Introduction to

OSCILLATORS

Electronics II 1
 Outline

1. Introduction
2. Basic Principles of Sinusoidal Oscillators (Sedra 6th: 12.1)
3. Op Amp-RC Oscillator Circuits (Sedra 6th :12.2)
4. LC and Crystal Oscillators (Sedra 6th :12.3)
 Objectives

1. Understand the basic principles of

oscillators and their applications.
2. Be able to formulate the oscillation
condition using feedback equations.
3. Be able to design and analyze basic
oscillator topologies
 What is an Oscillator?
 What is an oscillator?

 An electronic oscillator is an electronic circuit that

produces and sustains periodic waveforms.
 Periodic waveforms can be sine waves, square waves,
triangular waves, pulses, …
 Oscillator Applications

 Applications of Oscillators:
 In computers and control systems as clock signals.
 In communication systems as a carrier signal.
 In test and measurements as a stimulus signal.

 Are oscillations always a desired feature?

 No, especially in amplifiers, a badly designed amplifier can end
up oscillating !!!
 Types of Oscillators

 Types of Oscillators for sinusoidal signals generation:

 Linear oscillators: Positive-feedback loop including an

amplifier and a frequency tuning network (RC or LC):
use the resonance phenomena
 Nonlinear oscillators where a triangular waveform is
shaped into a sinusoidal waveform.
 The Oscillator Feedback Loop

The basic structure of a sinusoidal oscillator. A positive-feedback loop is formed by an

amplifier and a frequency-selective network. In an actual oscillator circuit, no input signal will
be present; here an input signal xs is employed to help explain the principle of operation.
 The Oscillator Feedback Loop

 Analysis:
 The closed-loop gain is:
A s 
Af  s  
1  A s    s 
 The loop-gain is:
L  s   A s    s 

 The characteristic equation is:

1 Ls  0
 Barkhausen Criterion

Barkhausen oscillation criteria states that for sustained

oscillation at constant amplitude, the gain round the loop is
one and the phase around the loop is 0 or a multiple of 2
(180 deg)

After the startup transient process, the swing amplitude will increase up to the point
where the compression (non-linear) effect of the transistor will reduce the effective
gain and hence reach steady-state

Electronics II 9
 The Barkhausen Oscillation Criterion

 The condition for the feedback-loop to

provide oscillation at ω0 is:
L  j0   A  j0    j0   1
 The Barkhausen Criterion: for oscillation
at ω0 :  L  j0   1

and
 L j  0
  0 
 Feedback Network

L  s   A s    s 

L(s) is the open loop gain. If the product goes to one, transfer
function (or gain) goes to infinity.
Very small input can lead to large (but bounded) output.
Hence it is often found that the thermal noise can be a sufficient
stimulus for oscillation!!!

Electronics II 11
So what is an oscillator made off?

Think of an oscillator as a circuit that is made of:

1. LC resonator
2. Amplifier

Electronics II 12
 How oscillations are really created
Feedback (call it negative resistance) is needed to
ensure that oscillation continue and do not decay and
die off.

Feedback loops in oscillators are designed to generate

negative resistance. If this resistance is in a parallel
setup and is made smaller than the +ve real resistance
in the resonator loop, then the resulting small
resistance will produce enough thermal noise to kick-off
oscillations. Since the loop losses are now reduced,
oscillations can be sustained!

So our target is:

1. Meet Barkhausen criteria
2. Make the resonator (LC) of very low resistance to
avoid damping

Electronics II 13
How oscillations are really created

An input stimulus (usually an impulse in simulations) is

needed at the resonator to kick-off oscillations.

The active part of the oscillator (seen as an amplifier)

will react to this pulse and produces an output. If this
produces an output that is of equal magnitude to the
input excitation and the loop phase-shift value makes it
negative through the feedback, then sustained
oscillations is achieved.

Electronics II 14
 The Oscillation Criterion

 The frequency of oscillation ω0 is determined solely by the

phase characteristics of the feedback loop.
 The loop oscillates at the frequency for which the phase is
zero.
 For stable oscillation it is desired to have a steep function
ϕ(ω).
Wien-Bridge Oscillator

1
o 
RC

Condition for
T(jw)=-1 is
satisfied when:

R2
2
R1

Electronics II 16
The Wien-Bridge Oscillator Self-study slide

 R2   Z P 
L  s   1    
 R1  Z P  Z S 
R
1 2
R1
Ls 
1  Z S YP
R2
1
R1
L  j  
A Wien-bridge oscillator without amplitude
stabilization.

3  j CR  1
CR 
 Frequency of oscillation: 0  1CR
R2
 For sustainable oscillation:  2
R1
The Wien-Bridge Oscillator

 Once oscillation starts, the amplitude of the output signal

keeps increasing !!!

 An additional circuit is needed to determine and stabilize

the magnitude of the oscillations.
 The Wien-Bridge Oscillator
Self-study slide

A Wien-bridge oscillator with a limiter used for amplitude control.

 The Wien-Bridge Oscillator

Self-study slide

A Wien-bridge oscillator with an alternative method for amplitude stabilization.

 The Phase-Shift Oscillator

 Frequency of oscillation: the frequency at which the phase

shift of the RC network is 180°.
 The Lowest order needed for oscillation to occur at a finite
frequency is 3.
Phase-Shift Oscillator

1
o 
6  RC

Condition for
T(jw)=-1 is
satisfied when:

R2
 29
R1

Electronics II 22
 MOSFET Colpitts Oscillator

1
o 
 C1C2 
L   
 C1  C2 

Condition for
T(jw)= -1 is
satisfied when:

C2
AC equivalent circuit  gm R
C1

Electronics II 23
 LC-Tuned Oscillators

Two commonly used configurations of LC-tuned oscillators: (a) Colpitts and (b) Hartley.
 How we can implement the resonator
feedback
Use a variable (tapped) capacitor and amplifier as the feedback loop : COLPITTS OSCILLATOR
Use a variable (tapped) inductor to form the oscillator: HARTLEY OSCILLATOR
Use two transistor amplifiers in a positive feedback configuration: -Gm OSCILLATOR

Colpitt Hartley -Gm Oscillator

Electronics II 25
Pierce Oscillator with Piezoelectric
Crystal

Similar in their analysis to

Colpitt Oscillator

Electromechanically
resonance characteristics eg
Quartz

kHz-MHz range

Electronics II 26