaction and non-saline
(Table 3.1). The fertility status of the experiment soil was low in organic carbon and
available nitrogen, medium in available phosphorus and high in available potassium.
The infiltration rate was moderate (2.38 cm h-1).

Table 3.1. Physical, Physico chemical and chemical properties of the experimental
soil.

S. No. Particulars Value Method

A Physical properties
Mechanical analysis
1 a) Sand (%) 62.4
b) Silt (%) 14.2
c) Clay (%) 22.40 Bouyoucos hydrometer
method (Piper, 1966)
Sandy clay loam
2 Textural class
3 Doublering infiltrometer
Infiltration rate (cm h-1) 2.38
(Singarao et al., 2005)
B Physico-Chemical properties
Glass electrodepH meter
1 pH{1:2.5soil: water} 8.20 (L 1612)
2 Electrical conductivity Soluble method using 308 uc
(ds m-1) 0.8 TDS meter
{1:2.5 soil: water}
3 Walkey and Black’s modified
Organic carbon (%) 0.15
method (Jackson, 1967)
C Chemical properties
Alkaline permanganate
-1
1 Available nitrogen (kg ha ) 264 method using Kelplus N-
analyser (Subbaiah and Asija,
1956)
Vanado molybdo phosphoric
2 Available P (kg ha-1) 36 yellow colour method using
UV-5704SS spectro
photometer at 420 nm (Piper,
1966)
 Neutral ammonium acetate
-1
3 Available K ((kg ha ) 324 method using Flame
Photometer CL-361 (Piper,
1966)

3.3.2 Moisture holding properties

Moisture retention capacity of the experimental field was estimated at -

0.01M.Pa and -1.5 M.Pa using pressure plate apparatus (Richards, 1949) and the bulk
density of the experimental soil was estimated for each 30 cm soil depth up to 90 cm by
following the standard procedures given below (Dastane, 1972) and the resultant data
was presented in the Table 3.2.
BD = Weight of oven dry soil
(g.cc-1) Volume of soil

Amount of moisture in soil (cm) = Moisture content of soil (%) x BD x depth (cm)

The total available soil moisture i.e. the difference between -0.1 MPa and 1.5 MPa in
0-90 cm soil depth amounted to 111.5 mm.

Table 3.2. Moisture retention characteristics of the experimental soil

Soil depth Soil moisture content (%) at Bulk density Available soil
(cm) Field capacity Permanent (cc-1) moisture (mm)
(0.1 MPa) wilting point
(-1.5 MPa)
0-30 25.80 13.10 1.48 56.38
30-60 27.20 14.30 1.52 58.82
60-90 26.50 13.80 1.51 57.53

3.4 Previous crop history

The cropping history of the experimental site for the previous two years was
summarized in Table 3.3.
Table 3.3 Previous crop history of the experimental site

S. No. Year Cropping pattern

Kharif Rabi Summer
1 2012-13 Sunhemp Rice Fallow
2 2013-14 Rice Rice Fallow
3 2014-15 Fallow (Aerobic rice)
Present
investigation

3.5 Experimental Details

3.5.1 Design and layout

The experiment was conducted during rabi 2014-15. It was laid out in a
Randomized Block Design with four replications and five irrigation treatments.
Irrigation channel (0.50 m) was drawn as shown in layout plan by providing buffer
channel (0.75 m) to separate each treatment.

3.5.2 Treatment details : (Irrigation levels - 5)

1) I1- Irrigation scheduling at IW/CPE = 1.00

2) I2- Irrigation scheduling at IW/CPE = 1.25
3) I3- Irrigation scheduling at IW/CPE = 1.50
4) I4- Irrigation scheduling at IW/CPE = 1.75
5) I5- Irrigation scheduling at IW/CPE = 2.00

3.5.3 Plot size:

Gross plot size : 6.8 m x 6.0 m

Net plot size : 6.0 m x 5.4 m

3.5.4 Spacing : 20 cm x 15 cm
3.6 Varietal Details

Tella Hamsa (RNR-10754) is a high yielding, medium duration variety with 120 to
125 days. It is a cross between HR12 x T(N)1 and was released by Andra Pradesh
Agricultural University in 1971. This variety is tolerant to cold and suitable for
cultivation in both kharif and rabi seasons. Grain is white, long slender with good
cooking quality.

3.7 Cultivation Details

3.7.1 Field preparation

The experimental area was ploughed with a tractor drawn MB plough followed
by disc harrow and cultivator to obtain the required tilth and finally levelled with
levelling blade for direct sowing of rice seeds. The experiment was laid out into
different experimental plots with provision for irrigation channels according to the
layout plan presented in Fig 1.

3.7.2 Seeds and sowing

A seed rate of 80 kg ha-1 was used for dry sowing of aerobic rice. The seed was
treated with Carbendazim @ 1 g kg-1 seed and then dibbled @ 2-3 seed hill-1 with a
spacing of 20 x 15 cm. Thinning and gap filling were done at 10 DAS to maintain the
uniform plant stand in all the plots.

3.7.3 Fertilizer application

Recommended dose of fertilizers was applied to the crop i.e.150-60-40 kg of N,

P2O5 and K2O ha-1. Nitrogen was applied in the form of urea @ 150 kg N ha-l in three
equal splits each at sowing, active tillering and particle initiation stages. Phosphorous @
60 kg P205 ha-1 as single super phosphate and zinc (50 kg ZnSO4 ha-1) were applied as a
basal dose to all the treatments uniformly at the time of sowing. Potassium @ 40 kg K20
ha-1 was applied as muriate of potash in two equal splits, each at sowing and at boot
lead stage as bands in the seed furrows.

3.7.4 Cultural practices

Gapfillingwasdoneoneweekafterseedlingemergencewiththereservedseedof
the same variety
3.7.5 Irrigation
Initially, one life saving irrigation was given. Crop was raised under rainfed
conditions till 15 DAS and first irrigation of 50 mm was given. Subsequent
irrigations were scheduled as per the assigned IW: CPE ratios. In IW:CPE ratio
approach, 50 mm depth of irrigation water was applied uniformly to all the
treatments and subsequent irrigations were scheduled when cumulative pan
evaporation (CPE) reached the level of 50 mm, 40 mm, 33.33 mm, 28.57 mm and
25 mm in order to get IW: CPE ratio of 1.0, 1.25, 1.50, 1.75 and 2.0 respectively.
The daily` pan evaporation data were obtained from standard USWB Class A pan
evaporimeter located at Agromet cell, ARI, Rajendranagar. The soil moisture
content was measured with profile probe soil moisture sensor (PR-2). Initially the
soil moisture retention capacities at different suction levels including 0.1 bar and 15
bars were estimated for every 30 cm soil depth up to 90 cm depth using pressure
plate apparatus.

3.7.6 Weeding

Pre emergence application of Butachlor @ 2 ml l-1 of water was done

immediately after sowing followed by hand weeding at 20, 40 and 60 DAS on beds
to maintain weed free crop growth environment.

3.7.7 Plant protection

No major insect pest and disease incidence was observed during the crop growth
period.However, as a precautionary measure, monocrotophos@1.6ml l-1 of water was
sprayed at 90DAS. In aerobic rice during early stages of crop growth iron deficiency
was noticed. Ferrous ammonium sulphate @25g + citric acid 2.0gl-1 of water was
mixed and sprayed twice at weekly intervals to connect the iron deficiency.

3.7.8 Harvesting

The crop from the net plot area was harvested separately and threshing was done
by beating against hard surface. The grain was sun dried to 14 percent moisture content,
winnowed, cleaned and weighed plot wise.
3.8 Observations Recorded
3.8.1 Sampling technique

Five hills were randomly selected from the net plot and ear marked. All the
successive biometric observations during the crop growth were recorded periodically
from these labeled plants. Destructive sampling technique was adopted at 20, 50, 90,
110 DAS and at harvest for leaf area index and dry matter estimation.

3.9 Growth Characters

Growth characters observed according to the corresponding stages of the plant

i.e. initial stage (20 DAS), maximum tillering (50 DAS), flowering (90 DAS),
physiological maturity (110 DAS) and harvest stages were recorded.

3.9.1 Initial plant stand (m-2)

Total number of seedlings emerged in 5 rows of one m-2 length was recorded in
each plot at 15 DAS and expressed as per cent.

3.9.2 Plant height (cm)

Plant height (cm) from base to top of the new leaf or flag leaf was recorded from
five tagged plants at 20, 50, 90, 110 DAS and at harvest.

3.9.3 Leaf Area Index

The leaf area was measured at 20, 50, 90, 110 DAS and at harvest with LI 3100 Leaf
Area Meter (LICOR INC. Linocolin, Nebraska, USA). At each sampling plants from
one m running length row were pulled out and green leaves were separated and were fed
to Leaf Area Meter. The leaf area index was calculated by dividing the total leaf area
with the corresponding ground area as suggested by Watson (1952).

Leaf area index was calculated by using the following formula.

LAI = Total leaf area

Unit ground area
3.9.4 Number of Tillers (m-2)

Total number of tillers in each treatment was recorded at 20, 50, 90, 110 DAS and at
harvest in demarcated one m-2 area.

3.9.5 Dry matter production (g m-2)

From an area of one m-2, the plants were uprooted carefully and roots were
removed from basal stem portions. The samples were first dried in shade for one day
and then oven dried at 60˚ C till the constant weight was obtained. The plant samples
were collected at 20, 50, 90, 110 DAS and at harvest stage. The oven dry weight of
plant samples was expressed as g m-2.

3.9.6 Days to 50% Flowering

Number of days taken to attain 50% flowering was recorded and presented as
days to 50% flowering.

3.10 Yield attributes and yield

The following data were collected at harvest for assessing the effect of irrigation
schedules on yield attributes and yield.

3.10.1 Number of panicles (m-2)

At harvest, one m2 area were marked in each plot of net plot area and the
panicles were counted and presented as panicles m -2.

3.10.2 Panicle length (cm)

Panicles were collected from ten randomly tagged plants per plot and panicle
length (cm) was measured from base of the panicle to tip of the panicle.

3.10.3 Number of grains panicle-1

After counting the productive tillers, the panicles were used for determining the
number of filled and unfilled grains panicle-1. Ten panicles were randomly selected and
the number of both filled and unfilled grains from each panicle was counted. Later the
average filled and unfilled grains per panicle were worked out.
3.10.4 Test weight (g)

Weight of 1000 grain (g) for each treatment was recorded and expressed in
grams (g).

3.10.5 Grain yield (kg ha-1)

The grain yield (kg ha-1) was recorded for individual treatment from the net plot
after thorough drying and expressed as kg ha-1.

3.10.6 Straw yield (kg ha-1)

The straw harvested from the net plot area was sun dried and weight was
presented as kg.ha-1.

3.11 Root Studies

Roots of five plants marked for destructive sampling were carefully removed with a
shovel and thoroughly washed. A beaker with water up to the brim was taken and each
root after cutting the stem base was immersed in the beaker for measuring the volume.
The water replaced from the beaker was measured with measuring cylinder and
expressed as cc hill-1. Root volume was recorded at 20, 50, 90 DAS and at harvest
stages.

3.12 Soil analysis

The final soil samples (post harvest) were drawn from each treatment plots and
analysed for available nitrogen (Subbiah and Asija, 1956), available phosphorous
(Olsen et al., 1954) and available potassium.

3.13 Water Use Studies

3.13.1 Reference crop evapotranspiration[ETo]

The
- evapotranspiration rate from an extensive surface of green grass of uniform
height (0.12m), actively growing, completely shading the ground with an albedo of 0.23
and not short of soil water is called a s ‘ Reference crop evapotranspiration’ and is
denoted by ETo. The only factors affecting ETo are climatic parameters. Consequentl y ,
ETo is a climatic parameter and can be computed from weather data.
 ETo expresses the evaporating power of the atmosphere at a specific location
and time of the year and does not consider the crop characteristics and soil factors. Thus,
in the present study the Pan Evaporation method was used to determine ETo.

3.13.2 Pan evaporation method:

Evaporation from pan provides a measurement of the integrated effect of

radiation, wind, temperature and humidity on evaporation from an open water surface.
In a similar fashion, the plant responds to the same climate variables but several major
factors may produce significant differences in loss of water.

To relate pan evaporation to ETo empirically derived pan coefficients are

suggested which take into account climate, type of pan and pan environment. The
USWB class A pan is the best and most common in India. The pan coefficients (Kp)
presented together with measured pan evaporation data (E pan) reflect the effect of
climate on ETo. Since pan evaporation method is simple, fairly reliable and inexpensive,
this prediction method can be adopted under Indian conditions.

ETo = Kp. Epan

Values of Kp for different ground covers, RH and wind velocity are given in
annexure-E.

3.13.3 Total water used

The amount of water applied under each irrigation treatment was measured
through water meters. The effective rain fall received in the crop growth period was
added to this and expressed as total water used in mm.

3.13.4 Water Use Efficiency (kg / ha - mm)

Water use efficiency (WUE) is the yield that can be produced from a given
quantity of water. It was worked out by using the following formula and expressed as
kg / ha -mm.

WUE = Yield of crop (kg ha-1)

Total water used (mm)
3.13.5 Soil moisture estimation

Soil moisture content was estimated before and after each irrigation was
scheduled in 0-30 cm depth during the entire crop growth period. Soil samples were
collected using screw auger at 0-30 cm depth a day before and a day after irrigation was
given and the per cent soil moisture content available was estimated gravimetrically.

3.13.6 Crop coefficient (Kc)

Crop coefficient refers to the ratio between crop evapotranspiration and

reference crop evapotranspiration. It is calculated as follows.

Crop coefficient (Kc) = Crop evapotranspiration (ETc)

Reference evapotranspiration (ETo)

Crop coefficient curve is constructed by dividing crop growing period into four
growth periods and placing straight line segments through each of these periods with the
lines through the initial and mid-season periods being horizontal. The four growth
stages of crop growing period are as follows:
a) Initial period – Planting to 10% ground cover (30 DAS)
b) Crop development – 10% ground cover to effective cover (60 DAS)
c) Mid-season – Effective cover to start of maturity (90 DAS)
d) Late season – Start of maturity to harvest (120 DAS)
Crop evapotranspiration (ETc) was calculated by using moisture content in the
soil at one day before and after irrigation scheduled.

3.14 Economics

3.14.1 Gross monetary returns

Gross monetary returns (GMR) were calculated by multiplying the grain and
straw yield with prevailing market price.

3.14.2 Net returns

Net returns were calculated by subtracting the cost of cultivation from gross
returns for each treatment.
3.14.3 Benefit: cost ratio

Benefit: cost ratio was calculated by dividing gross returns with cost of
cultivation for each treatment.

Gross Returns (Rs ha-1)

Benefit-cost ratio = -----------------------------------
Cost of production (Rs ha-1)

3.15 Statistical Analysis

The data on various parameters was statistically analyzed following the

method of analysis of variance for randomized block design (RBD) and the significance
was tested by ‘F’ test (Snedecor and Cochron, 1967). Critical difference for examining
treatment means and their significance was calculated at 5 per cent level of probability.
 RAINFALL

25 RAINY DAYS 7.0

PAN EVAPORATION 6.0

20

5.0

Pan Evaporation (mm)

Rainfall and Rainy Days

15
4.0

3.0
10

2.0
5
1.0

0 0.0
45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Standard Week

Fig 3.1: Weekly mean meteorological data observed during experimental period (rabi, 2014-15)
 WIND SPEED SUNSHINE HOURS

3.5 12.0

3 10.0

Sunshine Hours
2.5
Wind Speed (km/h)

8.0
2
6.0
1.5
4.0
1

0.5 2.0

0 0.0
45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Standard Week

Fig 3.2: Weekly mean meteorological data observed during experimental period (rabi, 2014-15)
 N

R1 R2 R3 R4
6m

6.5 m T1 T5 T2 T4

2m

Irrigation T4 T2 T3 T1
channel

T3 T1 T5 T2

T5 T4 T1 T3

T2 T3 T4 T5

------------------------------------------ Road ------------------------------------

Where

R- Replication

T- Treatment

Well

Fig 3.3 Lay-out plan of the experimental site

 Chapter IV

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

The results obtained from the experiment carried out on aerobic rice entitled
‘Irrigation management in aerobic rice’ are presented in this chapter under different
headings. Results obtained during the period of investigation on irrigation schedules and
their effect on crop growth, yield attributes, yield and water use studies are discussed in
this chapter. The results are summarized through tables and illustrated through figures
wherever essentially appropriate. The findings are discussed with possible reasons and
confirmed with other findings.

4.1 Growth characters

4.1.1 Initial Plant Stand (m-2)

One life saving irrigation was given to maintain the optimum plant stand and
crop establishment (Table 4.1). The irrigation treatments were imposed at 15 DAS.

4.1.2 Plant Height (cm)

From the data collected on plant height at 20, 50, 90, 110 DAS and harvesting
stages (Table 4.2 and 4.3) revealed that there was a linear growth of plant height up to
panicle initiation stage and there after the growth was not linearly increased. None of
the irrigation treatments influence the plant height significantly. The treatments are on
par with each other till harvest which was in confirmation with the results of Vairavan
et al. (1999).

The marked increase in the plant height of aerobic rice observed at 90 DAS
might be due to increased frequency of irrigations which led to greater uptake of water
and dissolved nutrients in treatment with irrigation scheduled at 2.0 IW/CPE ratio. The
results are in contribution with the findings of Shekara et al., 2010.

4.1.3 Number of Tillers m-2

The data on number of total tillers m-2 are presented in (Table 4.4). The data
revealed that tillers were significantly influenced by irrigation scheduling practices at
IW/CPE ratio 2.00 over 1.00 and 1.25 but at par with 1.50 and 1.75 at all the stages of
crop growth except 20 DAS. Irrespective of the irrigation schedules, the maximum
number of tillers were recorded at active tillering stage i.e. 50 DAS and subsequently
declined at harvesting stage.

Among the irrigation schedules slightly higher number of tillers were recorded
in irrigation scheduling at IW/CPE ratio 2.00 i.e. 307 m-2 at 50 DAS which was
significantly superior over IW/CPE ratio 1.00 and 1.25. However, it is statistically on
par with irrigation scheduled at IW/CPE ratio 1.75 and 1.50. More number of effective
tillers (290) with irrigation scheduled at 2.0 IW/CPE ratio might be due to adequate
moisture regimes and more frequent wettings during crop growth period might have
facilitated to produce more number of tillers and this is the confirmation of the results
by Shekara et al. (2010).

The lowest number effective of tillers (220) were recorded in the treatment with
irrigation scheduled at 1.0 IW/CPE ratio at harvest and the same trend was observed in
all stages of the crop. Greater tiller mortality as a result of water deficit and iron
deficiency might be the reason for lower tiller number in treatment with irrigation
scheduled at 1.0 IW/CPE ratio and the results were similar to Sudhir et al. (2011).

4.1.4 Leaf Area Index (LAI)

Irrespective of the irrigation schedules, the leaf area index values showed an
increasing trend up to heading stage, there after it declined. In this study there is
significantly difference of LAI between the treatments observed except IW/CPE ratio
1.75 and 2.00 during 90 DAS which was at par with each other (Table 4.5). At 50 DAS
and 90 DAS highest leaf area index was recorded with irrigation scheduled at 2.00
IW/CPE ratio over the remaining treatments. However, which was at par with irrigation
scheduled at IW/CPE ratio 1.75. And also, at 110 DAS, higher LAI values were
recorded with irrigation scheduled at 2.00 IW/CPE ratio over the remaining treatments
which was statistically significant with each other. It is because in this treatment more
plant height and tiller number resulted in greater LAI at tillering and heading stages.
The reduction in LAI lower irrigation schedules i.e. 1.00 and 1.25 IW/CPE ratios might
be due to reduced turgor pressure under moisture stress conditions which affected the
leaf cell expansion. Similar observations were also made by Nguyen et al. (2009) and
Bouman et al. (2005).
4.1.5 Dry Matter Production (g m-2)

The data on dry matter accumulation of rice in table 4.6 indicated that irrigation
management practices significantly influenced dry matter accumulation at all stages of
crop growth except 20 DAS and it was increased progressively with advancement in the
age of the crop up to harvest. At 20 DAS of the plant in all the irrigation treatments low
dry matter accumulation was observed and it was statistically non significant to each
other treatment. And, the rate of accumulation of dry matter was found slow up to
tillering stage i.e. 50 DAS and there after sharply increased up to 90 DAS and continued
to increase further at slower rate till maturity.

Significantly higher dry matter production at 50, 90, 110 DAS and at harvest
was associated with irrigation scheduled at 2.0 IW/CPE ratio as compared to other
irrigation schedules studied especially with IW/CPE ratio 1.00 and 1.25 except 1.50 and
1.75 which were on par with each other at 90, 110 and harvest stage. However, at 50
DAS it was statistically on par with irrigation scheduled at 1.75 and for remaining
stages with irrigation scheduled at 1.50. The highest dry matter accumulation with
irrigation scheduled at 2.0 IW/CPE ratio might be attributed to the fact that increased
frequency of irrigations in the above schedule has facilitated higher water and nutrient
uptake applied to the crop coupled with possible reduction in transpiration rate and CO2
exchange resulted in increased production of photosynthates and their translocation to
sink (Shekara and Sharanappa 2010). Similar findings were also reported by Kato et al.
(2006).Studies of Ockerby and Fukai (2001) also showed that higher dry matter
production in aerobic rice during the crop growth period might be due to increased
number of tillers and leaf area index.

Lowest amount of dry matter production observed in all the stages of plant with
irrigation scheduled at IW/CPE ratio at 1.00. Experiment results of Ghosh et al., (2010),
Maheswari et al. (2007) and Belder et al. (2005) reveal that lower dry matter production
in irrigation scheduled at 1.00 IW/CPE ratio might be due to reduction in cell division,
cell volume, cell elongation, photosynthesis and biomass production which occurs
under higher moisture stress conditions.
4.1.6. Days to 50% flowering

Number of days taken for 50% flowering did not vary significantly due to
irrigation schedules studied in this experiment (Table 4.7). Being a medium duration
crop, it has taken nearly 82-85 days taken to attain 50% flowering which is of its genetic
characteristics. Similar findings were also reported by Kato et al. (2006).

4.2 Yield attributes and yield

4.2.1 Number of Panicles m-2

Panicle production of rice under aerobic condition was influenced by irrigation

schedules during crop growth period (Table 4.8).

Panicles m-2 tended to increase with the increasing levels of IW/CPE ratio from
1.00 to 2.00 during the study. The highest number of panicles m-2 was observed with
irrigation scheduling at IW/CPE ratio of 2.00 (273) which was significantly higher than
the irrigation scheduled at IW/CPE ratio at 1.00 and 1.5. However, it was statistically on
par with irrigation scheduled at IW/CPE ratio 1.50 and 1.75. The higher number of
panicles observed might be due to high moisture regimes which promoted higher
number of tillers m-2, dry matter production and nutrient uptake. Experiment results
with aerobic rice, Ramamoorthy et al. (1998) also indicated that increased yield
attributes might be due to higher dry matter production as a result of frequent irrigations.

The lowest number of panicles m-2 was associated with irrigation scheduled at
IW/CPE ratio 1.00. It might be due to lower number of tillers m-2 and dry matter
production. Similar results were also observed by Maheswari et al. ( 2007).

4.2.2 Panicle length (cm)

During this study the panicle length was not significantly influenced by different
irrigation schedules (Table 4.8). Within the irrigation schedule treatments, the lowest
panicle length i.e. 17.21 cms was observed with irrigation scheduling at 1.00 IW/CPE
ratio and highest i.e. 18.43 cms length of panicles observed for irrigation scheduling at
2.00 IW/CPE ratio and there was a linear trend was observed from 1.00 to 1.25; 1.25-
1.50; 1.50-1.75 and 1.75-2.00. The results were in confirmation with the results of
Vairavan et al. (1999).
4.2.3. Number of grains panicle-1

Number of grains panicle-1 was found to increase with the increasing levels of
irrigation schedules during the crop growth period and which was not significantly
influenced by each (Table 4.9). Irrigation schedule at 1.0 IW/CPE ratio showed less
number of grains per panicle i.e. 69 whereas irrigation schedule at 2.00 IW/CPE ratio
obtained highest number of grains per panicle i.e. 84 and remaining treatments are
obtained between these range with linear increment from IW/CPE ratio 1.25 – 1.75. The
results were confirmed with Shekara et.al. (2010).

4.2.4 Number of filled grains panicle-1

The number of filled grains per panicle increased with the increasing levels of
IW/CPE ratio from 1.00 to 2.00 during the crop study (Table 4.9). Significantly highest
number of filled grains panicle-1were obtained in for irrigation schedule at 2.0 IW/CPE
ratio i.e. 76 over IW/CPE ratio of 1.00 and 1.25. However it was statistically on par
with irrigation scheduled at IW/CPE ratio 1.50 and 1.75. It’s because of increased
number of irrigations leads to more amounts of water availability plants and that leads
to increased photosynthates accumulation. (Shekara et.al., 2010).

The lowest number of filled grains panicle-1 i.e. 58 in number obtained for
irrigation schedule at 1.00 IW/CPE ratio. This was might be due to at lowest soil water
condition, low availability of nutrients and low photosynthates accumulation and finally
leads to more chaffed grains. The results were confirmed with Sudhir et al. (2011a).

4.2.5. Test weight (gms)

Data pertained in Table 4.9 on test weight as influenced by irrigation

management practices revealed that it was not significantly influenced by different
irrigation schedules. However slightly higher test weight (23.25 gms) was obtained with
irrigation scheduled at 2.00 IW/CPE ratio. It might be due to increased photosynthates
accumulation into grain under adequate moisture availability throughout crop growth
period (Shekara and Sharanappa 2010).

The lowest test weight values observed with irrigation scheduled at IW/CPE
ratio 1.00. (21.98 gms) This might be due to decreased accumulation of photosynthates
in grain at lowest soil moisture condition. The results are coinciding with the
experiments Ramamoorthy et al. (1998).
4.2.6 Grain Yield (kg ha -1)

Effect of irrigation schedules on grain yield was analysed statistically and

presented in this table 4.10.

The grain yield was significantly influenced by irrigation schedules. Irrigation

scheduled at 2.00 IW/CPE ratio has obtained highest grain yield i.e. 3188 kg ha-1 which
was statistically significant higher than irrigation scheduled at 1.0 and 1.25 IW/CPE
ratios but at par with IW/CPE ratios of IW/CPE ratios of 1.50 and 1.75. The higher
grain yield of aerobic rice might be associated with increase in growth characteristics
viz., plant height, LAI, dry matter production and tillers m- was observed under higher
moisture regime. These findings were in agreement with results of Gupta et al. (2003).
And also, the higher grain yield was might be due to increase in yield attributing
characters viz., panicles m-2, grain panicle-1 , number of filled grains panicle-1 and test
weight was observed under high soil moisture regime as a result of frequent irrigation
(Shekara et al., 2010).

Lowest grain yield (2275 kg ha-1) was obtained in irrigation scheduled at 1.00
IW/CPE ratio. The yield reduction observed with irrigation scheduled at 1.00 IW/CPE
ratio might be due to reduced tillers m-2, panicle number m-2 and low dry matter
production as evidenced in the above treatments as a result of less frequent irrigations
resulting in moisture stress and iron deficiency under prevailing dry weather conditions
during the crop growth period (Sudhir et al., 2011a).

4.2.7 Straw Yield (kg ha -1)

The data pertaining to straw yield was presented in table 4.10 which revealed
that the straw yield was significantly influenced by irrigation schedule practices. The
pattern of increase of straw yield of rice followed almost similar trend as that of grain
yield. The highest straw yield obtained in irrigation scheduled at 2.00 IW/CPE ratio
which was on par with irrigation scheduled at 1.75 and 1.50 IW/CPE ratios and the later
two were also at par with each other. The lowest straw yield was obtained in irrigation
scheduled at 1.00 IW/CPE ratio and it might be due to lower number of tillers m-2 and
lowest dry matter accumulation and the results were in accordance with the results of
Samui et al., 1979.

Significantly, highest straw yield was recorded with irrigation scheduled at 2.00
IW/CPE ratio (5425 kg ha-1) than the irrigation schedules at 1.00 and 1.25 IW/CPE
ratios. The higher straw yield in case of above treatment might be due to increased plant
height, LAI, tiller number m-2and higher total dry matter production and the results were
in accordance with results of Ockerby and Fukai (2001).

4.2.8 Harvest Index (HI) (%)

The data pertaining to the harvest index were presented in the table 4.10 which
revealed that the harvest index values ranged between 35.90 to 37.01. Comparatively
highest harvest index value (37.01 %) was observed in scheduled at 2.00 IW/CPE ratio.
It might be due to higher grain yields and higher dry matter production. These results
were in appropriate to the experiments of Ockerby and Fukai (2001). And, lowest
harvest index was observed in irrigation scheduled at 1.00 IW/CPE ratio.

4.3 Water use studies

The total crop water requirements (ETc) in aerobic rice was calculated by
determining the reference crop evapotranspiration (ETo) and gravimetric soil moisture
content (%). ETo obtained by using Pan Evaporation data and pan coefficient values
obtained from the climate data. The effective rainfall is obtained by using soil moisture
balance method and total water requirement of aerobic rice calculated by using applied
water to the crop.

4.3.1 Soil moisture estimation

The trends of the gravimetric soil moisture content recorded a day before and a
day after irrigation were presented in appendix-D. The trend showed that the soil
moisture in the irrigation treatment scheduled at 2.00 IW/CPE ratio higher than
irrigation scheduled at 1.50 IW/CPE ratio. Whenever there was a dry spell the soil
moisture depleted at a faster rate resulting in closer irrigation intervals. The amount of
soil moisture availability a day after irrigation was almost near to the field capacity,
which indicated that the soil moisture content varied based on weather conditions
prevailed during the crop growth period.
The gravimetric soil moisture content recorded on a day before irrigation and a
day after irrigation was relatively higher with irrigation scheduled at 2.00 IW/CPE ratio.
The trend showed that the higher soil moisture content was observed in irrigation
scheduled at 2.00 IW/CPE ratio because of more frequent number of irrigations.
4.3.2 Water requirement (mm)

During the crop growth period, an amount of 40.20 mm of effective rainfall was
received. Among the irrigation schedules, the total water consumed including effective
rainfall received was less (540.20 mm) in irrigation treatment scheduled at 1.00
IW/CPE ratio as compared to the other irrigation schedules. Whereas, highest amount of
applied water (990.20 mm) was used in irrigation scheduled at 2.00 IW/CPE ratio
(Table 4.11). It was due to frequent irrigation schedules as a result of higher IW/CPE
adopted, for this whenever the cumulative pan evaporation reached 25 mm, irrigation
was scheduled. These findings were in accordance with findings of Ramamoorthy et al.
(1998).

4.3.3 Water use efficiency (kg/ha-mm)

Water use efficiency was calculated for each treatment and presented in Table
4.11. Decreased trend of water use efficiency was observed with irrigation levels from
1.00 to 2.00 IW/CPE ratios. Highest water use efficiency (4.21kg/ha-mm) was recorded
in case of irrigation scheduled at 1.00 IW/CPE ratio compared to the other irrigation
schedules. Similar results were reported by Maheswari et al. (2007).

4.3.4 Water productivity (kg/m3)

Water productivity (kg/m3) was calculated for each treatment and presented in
Table 4.11. Decreased trend of water productivity was observed by increased frequent
of irrigations as that of WUE. The highest water productivity (0.421 kg/m3)was
obtained with irrigation scheduled at 1.00 IW/CPE ratio. This was might be due to even
at permanent wilting point condition also the plant able to with stand and produce a
minimum yield attributes. While increasing the irrigation levels the water productivity
(kg/m3) was decreased and lowest observed with irrigation scheduled at IW/CPE ratio
2.00 (0.322 kg/m3).

4.3.5 Crop coefficient (Kc)

Higher Crop coefficient (Kc) values were obtained with irrigation scheduled at
IW/CPE ratio 2.00 viz., 0.85, 1.29, 1.55 and 0.96 for initial, development, midseason
and late season stages respectively Table 4.12. This might be due to more frequent
irrigations leads to high moisture availability and finally obtain higher Kc values.
Lowest Crop coefficient (Kc) values were obtained with irrigation scheduled at IW/CPE
ratio 1.00 viz., 0.64, 1.13, 1.44 and 0.83 for initial, development, midseason and late
season stages respectively (fig 3). The results were comparable with Jyothy et al., 2011.

4.3.6 Optimisation of irrigation water

Optimisation of irrigation water is a relationship between irrigation water

applied to the grain yield obtained by the crop (fig 4). For studying this, we used these
parameters in graph by irrigation water applied placing in x-axis and yield was placed in
y-axis. And obtained the relationship as linear relationship and found the linear equation
for calculation of the relationship i.e. theoretically the expected yield by known applied
water. The values which were showed in the graph for different irrigation schedules
were obtained near values. And so that, we can clearly explain that aerobic rice was
well suited for different irrigation schedules and yield may increase by increasing level
of irrigations. Optimization of irrigation water for different irrigation treatments of
aerobic rice was obtained at y= 2.033x + 1241 and R2= 0.970.

4.4 Soil NPK status after harvest

The data pertaining to the soil NPK status after the harvest is presented in the
Table 4.13. In this experiment the interaction between irrigation schedules was found
insignificant. The nutrient removal was more when scheduled at 2.00 IW/CPE ratio
compared to the irrigation scheduled at 1.00 IW/CPE ratio. So, that the NPK status of
the soil after harvest was more in irrigation scheduled at 1.00 IW/CPE ratio compared to
irrigation scheduled at 2.00 IW/CPE ratio. This might be due to on account of increased
growth and development of crop at high moisture level leads to more removal of the
nutrients from the soil. The results are appropriate with the findings of Shekara et al.
(2010).

4.5 Root studies

Root studies are observed in aerobic rice for different irrigation schedules and
are presented in the Table 4.14. In this experiment separate root parameters were taken
into consideration for knowing effect of irrigation schedules on root characters.

4.5.1. Root volume

The root volume was increased linearly as increasing the plant age upto 90 DAS
and there by decreased gradually upto harvest stage irrespective of the irrigation
scheduled (Table 4.14). There is no significant difference in root volume observed
between the irrigation scheduled treatments. However, comparatively higher root
volume was observed in all stages of crop with irrigation scheduled at IW/CPE ratio
2.00 and lowest values were obtained with irrigation scheduled at IW/CPE ratio 1.00.
the similar results were observed by Maheswari et al. (2007).

4.6 Economics

The data on cost of cultivation, gross returns, net returns and B: C ratio was
presented in Table 4.15 and revealed that among irrigation schedules the highest gross
returns (Rs. 44632) and net returns (Rs. 18132) were obtained with irrigation treatment
scheduled at 2.00 IW/CPE ratio. Among the different treatments highest B:C ratio
( 1.68 ) was obtained with irrigation scheduled at 2.00 IW/CPE ratio.
 IW/CPE Ratios
1.70
1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00
1.60
1.50
1.40
1.30
1.20
Kc values

1.10
1.00
0.90
0.80
0.70
0.60
0.50
Initial stage Development Mid season Late season
stage

Plant growth stages

Fig 4.1 Crop coefficient curves for different irrigation schedules in different stages of
aerobic rice during rabi, 2014-15.
 3500

3000
y = 2.033x + 1241.
Grain yield (kg ha-1)

R² = 0.970
2500

2000

1500

1000

500

0
500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100

water quantity (mm)

Fig 4.2 Optimization of irrigation water for different irrigation schedules in aerobic rice
during rabi, 2014-15.
Table 4.1 Number of Seedlings as influenced by different irrigation schedules in
aerobic rice during rabi 2014-15.

Treatments
Seedlings (m-2) at 15 DAS
(IW/CPE Ratio)

T1- 1.00 56

T2-1.25 58

T3-1.50 59

T4-1.75 59

T5-2.00 60

S.Em ± 3

CD (0.05) NS

Table 4.2 Plant height as influenced by different irrigation schedules in aerobic

during rabi 2014-15.

Treatments Plant height (cm)

(IW/CPE Ratio) 20 DAS 50 DAS 90 DAS

T1- 1.00 16.55 41.88 56.75

T2-1.25 16.75 44.25 61.50

T3-1.50 16.85 45.81 64.50

T4-1.75 16.88 47.75 66.25

T5-2.00 17.10 48.50 66.75

S.Em ±
0.99 2.78 4.49

CD (0.05) NS NS NS
Table 4.3 Plant height as influenced by different irrigation schedules in aerobic
rice during rabi 2014-15.

Treatments Plant height (cm)

(IW/CPE Ratio) 110 DAS Harvest

T1- 1.00 66.25 68.50

T2-1.25 70.25 71.50

T3-1.50 71.75 73.50

T4-1.75 74.50 76.25

T5-2.00 77.25 78.25

S.Em ± 4.46 5.00

CD (0.05) NS NS
Table 4.5 Leaf Area Index as influenced by different irrigation schedules in aerobic rice during rabi 2014-15.

Treatments Leaf Area Index

(IW/CPE Ratio) 20 DAS 50 DAS 90 DAS 110 DAS Harvest

T1- 1.00 0.56 1.93 3.16 1.62 1.06

T2-1.25 0.56 2.49 3.75 1.91 1.21

T3-1.50 0.57 2.74 4.20 2.11 1.40

T4-1.75 0.57 3.10 4.33 2.38 1.53

T5-2.00 0.58 3.28 4.46 2.54 1.69

S.Em ± 0.02 0.06 0.07 0.04 0.03

CD (0.05) NS 0.18 0.21 0.13 0.08

Table 4.4. Number of tillers m-2 as influenced by different irrigation schedules in aerobic rice during rabi 2014-15.

Treatments Number of tillers m-2

(IW/CPE Ratio) 20 DAS 50 DAS 90 DAS 110 DAS Harvest

T1- 1.00
61 236 225 223 220

T2-1.25
63 249 241 238 234

T3-1.50
64 278 270 265 260

T4-1.75
64 289 280 276 273

T5-2.00
65 307 298 294 290

S.Em ± 3 12 12 12 11

CD (0.05) NS 36 37 36 35
Table 4.6. Dry Matter Production as influenced by different irrigation schedules in aerobic rice during rabi 2014-15.

Treatments Dry Matter Production (g m-2)

(IW/CPE Ratio) 20 DAS 50 DAS 90 DAS 110 DAS Harvest

T1- 1.00
25.25 287.50 410.75 555.75 730.00

T2-1.25
26.00 309.75 488.75 628.75 805.00

T3-1.50
26.00 318.75 547.50 690.00 852.50

T4-1.75
26.25 350.75 590.00 730.00 910.00

T5-2.00
26.25 370.00 613.50 777.50 967.50

S.Em ± 1.50 13.15 21.67 32.32 43.85

NS 40.51 66.77 99.58 135.12

CD (0.05)
Table 4.7. Days to 50% flowering as influenced by different irrigation schedules in
aerobic rice during rabi 2014-15.

Treatments
Days to 50% flowering
(IW/CPE Ratio)

T1- 1.00 79

T2-1.25 81

T3-1.50 83

T4-1.75 84

T5-2.00 85

S.Em ± 4

CD (0.05) NS
Table 4.8. Panicles m-2 and panicle length (cm) as influenced by different irrigation
schedules in aerobic rice during rabi 2014-15.

Treatments Panicle length

Panicles m-2
(IW/CPE Ratio) (cm)

T1- 1.00 206 17.21

T2-1.25 219 17.63

T3-1.50 243 18.00

T4-1.75 258 18.24

T5-2.00 273 18.43

S.Em ± 11 1.23

CD (0.05) 33 NS
Table 4.9 No of grains panicle-1, no of filled grains panicle-1 and test weight as
influenced by different irrigation schedules in aerobic rice during rabi
2014-15.

Treatments
No of grains No of filled Test weight
panicle-1 grains panicle-1 (g)
(IW/CPE Ratio)

T1- 1.00
69 58 21.98

T2-1.25
74 64 22.40

T3-1.50
77 66 22.70

T4-1.75
81 72 23.05

T5-2.00
84 76 23.25

S.Em ± 6 3 1.17

CD (0.05) NS NS NS
Table 4.10 Grain Yield, straw yield and harvest index as influenced by different
irrigation schedules in aerobic rice during rabi 2014-15.

Treatments Grain Yield Straw Yield Harvest Index

(IW/CPE Ratio) (kg ha -1) (kg ha -1) (%)

T1- 1.00 2275 4050 35.97

T2-1.25 2563 4513 36.22

T3-1.50 2800 4838 36.66

T4-1.75 3008 5150 36.87

T5-2.00 3188 5425 37.01

S.Em ± 135 214

CD (0.05) 417 660

Table 4.11 Irrigation water applied and total crop water requirement under different irrigation schedules of aerobic rice during rabi, 2014-15

Treatments Applied
Effective Total water used
(IW/CPE No of irrigations irrigation water used (m3)
Rainfall (mm) (mm)
Ratios) water(mm)

T1- 1.00 10 40.20 500.00 540.20 5402.00

T2-1.25 12 40.20 600.00 640.20 6402.00

T3-1.50 14 40.20 700.00 740.20 7402.00

T4-1.75 16 40.20 800.00 840.20 8402.00

T5-2.00 19 40.20 950.00 990.20 9902.00

Mean 40.20 710.00 750.20 7502.00

Table 4.12.Water productivity and Water Use Efficiency (WUE) as influenced by
different irrigation schedules in aerobic rice during rabi 2014-15.

Treatments Water productivity WUE

(IW/CPE Ratio)
(kg/m3) (kg /ha mm-1)

T1- 1.00 0.47 11388

T2-1.25 0.45 14356

T3-1.50 0.42 17746

T4-1.75 0.39 21343

T5-2.00 0.35 27914

Table 4.13. Crop coefficient (Kc) values as influenced by different irrigation
schedules in aerobic rice during rabi 2014-15.

Crop coefficient (Kc) values

Treatments
(IW/CPE Ratio)
Initial Developm Mid Late Total crop
stage ent stage season season period

T1- 1.00 0.64 1.13 1.44 0.83 1.01

T2-1.25 0.69 1.19 1.46 0.87 1.05

T3-1.50 0.73 1.24 1.49 0.91 1.09

T4-1.75 0.83 1.27 1.52 0.93 1.14

T5-2.00 0.85 1.29 1.55 0.96 1.19

Table 4.14. Available soil Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium status after harvest
as influenced by irrigation schedules in aerobic rice during rabi, 2014-15.

Treatments Available N Available P205 Available K20

(IW/CPE Ratio) (kg ha -1) (kg ha -1) (kg ha-1)

T1- 1.00 260.00 50 240

T2-1.25 254.25 48 235

T3-1.50 249.25 45 234

T4-1.75 245.00 42 228

T5-2.00 241.00 40 226

S.Em ± 9.02 2.40 7.88

CD (0.05) NS NS NS
 Table 4.15. Root volume as influenced by irrigation schedules in aerobic rice during rabi, 2014-15.

Root volume (cc clump-1)

Treatments
(IW/CPE Ratio)
20 DAS 50 DAS 90 DAS 110 DAS Harvest

T1- 1.00 7.45 16.00 18.88 16.63 15.48

T2-1.25 7.55 16.70 20.20 18.33 17.18

7.60 17.15 21.15 19.30 18.10

T3-1.50

T4-1.75 7.64 18.23 22.40 20.55 19.25

7.83 19.10 23.10 21.23 20.10

T5-2.00

0.91 1.12 1.09 1.10 1.13

S.Em ±

NS NS NS NS NS
CD (0.05)
Table 4.16 Effect of irrigation schedules on Gross income, Cost of cultivation, Net
return and BC Ratio of aerobic rice during rabi, 2014-15

Gross Cost of Net return

Treatments
income cultivation
BC Ratio
(IW/CPE Ratio)
(Rs ha -1) (Rs ha -1) (Rs ha-1)

T1- 1.00
31850 22800 9050 1.40

T2-1.25
35882 23600 12282 1.52

T3-1.50
39200 24400 14800 1.61

T4-1.75
42112 25600 16512 1.65

T5-2.00
44632 26500 18132 1.68
 Chapter V

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

An investigation on “Irrigation management on aerobic rice’’ was carried out

during rabi 2014-15 at College farm, College of Agriculture, Rajendranagar,

Hyderabad-30. The soil of the experimental site was sandy clay loam in texture with

low in organic carbon and available nitrogen, medium in available Phosphorus and high

Potassium fertility. The soil is alkaline in reaction and non-saline. The decennial mean

rainfall of the region is 40.2 mm and it is received mainly through North-East monsoon.

The experiment was conducted in a Randomized Block Design (RBD) with five

irrigation schedules viz., Irrigation scheduling at IW/CPE ratio at 1.00, 1.25, 1.50, 1.75

and 2.00 with four replications thus totaling 20 plots were tested.

During this study observations on initial plant stand, plant height (cm), leaf area

index, number of tillers m-2, dry matter production (g m-2), days to 50 per cent flowering,

number of panicles m-2, panicle length, number of grains panicle, number of filled grain

panicle-1, test weight, grain yield ha-1, straw yield ha-1, harvest index and root studies

were studied. Besides the water use studies were also performed.

The salient results of the experiment and the conclusions drawn are summarized

here under.

5.1 Summary

Irrigation schedules did not influence the plant stand of aerobic rice

significantly at 15 DAS during rabi 2014-15. One life saving irrigation was given to

maintain the optimum plant stand and crop establishment. The irrigation treatments

were imposed at 15 DAS.

 A linear growth of plant height was observed up to panicle initiation stage and

there after the growth was not linearly increased. None of the irrigation treatments

influence the plant height significantly. However, at harvest stage comparatively highest

plant height was recorded with irrigation scheduled at IW/CPE ratio 2.00 (78.25 cm).

Leaf area index was increased progressively with growth stages irrespective of

treatments. Irrigation scheduled at IW/CPE ratio 2.00 was recorded highest LAI values

at all growth stages. However, at 50 DAS and 90 DAS the LAI values (3.28 and 4.46)

were statistically on par with irrigation scheduled at IW/CPE ratio 1.75 (3.10 and 4.33).

And at 110 DAS and harvest stages LAI values of irrigation scheduled at IW/CPE ratio

2.00 were statistically significant with other treatments.

The tillers were significantly influenced by irrigation scheduling practices at all

the stages of crop growth except 20 DAS. Among the irrigation schedules, significantly

higher number of tillersi.e. 278, 270, 265 and 260 at 50, 90, 110 DAS and harvest stages

were recorded with irrigation scheduling at IW/CPE ratio 2.00 except 20 DAS and

which were on par with irrigation scheduled at IW/CPE 1.50 and 1.75 ratios. And, in

irrigation scheduled at IW/CPE ratio at 1.00 lowest numbers of tillers were observed in

all the stages of plant.

Dry matter production increased progressively with advance in the age of the

crop up to harvest stage and was significantly influenced by different irrigation

treatments except at 20 DAS stage. Significantly higher dry matter production at 50, 90,

110 DAS and at harvest (370, 613.50, 777.50 and 967.50 g m-2) was associated with

irrigation scheduled at 2.00 IW/CPE ratio as compared to other irrigation schedules

studied. However, at 50 DAS it was statistically on par with irrigation scheduled at 1.75

(350.75 g m-2) and for remaining stages with irrigation scheduled at 1.50 (547.50, 690
and 852.50 g m-2 at 90 DAS, 110 DAS and harvest stages respectively). Lowest amount

of dry matter production was observed in all the stages of plant with irrigation

scheduled at IW/CPE ratio at 1.00.

The highest number of panicles m-2 was observed with irrigation scheduling at

IW/CPE ratio of 2.00 (273) which was significantly higher than other irrigation

scheduled. However, it was statistically on par with irrigation scheduled at IW/CPE

ratio 1.50. The lowest number of panicles m-2 (206) was associated with irrigation

scheduled at IW/CPE ratio 1.00.

Number of days taken for 50 per cent flowering, panicle length, test weight and

number of grains panicle-1 were not significantly affected by irrigation schedules.

However, comparatively highest values of above parameters were observed with

irrigation scheduled at IW/CPE ratio 2.00.

Significantly higher number of filled grains panicle-1 (76) were observed with

irrigation scheduled at IW/CPE ratio 2.00 and however, it was statistically on par with

irrigation scheduled at IW/CPE ratio 1.50 (66) and lowest number of filled grains

panicle-1 (58) were observed with irrigation scheduled at IW/CPE ratio 1.00.

Irrigation scheduled at IW/CPE 2.00 ratio has obtained highest grain yield i.e.

3188 kg ha-1 which was statistically significantly higher than irrigation scheduled at 1.0

and 1.25 (2275 and 2673 kg ha-1) IW/CPE ratios. Lowest grain yield (2275 kg ha-1) was

obtained in the treatment in which was scheduled at 1.0 IW/CPE ratio.

The highest straw yield obtained in aerobic rice with irrigation scheduled at 2.00

IW/CPE ratio (5425 kg ha-1) was on par with that of in irrigation scheduled at 1.75 and

1.50 IW/CPE ratios (5150 and 4838 kg ha-1 ). The lowest straw yield was obtained in

irrigation scheduled at 1.00 IW/CPE ratio (4050 kg ha-1).

 Comparatively highest harvest index value (37.01 %) was observed in case of

aerobic rice scheduled at 2.00 IW/CPE ratio while lowest harvest index (35.97 %) was

obtained with irrigation scheduled at IW/CPE ratio 1.00.

Root volume was not significantly influenced by different irrigation schedules.

However, comparatively highest root volume was observed with irrigation scheduled at

IW/CPE ratio 2.00 in all plant growth stages.

Significantly highest N uptake of plant (103.50 kg N/ha) at harvesting stage was

observed with irrigation scheduled at IW/CPE ratio 2.00 and however it was on par with

irrigation at 1.50 and 1.75 IW/CPE ratios (92.25 and 97 kg N/ha ).

In this study the total water used was in different irrigation schedules in the

range of 540.20 to 990.20 mm including 40.20 mm of an effective rainfall. The highest

WUE (4.21 kg/ha-mm) and water productivity (0.421 kg/m3) was observed with

irrigation scheduled at IW/CPE ratio 1.00 ratio and lowest for IW/CPE ratio 2.00

treatment (3.22 kg ha-mm and 0.322 kg/m3 ). The crop coefficient values for total crop

period in different irrigation schedules were ranged between 1.01 to 1.19. The highest

crop coefficient values were observed with irrigation scheduled at IW/CPE ratio were

0.85, 1.29, 1.55 and 0.96 for initial, development, mid season and late season stages of

the plant respectively. Optimization of irrigation water for different irrigation treatments

of aerobic rice was obtained at y= 2.033x + 1241 and R2= 0.970.

From these studies, it can be concluded that for obtaining higher grain yield of

aerobic rice with low availability of irrigation water need to be scheduled at IW/CPE

ratio 1.50.
5.2 Conclusions

 The rice variety Tella Hamsa (RNR-10754) rice performs very well to varied

levels of water application on growth, yield and water productivity under aerobic

condition in Southern Telangana Agroclimatic Zone Andhra Pradesh.

 Perceptibly higher yields in aerobic rice could be obtained when irrigation was

scheduled at 1.5 to 2.00 IW/CPE ratio.

 Under limited water conditions when irrigation was scheduled at 1.50 IW/CPE

ratio was found to be economically viable

 The highest WUE (4.21 kg/ha-mm) and Water productivity (0.421 kg/m3) was

observed with irrigation scheduled at IW/CPE ratio 1.00 ratio.

 Optimum Kc Values of 0.73, 1.24, 1.49 and 0.91 were obtained at initial,

development, mid season and late season stages of aerobic rice when irrigation

was scheduled at 1.50 IW/CPE ratio and this treatment was also found to be

economically viable under limited water situation.

 Based on the net return T3 to T5 found to be similar and hence any one schedule

can be adopted.

5.3. Future line of work

 Under low water available regions, the aerobic rice cultivation will come up
well with high yielding varieties by providing mulching practices. Mulches

can conserve the moisture to a great extent thereby saving of water up to

20 % can be achieved. Mulches in addition to conserve soil moisture will

improve the soil micro climate by manipulating the soil temperature, air etc.,
 which provides positive absorption of water and nutrients especially during

cold climatic i.e. rabi season.

 There is a need to increase the irrigation schedules i.e. above 2.00 IW/CPE

ratio to find out the maximum reach of linear response. There by optimum

level of irrigation can be arrived.

 To find out the optimization of irrigation for short duration of rice varieties

under aerobic situations.

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 APPENDIX-A
WEEKLY METEOROLOGICAL DATA DURING RABI 2014-15 RECORDED AT A.R.I., RAJENDRANAGAR.

R.H. (%)
Week o Rainfall Rainy Sunshine Wind Pan Mean
Date Temperature ( C)
No. RH-I RH-II Fall days hours speed evaporation Temp.

Max Min. (mm) (hrs.) (km/hr) (mm) (oC)

45 05-11-2014 to 11-11-2014 30.9 16.4 76 42 0.0 0 6.8 2.3 5.4 23.6
46 12-11-2014 to 18-11-2014 30.0 19.7 81 61 10.6 1 5.5 1.8 4.5 24.8
47 19-11-2014 to 25-11-2014 30.6 16.4 87 42 0.0 0 7.6 1.2 4.6 23.5
48 26- 11-2014 to 02-12-2014 30.6 12.1 73 30 0.0 0 8.5 1.7 4.1 21.3
49 03-12-2014 to 09-12-2014 30.5 12.0 81 42 0.0 0 8.8 1.6 4.1 21.3
50 10-12-2014 to 16-12-2014 28.2 15.9 89 68 0.0 0 3.4 1.5 2.8 22.0
51 17-12-2014 to 23-12-2014 27.1 09.3 71 41 0.0 0 7.7 1.8 2.8 18.2
52 24-12-2014 to 31-12-2014 27.1 11.4 69 47 0.0 0 8.1 1.5 2.9 19.3
01 01-01-2015 to 07-01-2015 29.2 17.9 79 49 0.0 0 5.7 1.6 3.9 23.5
02 08-01-2015 to 14-01-2015 27.1 05.4 66 23 0.0 0 9.8 1.3 3.7 16.2
03 15-01-2015 to 21-01-2015 28.2 09.1 75 32 0.0 0 9.2 1.6 3.8 18.6
04 22-01-2015 to 28-01-2015 29.4 10.6 79 30 0.0 0 9.1 2.5 4.4 20.0
05 29-01-2015 to 04-02-2015 28.8 13.3 86 36 0.0 0 9.3 2.3 4.4 21.0
06 05-02-2015 to 11-02-2015 30.7 13.4 74 26 0.0 0 9.9 3.2 5.0 22.1
07 12-02-2015 to 18-02-2015 33.1 15.0 66 18 0.0 0 10.2 1.2 5.4 24.0
08 19-02-2015 to 25-02-2015 33.3 16.9 63 21 0.0 0 9.8 2.0 6.2 25.1
09 26- 02-2015 to 04-03-2015 32.7 17.7 73 32 8.0 1 7.8 2.4 5.7 25.2
10 05-03-2015 to 11-03-2015 31.1 19.2 73 48 21.6 2 5.5 1.7 5.0 25.2
11 12-03-2015 to 18-03-2015 34.0 18.6 64 22 0.0 0 9.5 2.7 6.0 26.3
12 19-03-2015 to 25-03-2015 36.6 20.2 55 26 0.0 0 8.3 1.8 6.5 28.4
 APPENDIX- B
ETo values for the month of November 2014 using Pan evaporation method

Temperature (oC) RH Wind Wind Evapo-

Date ETo
Max. Min. mean Speed Speed Ration
(km/day) (km/hr) (mm)
1 31.0 - 50.5 50.4 2.1 5.2 4.16
2 30.0 - 53.5 64.8 2.7 4.8 3.84
3 32.0 - 45.0 57.6 2.4 4.9 3.92
4 32.0 - 44.0 69.6 2.9 5.2 4.16
5 32.0 - 52.5 57.6 2.4 5.5 4.40
6 31.5 16.0 55.5 45.6 1.9 6.1 4.88
7 32.0 14.0 63.0 45.6 1.9 6.3 5.04
8 32.0 16.0 37.0 62.4 2.6 6.2 4.65
9 30.0 15.2 63.0 84.0 3.5 4.8 3.84
10 29.0 14.5 71.5 26.4 1.1 4.0 3.20
11 30.0 21.0 71.0 57.6 2.4 4.7 3.76
12 30.0 14.2 68.0 19.2 0.8 5.4 4.32
13 32.0 21.0 80.0 64.8 2.7 5.0 4.00
14 26.0 22.0 74.5 84.0 3.5 3.5 2.80
15 31.0 21.0 68.0 50.4 2.1 3.7 2.96
16 30.0 19.0 58.0 31.2 1.3 4.2 3.36
17 30.0 21.5 91.0 26.4 1.1 4.8 3.84
18 31.0 19.0 58.5 19.2 0.8 4.7 3.76
19 31.0 21.0 67.5 45.6 1.9 4.5 3.60
20 31.5 16.2 68.5 24.0 1.0 4.5 3.60
21 30.5 15.0 71.5 26.4 1.1 4.2 3.36
22 30.0 16.2 60.0 19.2 0.8 4.8 3.84
23 30.0 16.5 59.0 14.4 0.6 5 4.00
24 30.0 16.0 66.0 24.0 1 4.6 3.68
25 31.0 14.0 60.0 55.2 2.3 4.7 3.76
26 31.0 13.0 56.0 43.2 1.8 4.4 3.52
27 31.0 11.0 43.5 43.2 1.8 4.7 3.76
28 30.2 12.0 52.0 26.4 1.1 4.4 3.52
29 30.0 12.3 44.5 14.4 0.6 3.4 2.72
30 30.8 14.6 49.5 50.4 2.1 3.5 2.80
ETo values for the month of December 2014 using Pan evaporation method

Temperature
RH Wind Wind Evapo
(OC) ETo
mean Speed Speed Ration
Date Max Min.
(km/day) (km/hr) (mm)
1 30.0 11.3 43.0 55.2 2.3 4.1 3.28
2 31.2 10.2 55.0 55.2 2.3 4.3 3.44
3 30.0 12.0 50.0 33.6 1.4 4.4 3.52
4 30.0 11.0 50.5 38.4 1.6 4.5 3.60
5 30.0 10.0 66.5 50.4 2.1 4.4 3.52
6 31.0 13.8 66.5 38.4 1.6 4.2 3.36
7 31.0 11.0 63.5 14.4 0.6 4.2 3.36
8 31.0 11.0 66.5 62.4 2.6 4.0 3.20
9 30.5 15.0 66.5 33.6 1.4 3.2 2.56
10 30.0 12.0 78.5 43.2 1.8 3.3 2.64
11 29.8 10.5 77.5 38.4 1.6 3.5 2.80
12 27.5 11.5 84.0 33.6 1.4 3.0 2.40
13 26.0 20.0 91.5 55.2 2.3 2.6 2.08
14 24.0 19.0 73.5 31.2 1.3 2.3 1.84
15 30.0 20.0 75.0 24.0 1.0 3.0 2.40
16 30.0 18.2 68.5 24.0 1.0 2.2 1.76
17 28.0 15.0 51.0 57.6 2.4 2.8 2.24
18 26.5 8.5 48.0 45.6 1.9 3.2 2.56
19 27.0 11.5 59.5 24.0 1.0 2.9 2.32
20 27.0 8.0 52.5 45.6 1.9 2.4 1.92
21 27.0 6.5 37.0 19.2 0.8 2.8 1.96
22 27.0 7.4 56.5 64.8 2.7 3.0 2.40
23 27.0 8.5 87.0 43.2 1.8 2.8 2.24
24 28.0 8.5 43.0 69.6 2.9 2.9 2.32
25 28.0 9.9 47.5 12.0 0.5 3.0 2.40
26 28.0 9.5 57.5 12.0 0.5 2.8 2.24
27 28.0 8.5 89.5 38.4 1.6 2.4 1.92
28 21.5 8.0 59.5 43.2 1.8 2.0 1.60
29 26.0 14.0 35.0 33.6 1.4 3.0 2.10
30 28.0 14.6 64.5 31.2 1.3 3.7 2.96
31 29.5 18.0 67.5 38.4 1.6 3.3 2.64
ETo values for the month of January 2015 using Pan evaporation method

RH
Temperature (oC) Wind Wind Evapo-
mean ETo
Date Speed Speed Ration
Max. Min.
(km/day) (km/hr) (mm)
1 30.0 20.0 60.5 74.4 3.1 4.2 3.36
2 29.0 16.5 69.0 19.2 0.8 4.0 3.20
3 29.5 21.0 71.0 12.0 0.5 4.1 3.28
4 30.5 19.0 68.0 50.4 2.1 3.7 2.96
5 28.0 16.0 63.5 43.2 1.8 3.6 2.88
6 28.0 15.0 50.0 31.2 1.3 3.7 2.96
7 28.0 12.0 52.0 24.0 1.0 4.0 3.20
8 29.0 11.5 43.0 26.4 1.1 3.2 2.56
9 29.0 09.0 50.5 26.4 1.1 4.2 3.36
10 23.5 05.5 42.0 33.6 1.4 3.2 2.56
11 26.0 05.0 32.5 33.6 1.4 4.2 2.94
12 27.0 00.0 40.0 45.6 1.9 3.6 2.88
13 27.0 00.0 52.5 14.4 0.6 3.8 3.04
14 28.0 06.5 50.5 33.6 1.4 3.7 2.96
15 28.6 09.5 62.0 31.2 1.3 3.8 3.04
16 27.0 09.5 53.5 33.6 1.4 3.8 3.04
17 27.0 09.0 43.0 19.2 0.8 2.6 2.08
18 29.0 08.5 50.5 31.2 1.3 4.0 3.20
19 29.0 09.0 45.5 24.0 1.0 4.0 3.20
20 28.0 09.0 60.5 74.4 3.1 3.2 2.56
21 28.5 09.0 57.5 55.2 2.3 4.2 3.36
22 27.5 00.0 59.0 57.6 2.4 4.8 3.84
23 29.0 12.5 63.0 57.6 2.4 4.0 3.20
24 30.0 14.0 58.0 50.4 2.1 4.5 3.60
25 30.0 11.5 28.0 50.4 2.1 3.4 2.38
26 30.0 13.5 58.5 69.6 2.9 4.4 3.52
27 29.0 12.0 55.5 74.4 3.1 4.8 3.84
28 30.0 10.5 59.0 62.4 2.6 4.7 3.76
29 28.5 13.5 61.0 81.6 3.4 5.0 4.00
30 28.0 13.0 64.5 43.2 1.8 4.7 3.76
31 28.0 14.0 66.5 43.2 1.8 4.1 3.28
ETo values for the month of February 2015 using Pan evaporation method

Temperature (oc) RH
Wind Wind Evapo-
mean ETo
Date Speed Speed ration
Max. Min.
(km/day) (km/hr) (mm)
1 28.5 12.9 60.5 43.2 1.8 5.0 4.00
2 30.0 12.5 60.0 31.2 1.3 4.7 3.76
3 30.0 16.1 61.0 69.6 2.9 4.8 3.84
4 28.5 11.0 50.5 81.6 3.4 2.9 2.32
5 29.5 10.9 60.5 50.4 2.1 4.2 3.36
6 30.0 10.5 39.0 64.8 2.7 4.5 3.15
7 31.0 10.0 42.0 69.6 2.9 4.9 3.92
8 31.0 16.5 46.0 93.6 3.9 5.0 4.00
9 31.5 15.0 51.0 69.6 2.9 5.4 4.32
10 31.0 18.0 50.0 108.0 4.5 5.7 4.56
11 31.0 13.0 61.5 84.0 3.5 5.5 4.40
12 28.5 12.5 51.5 76.8 3.2 5.2 4.16
13 32.5 13.0 47.5 26.4 1.1 5.1 4.08
14 33.0 14.0 45.5 14.4 0.6 5.6 4.48
15 34.0 14.0 36.0 24.0 1.0 5.7 3.99
16 34.5 14.2 35.0 26.4 1.1 5.0 3.50
17 34.0 13.0 37.0 24.0 1.0 5.3 3.71
18 35.0 24.5 42.0 12.0 0.5 5.9 4.72
19 35.0 24.5 48.0 33.6 1.4 7.3 5.84
20 34.0 19.0 44.5 50.4 2.1 5.3 4.24
21 32.0 18.0 45.5 50.4 2.1 6.3 5.04
22 32.0 15.0 44.5 50.4 2.1 6.1 4.88
23 33.0 14.0 36.0 43.2 1.8 6.0 4.20
24 33.0 13.0 41.0 50.4 2.1 6.2 4.96
25 34.0 15.0 35.5 55.2 2.3 6.1 4.27
26 34.5 15.2 38.0 45.6 1.9 6.1 4.27
27 35.5 16.0 33.0 55.2 2.3 6.3 4.41
28 35.0 20.0 57.0 55.2 2.3 6.1 4.88
ETo values for the month of March 2015 using Pan evaporation method

Temperature (oc)
RH mean Wind Wind Evapo
ETo
Date Speed Speed ration
Max. Min.
(km/day) (km/hr) (mm)
1 33.0 17.0 71.5 112.8 4.7 5.8 4.64
2 28.0 20.4 63.0 33.6 1.4 5.2 4.16
3 31.0 19.5 54.5 55.2 2.3 5.1 4.08
4 32.0 16.0 49.0 50.4 2.1 5.4 4.32
5 32.0 18.2 52.5 31.2 1.3 5.8 4.64
6 33.0 21.9 72.0 74.4 3.1 5.3 4.24
7 32.0 19.5 67.5 31.2 1.3 5.2 4.16
8 32.0 19.5 62.0 31.2 1.3 5.2 4.16
9 32.0 19.0 69.0 84.0 3.5 5.0 4.00
10 28.5 20.5 63.5 12.0 0.5 4.6 3.68
11 28.5 16.0 39.0 26.4 1.1 4.2 2.94
12 32.5 15.0 43.5 76.8 3.2 5.1 4.08
13 32.5 16.0 51.5 81.6 3.4 5.6 4.48
14 34.0 18.5 25.5 69.6 2.9 5.8 4.06
15 34.0 19.5 50.5 100.8 4.2 6.1 4.88
16 34.0 20.0 43.5 81.6 3.4 6.3 5.04
17 35.0 20.0 46.0 38.4 1.6 6.5 5.20
18 36.0 21.0 42.5 7.2 0.3 6.5 5.20
19 36.2 22.0 32.0 76.8 3.2 6.8 4.76
20 35.2 20.0 42.5 50.4 2.1 6.2 4.96
21 36.0 19.0 35.0 33.6 1.4 6.3 4.41
22 37.0 20.0 38.0 62.4 2.6 6.4 4.48
23 37.0 20.0 47.0 26.4 1.1 6.6 5.28
24 37.0 20.0 51.5 24.0 1.0 6.4 5.12
25 37.5 20.2 37.0 33.6 1.4 6.5 4.55
26 37.5 20.0 47.5 12.0 0.5 6.0 4.80
27 35.0 21.0 47.5 64.8 2.7 6.2 4.96
28 37.0 22.0 32.5 43.2 1.8 6.3 4.41
29 36.0 21.0 45.5 33.6 1.4 6.4 5.12
30 36.5 24.0 70.0 26.4 1.1 6.6 5.28
31 28.0 23.0 59.0 45.6 1.9 5.0 4.00
 APPENDIX- C
Calendar of operations in aerobic rice during rabi, 2014-15

Operations 2014-15

Ploughing with tractor drawn M.B.Plough 30-10-2014

Harrowing with disc harrow 02-11-2014

Land leveling 04-11-2014

Layout of the experiment site 07-11-2014

Sowing and basal dose of fertilizer application 08-11-2014

Herbicide spray 09-11-2014

Seedling emergence 11-11-2014

Irrigation treatments were imposed 23-11-2014

First Hand weeding 06-12-2014

05-12-2014
Ferrous Ammonium Sulphate + Citric Acid spray
12-12-2014
First pesticide spraying 15-12-2014

First split dose of fertilizer 19-12-2014

Second Hand weeding 02-01-2015

Third Hand weeding 24-01-2015

Second split dose of fertilizer 28-01-2015

Second time pesticide spraying 12-02-2015

Harvesting 15-03-2015

Threshing and winnowing 19-03-2015

 APPENDIX- E
Pan coefficient (Kp) for open pan for different ground covers, RH and wind
velocity
Windward
Wind Velocity side distance RH mean
(km/day) of green crop
(m)

Low
Medium High
(<40%)
(40-70%) (>70%)
1 0.55 0.65 0.75
10 0.65 0.75 0.85
Light 100 0.70 0.80 0.85
(<175) 1000 0.75 0.85 0.85
1 0.50 0.60 0.65
10 0.60 0.70 0.75
Moderate 100 0.65 0.75 0.80
(175-425) 1000 0.70 0.80 0.80
1 0.45 0.50 0.60
10 0.55 0.60 0.65
Strong 100 0.60 0.65 0.70
(425-700) 1000 0.65 0.70 0.75
1 0.40 0.45 0.50
10 0.45 0.55 0.60
Very strong 100 0.50 0.60 0.65
(>700) 1000 0.55 0.60 0.65

(Source: FAO, 1977)

 APPENDIX-D

Gravimetric soil moisture content (%) measured in aerobic rice under different irrigation schedules one day before and after irrigation

T1 - Irrigation scheduling at 1.00 IW/CPE ratio

Moisture Moisture
content one content one Kc values
Date of irrigation Difference ETc ETo Kc
day before day after (Plant stages wise)
irrigation irrigation
08-11-2014 16.80 25.40 5.60 24.86 43.04 0.58
21-11-2014 19.80 25.80 5.35 23.75 34.88 0.68
0.64 Initial stage
02-12-2014 20.45 26.00 5.65 25.09 37.28 0.67
16-12-2014 20.35 26.60 8.40 37.30 37.18 1.00 1.13 Development stage
02-01-2015 18.20 25.20 10.00 44.40 35.58 1.25
15-01-2015 15.20 26.10 12.20 54.17 37.82 1.43
1.44 Mid season
28-01-2015 13.90 26.40 12.30 54.61 35.39 1.54
08-02-2015 14.10 26.80 9.80 43.51 32.03 1.36
17-02-2015 17.00 26.20 8.80 39.07 33.88 1.15 0.83 Late season
25-02-2015 17.40 26.80 8.80 39.07 76.08 0.51
1.01 Total crop period
Before harvest 18.00
T2 - Irrigation scheduling at 1.25 IW/CPE ratio

Moisture Moisture
Kc values
content one content one
Date of irrigation Difference ETc ETo Kc (Plant stages wise)
day before day after
irrigation irrigation
08-11-2014 17.00 25.45 4.45 19.76 35.84 0.55
19-11-2014 21.00 25.20 4.40 19.54 29.52 0.66
0.69
28-11-2014 20.80 25.30 4.90 21.76 29.60 0.74 Initial stage
08-12-2014 20.40 25.50 5.40 23.98 29.48 0.81
22-12-2014 20.10 25.70 7.20 31.97 30.26 1.06 Development
1.19
04-01-2015 18.50 26.00 8.80 39.07 29.34 1.33 stage
15-01-2015 17.20 26.30 10.40 46.18 30.46 1.52
Mid season
26-01-2015 15.90 26.70 10.30 45.73 30.24 1.51 1.46
04-02-2015 16.40 26.30 9.70 43.07 31.87 1.35
13-02-2015 16.60 26.70 6.60 29.30 26.24 1.12
20-02-2015 20.10 26.60 6.80 30.19 27.62 1.09 0.87 Late season
27-02-2015 19.80 26.80 6.70 29.75 72.44 0.41
1.05 Total crop
Before harvest 20.10
period
T3 - Irrigation scheduling at 1.50 IW/CPE ratio

Moisture Moisture
Date of content one content one Kc values
Difference ETc ETo Kc
irrigation day before day after (Plant stages wise)
irrigation irrigation
08-11-2014 17.00 25.70 4.15 18.43 32.08 0.57
18-11-2014 21.55 25.20 3.70 16.43 22.08 0.74
0.73
25-11-2014 21.50 25.50 4.10 18.20 23.04 0.79 Initial stage
03-12-2014 21.40 25.50 4.00 17.76 22.24 0.80
11-12-2014 21.50 26.40 6.50 28.86 23.88 1.21
23-12-2015 19.90 26.00 5.60 24.86 24.74 1.01 1.24 Development stage
03-01-2015 20.40 26.30 7.90 35.08 23.42 1.50
12-01-2015 18.40 26.70 8.70 38.63 23.12 1.67
21-01-2015 18.00 26.30 9.30 41.29 24.14 1.71 Mid season
1.49
29-01-2015 17.00 26.70 7.70 34.19 24.32 1.41
06-02-2015 19.00 26.60 6.80 30.19 25.36 1.19
13-02-2015 19.80 25.70 6.20 27.53 20.40 1.35
Late season
19-02-2015 19.50 26.00 5.60 24.86 23.32 1.07 0.91
25-02-2015 20.40 26.50 5.50 24.42 81.12 0.30

Before harvest 21.00 1.09 Total crop period

T5- Irrigation scheduling at 2.00 IW/CPE ratio
Moisture Moisture
Kc values
Date of content one content one
Difference ETc ETo Kc (Plant stages wise)
irrigation day before day after
irrigation irrigation
08-11-2014 17.00 25.60 3.50 15.54 21.92 0.71
15-11-2014 22.10 25.50 3.35 14.87 18.16 0.82
21-11-2014 22.15 25.40 3.00 13.32 15.28 0.87 0.85 Initial stage
26-11-2014 22.40 26.00 3.90 17.32 19.52 0.89
03-12-2014 22.10 25.60 3.70 16.43 17.04 0.96
09-12-2015 21.90 25.80 5.00 22.20 18.16 1.22
18-12-2015 20.80 26.10 5.00 22.20 17.80 1.25
1.29 Development stage
27-12-2015 21.10 26.70 5.50 24.42 19.14 1.28
04-01-2015 21.20 25.90 5.60 24.86 17.52 1.42
11-01-2015 20.30 26.00 5.60 24.86 17.04 1.46
18-01-2015 20.40 26.10 5.70 25.31 16.16 1.57
Mid season
24-01-2015 20.40 26.60 6.80 30.19 17.50 1.73 1.55
30-01-2015 19.80 26.00 6.00 26.64 17.20 1.55
05-02-2015 20.00 25.60 5.10 22.64 15.39 1.47
10-02-2015 20.50 25.45 3.85 17.09 12.64 1.35
14-02-2015 21.60 26.30 2.90 12.88 11.20 1.15
Late season
18-02-2015 23.40 26.10 3.80 16.87 15.12 1.12 0.96
22-02-2015 22.30 26.10 2.70 11.99 13.43 0.89
26-02-2015 23.40 26.60 5.60 24.86 82.05 0.30
Before
21.00 Total crop period
harvest
T4 - Irrigation scheduling at 1.75 IW/CPE ratio

Moisture Moisture
Date of content one content one Kc values
Difference ETc ETo Kc
irrigation day before day after (Plant stages wise)
irrigation irrigation
08-11-2014 17.00 25.30 3.30 14.65 28.24 0.52
17-11-2014 22.00 25.60 3.60 15.98 18.16 0.88
23-11-2014 22.00 25.50 3.40 15.10 18.24 0.83 0.83
Initial stage
29-11-2014 22.10 25.40 4.20 18.65 20.16 0.93
06-12-2014 21.20 25.50 4.20 18.65 19.04 0.98
14-12-2015 21.30 26.00 5.20 23.09 19.80 1.17
Development
24-12-2015 20.80 26.10 5.40 23.98 19.22 1.25 1.27
stage
02-01-2015 20.70 26.70 6.60 29.30 21.20 1.38
10-01-2015 20.10 26.30 6.90 30.64 19.98 1.53
18-01-2015 19.40 26.70 7.40 32.86 19.76 1.66
Mid season
25-01-2015 19.30 26.60 6.80 30.19 18.88 1.60 1.52
31-01-2015 19.80 25.70 6.70 29.75 20.43 1.46
07-02-2015 19.00 26.00 6.50 28.86 21.44 1.35
13-02-2015 19.50 25.60 4.20 18.65 15.68 1.19
Late season
18-02-2015 21.40 25.40 5.10 22.64 20.00 1.13 0.93
23-02-2015 20.30 30.80 9.80 43.51 90.35 0.48
Before Total crop
21.00 1.14
harvest period