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INTRODUCTION TO PROBABILITY

COUNTING TECHNIQUES

I. Fundamental Principle of Counting: Multiplication Rule

In a sequence of events in which the first one has m 1 possibilities,

the second has m2, the third has m3, and so on, and the total
number of possible outcomes will be

m1x m2x m3x …xmn

where n is the number of events.

Example 1: In a restaurant, a person can choose from the 7 viands, plain, garlic
or java rice, 2 kinds of beverages and 3 kinds of desserts. In how many ways can
this person choose what to have if he is to order one from each group?

Solution: A person can choose one viand, one type of rice, one drink, and one
dessert. The total number of possible choices are:
7 x 3 x 2 x 3 = 126 ans.

Example 1.1: If a 22-member club needs to elect a chair and a treasurer, how
many different ways can these two be elected?
To elect a chair: m=22
To elect a treasurer: n=21
FPCMR: total possible ways = 22(21)=462.

Example 2: The digits 0, 1, 2, 3, and 4 are to be used to form a five-digit number.

How many different numbers can be formed if
a) repetitions are permitted? ANS. 2500
b) repetition is not allowed? ANS. 96
c) the number must be odd and repetitions are not allowed? ANS. 36
d) the number must be greater than 30,000 and repetition is not allowed?
ANS. 48
Example 2.1: How many possible 7-fone digit numbers are there if the first digit
is not 0 and the first three digits is not 800?
ANS: 8,990,000

Starting w/ 0: m1=1x10x10x10x10x10x10=1,000,000
Starting w/800: m2=1x1x1x10x10x10x10=10,000
W/no restrictions: m3=10^7 = 10,000,000
Mtotal= m3-m2-m1=8,990,000
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Mutually exclusive events are those that cannot occur simultaneously. An

example is obtaining a head in tossing a coin and obtaining a tail in the same
toss.

II. Fundamental Principle of Counting: Addition Rule

In a sequence of events in which the first one has m 1 possibilities,

the second has m2, the third has m3, and so on, and if the events
are mutually exclusive, then the total number of possible outcomes
will be

m1+ m2+ m3+ … +mn

where n is the number of events.

Example 3: How many numbers greater than 4,000 can be formed from digits
0,1,2,3 and 4 using each digit only once in each number? ANS. 120

Example 3.1: How many possible 11-fone digit numbers are there starting with 0
digit or starting with 921?

Mutually exclusive events.

Starting 0: 𝑚1 = 1010
Starting with 921: 𝑚2 = 1𝑥1𝑥1𝑥10𝑥10𝑥10𝑥10𝑥10𝑥10𝑥10𝑥10 = 108
𝑚 = 1010 + 108 = 1.01𝑥1010 .
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SEATWORK:
You may not copy.

1. a) how many three-digit numbers can be formed from the digits 0,1,2,3,4,5,
and 6, if each digit can be used only once? ANS. 180
b) How many of these are odd numbers? ANS 75
c) How many are greater than 330? ANS 105

2. A witness to a hit-and-run accident told the police that the license plate
contained the letters R,L & H (not in order) followed by 3 digits, the first of which
is a 5. If the witness cannot recall the last two digits, but is certain that all 3 digits
are different, find the maximum number of automobile registrations that the police
may have to check. ANS. 432

3. If a multiple-choice test consists of 5 questions, each with 4 possible answers of which

only 1 is correct, (a) in how many different ways can a student check off one answer to
each question? (b) in how many ways can a student check off one answer to each
question and get all the answers wrong? ANS. (a) 1024; (b) 243

III. Permutations

Every arrangement in order of a set of things is called a

permutation. Thus, the set of letters r, i, x if we use all of them, can
be arranged in the following orders:
rix rxi xri
irx ixr xir

The number of permutation of n distinct objects is

nP n = n! .

Example 4.1 a)How many distinct permutations can be made from the letters
of the word “COLUMN”? ANS. 720
b) How many of these permutations start with the letter “M”? ANS. 120
c) How many of these permutations start with the letter “M” and end with
the letter “N”? ANS. 24
d) M and N will always stay together. P=2(5!)=240
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The total number of permutations of r objects that can be formed from n

objects is
n!
n Pr  .
(n  r )!

Example 4.2 : Evaluate the following.

a) 6P3=120 b) 10P6=151,200 c) 12P12=12!

Example 5: How many four-letter permutations can be formed from the letters in
the word “heptagon”?
Solution : n = 8, r =4, 8P4 = 1680 ANS.

The permutation of n objects using n objects where n1 are the same, n2 are
the same, …, nk are the same and n1 + n2 + n3 + …. + nk = n is given by

n!
P .
n1! n2!...nk !

The number of ways of partitioning a set of n objects into r cells with n1

elements in the first cell, n2 elements in the second cell and so on and so
forth is
n!
P
n1! n2!...nk !

Example 6: In how many ways can you arrange the letters of the word
“probability”?
Solution: p = 1, r = 1, o = 1, b = 2, a=1, i = 2, l =1, t =1, y =1  n = 11

n! 11!
P   9,979,200 ans.
n1!n2!...nk ! (1!)7 (2!) 2

Example 6.2 : In how many ways can 7 graduate students be assigned to one
triple and two double hotel rooms during a conference?
Solution: n = 7, n1 = 3, n2 = 2 ( two)
n! 7!
P   210 ans
n1! n2!...nk ! (3!)1 (2!) 2

Circular Arrangement: If n objects are arranged in a circle, the number of

permutations is (n – 1)!.
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Example 7: In how many ways can you sit 10 people in a round table with 10
seats?

P = (10-1)! = 9! Ans

Example : A president and a treasurer are to be chosen from a student club

consisting of 50 people. How many different choices of officers are possible if
a) there are no restrictions ANS, 2450
b) A will serve only if he is the president; ANS. 2401
c) B and C will serve together or not at all; ANS. 2258
d) D and E will not serve together. ANS. 2448
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Seatwork:

#1: Nine MME students are going on a field trip using 3 cars that hold 2, 4 and 5
passengers respectively. In how many ways is it possible to transport the 9
people to the ski lodge, using all the cars. ANS 4410

#2: Example : A president and a treasurer are to be chosen from a student club
consisting of 50 people. How many different choices of officers are possible if
a) B and C will serve together or not at all; ANS. 2258
b) D and E will not serve together. ANS. 2448

2. a) In how many ways can 3 boys and 2 girls sit in a row? b) In how many ways can
they sit in a row if the boys and girls are each to sit together? c) In how many ways
can they sit in a row if just the girls are to sit together?
ANSWERS: 120 ways, 24 ways, 48 ways