Chapter 2

Classical Control System

Design

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 Overview

Ch.
Ch. 2.
2. Classical
Classical control
control system
system design
design
Introduction
Introduction Classical
Classicaldesign
designtechniques
techniques
Steady-state
Steady-stateerrors
errors Classical
Classicaldesign
designspecifications
specifications
Type
Typekksystems
systems Lead,
Lead,lag,
lag,lead-lag
lead-lagcompensation
compensation
Integral
Integralcontrol
control Guillemin-Truxal
Guillemin-Truxalmethod
method
Frequency Quantitative
QuantitativeFeedback
FeedbackTheory
Frequencyresponse
responseplots
plots Theory
Bode Root
Rootlocus
Bodeplots
plots locus

Nyquist
Nyquistplots
plots
M-
M-and
andN-circles
N-circles
Nichols
Nicholsplots
plots

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 Steady-state errors-1

+
r F C P y
−

tn 1
Tracking behavior: Assume r (t ) = 1(t ) rˆ( s ) =
n! s n +1
L( s )
Response y$ ( s ) = F ( s ) r$( s )
11+4
L(2
4 s )443
H ( s)

Tracking error εˆ ( s ) = rˆ( s ) − yˆ ( s ) = [1 − H ( s )] rˆ( s )

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 Steady-state errors-2
Steady-state tracking error
1 − H (s)
ε ∞( n ) = lim ε (t ) = lim sεˆ ( s ) = lim
t →∞ s →0 s →0 sn
If F(s)=1 (no prefilter) then

1
1 − H ( s) =
1 + L( s)

1
ε ∞( n ) = lim
s →0 s n [1 + L ( s )]

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 Type k system

Lo ( s )
A feedback system is of type k if L( s ) = k
, Lo (0) ≠ 0
s
Then

1
ε ∞( n ) = lim
s →0 s n [1 + L( s )]
k −n
 0 for 0 ≤ n < k
s 
= lim k = 1/ Lo (0) for n = k
s →0 s + L ( s )
o  ∞ for n > k


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 Steady-state errors-3

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 Integral control-1
Integral control:
Lo ( s )
Design the closed-loop system such that L( s ) =
s
L (s)
Type k control: L( s ) = o
sk
Results in good steady-state behavior

Also:
1 sk
S (s) = = = O( s k ) for s→0
1 + L ( s ) s k + Lo ( s )

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 Integral control-2

Type k control: S ( s ) = O( s k ) for s→0

Hence if
tn 1
v (t ) = 1 (t ), vˆ( s ) =
n! s n +1

then the steady-state error is zero if n < k (rejection)

k = 1: Integral control: Rejection of constant disturbances

k = 2: Type-2 control: Rejection of ramp disturbances
Etc.
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 Integral control-3
Integral control:
Lo ( s )
L( s) = = P ( s )C ( s )
k
s
The loop has integrating action of order k

“Natural” integrating action is present if the plant transfer

function has one or several poles at 0

If no natural integrating action exists then the compen-

sator needs to provide it

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 Integral control-4

1
“Pure” integral control: C ( s) =
sTi

 1 
PI control: C ( s) = g 1 + 
 sTi 
 1 
PID control: C ( s ) = g  sTd + 1 + 
 sTi 

Ziegler-Nichols tuning rules

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 Internal model principle

Asymptotic tracking if model of disturbance is included in

the compensator

Francis, D.A. and Wonham, W.M., (1975) The internal model principle for
linear multivariable regulators, Applied Mathematics and Optimization, vol 2,
pp. 170-194

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 Frequency response plots

ots
pl
ols
Bode plots ich
N

ist
qu
Ny lots
p

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 Bode plots-1

Bode plot:
ƒ doubly logarithmic
plot of |L(jω)| versus
ω
ƒ semi logarithmic plot
of arg L(jω) versus ω

ωo2
L( jω ) =
( jω )2 + 2ζ oωo ( jω ) + ωo2

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 Bode plots-2
Helpful technique:

By construction of the asymptotic Bode plots of

elementary first- and second-order factors of the form

jω + α and ( jω ) 2 + 2ζ 0ω o2 ( jω ) + ω o2

The shape of the Bode plot of

( jω − z1 )( jω − z2 ) L ( jω − zm )
L ( jω ) = k
( jω − p1 )( jω − p2 ) L ( jω − pm )

may be sketched

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 Nyquist plots

Nyquist plot: Locus of

L(jω) in the complex plane
with ω as parameter
Contains less information
than the Bode plot if ω is
not marked along the
locus

ωo2
L( jω ) =
( jω )2 + 2ζ oωo ( jω ) + ωo2

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 M- and N-circles-1

+ Closed-loop transfer function:

r L y
− L
H= =T
1+ L

M-circle: Locus of points z in the complex plane where

z
= M
1+ z

N-circle: Locus of points z in the complex plane where

z
arg =N
1+ z

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 M- and N-circles-2

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 Nichols plots

Nichols plot: Locus of

L(jω) with ω as para-
meter in the
log magnitude
versus
argument
plane

Nichols chart: Nichols plot

ωo2 with M- and N-loci
L( jω ) =
( jω ) 2 + 2ζ oωo ( jω ) + ω o2 included
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 Classical design specifications

m cy
do me
ain

do uen
ain
Ti
m
ƒ Rise time, delay time, ƒ Bandwidth,

eq
overshoot, settling time, resonance peak,

Fr
steady-state error of the roll-on and roll-off of
response to step the closed-loop
reference and frequency response
disturbance inputs; and sensitivity
error constants functions; stability
margins

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 Classical design techniques

ƒ Lead, lag, and lag-lead compensation (loopshaping)

ƒ (Root locus approach)
ƒ (Guillemin-Truxal design procedure)
ƒ Quantitative feedback theory QFT (robust loopshaping)

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 Classical design techniques
Rules for loopshaping

ƒ Change open-loop L(s) to achieve certain closed-loop specs

ƒ first modify phase
ƒ then correct gain

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 Lead compensation

Lead compensation:
Add extra phase in the
cross-over region to
improve the stability
margins
Typical compensator:
“Phase-advance
network”

1 + jω T
C ( jω ) = α , 0 <α <1
1 + jωα T

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 Lead/lag compensator

1 + jω T
C ( jω ) = α
1 + jωα T
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 Lag compensation

Lag compensation:
Increase the low frequency gain without affecting the
phase in the cross-over region

Example: PI-control:

1 + jω T
C ( jω ) = k
jω T

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 Lead-lag compensation

Lead-lag compensation: Joint use of

ƒ lag compensation at low frequencies
ƒ phase lead compensation at crossover

Lead, lag, and lead-lag compensation are always used

in combination with gain adjustment

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 Notch compensation

(inverse) Notch filters:

ƒ suppression of parasitic dynamics

ƒ additional gain at specific frequencies

Special form of general second order filter

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 Notch compensation

s2 s
+ 2 β1 + 1
u ω 2
ω1
H = = 21
ε s s
+ 2β 2 +1
ω2 2
ω2

“Notch”-filter :ω1= ω2

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 Notch compensation

ampl.
β1
β2

fase 0°

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 Root locus method-1

Important stage of many designs: Fine tuning of

ƒ gain
ƒ compensator pole and zero locations

Helpful approach: the root locus method (use rltool!)

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 Root locus method-2

N (s) ( s − z1 )( s − z2 ) L ( s − zm )
L( s) = =k
D(s) ( s − p1 )( s − p2 ) L ( s − pn ) L
−

Closed-loop characteristic polynomial

χ (s) = D(s) + N (s)
= ( s − p1 )( s − p2 )L ( s − pn ) + k ( s − z1 )( s − z2 )L ( s − zm )

Root locus method: Determine the loci of the roots of χ as

the gain k varies

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 Root locus method-3

χ ( s ) = ( s − p1 )( s − p2 ) L ( s − pn ) + k ( s − z1 )( s − z2 ) L ( s − zm )

Rules:
ƒ For k = 0 the roots are the open-loop poles pi
ƒ For k → ∝ a number m of the roots approach the
open-loop zeros zi. The remaining roots approach ∝
ƒ The directions of the asymptotes of those roots that
approach ∝ are given by the angles

2i + 1
π , i = 0, 1, L , n − m − 1
n−m

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 Root locus method-4

ƒ The asymptotes intersect on the real axis in the point

(sum of open-loop poles) − (sum of open-loop zeros)

n−m

ƒ Those sections of the real axis located to the left of

an odd total number of open-loop poles and zeros on
this axis belong to a locus
ƒ The loci are symmetric with respect to the real axis
ƒ ....

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 Root locus method-5

k k ( s + 2) k
L( s) = L( s) = L( s) =
s ( s + 2) s ( s + 1) s ( s + 1)( s + 2)

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 Guillemin-Truxal method-1

r y Closed-loop transfer
C P
+ function:
−
PC
H=
1 + PC

Procedure:
ƒ Specify H
1 H
ƒ Solve the compensator from C = ⋅
P 1− H

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 Guillemin-Truxal method-2
Example: Choose
am s m + am −1s m −1 + L + a0
H (s) =
s n + an −1s n −1 + L + am s m + am −1s m −1 + L + a0

This guarantees the system to be of type m + 1

How to choose the denominator polynomial?

Well-known options:
ƒ Butterworth polynomials
ƒ Optimal ITAE polynomials

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 Butterworth and ITAE polynomials

Butterworth polynomials
Choose the n left-half plane poles on the unit circle so
that together with their right-half plane mirror images
they are uniformly distributed along the unit circle

ITAE polynomials
Place the poles so that
∞
∫ t e(t ) dt
0

is minimal, where e is the tracking error for a step input

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 Butterworth and ITAE

m=0

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 Guillemin-Truxal method-3

Disadvantages of the method:

ƒ Difficult to translate the specs into an unambiguous
choice of H. Often experimentation with other design
methods is needed to establish what may be
achieved. In any case preparatory analysis is
required to determine the order of the compensator
and to make sure that it is proper
ƒ The method often results in undesired pole-zero
cancellation between the plant and the compensator

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 Quantitative feedback theory QFT-1

Ingredients of QFT:
ƒ For a number of selected frequencies, represent the
uncertainty regions of the plant frequency response
in the Nichols chart
ƒ Specify tolerance bounds on the magnitude of T
ƒ Shape the loop gain so that the tolerance bounds
are never violated

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 QFT-2

g
Example: Plant P( s) =
s 2 (1 + sθ )

Nominal parameter values: g = 1, θ = 0

Parameter uncertainties: 0.5 ≤ g ≤ 2, 0 ≤ θ ≤ 0.2

Tentative compensator:
k + sTd
C (s) = , k = 1, Td = 1.414, To = 0.1
1 + sTo
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 QFT-3

Responses of the nominal design

Specs on |T |
Frequency Tolerance band
[rad/s] [dB]

0.2 0.5
1 2
2 5
5 10
10 20

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 Uncertainty regions

Uncertainty
regions for the
nominal design
The specs are
not satisfied
Additional
requirement:
The critical area
may not be
entered

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 QFT-4
Design method: Manipulate the compensator frequency
reponse so that the loop gain
ƒ satisfies the tolerance bounds
ƒ avoids the critical region

ƒ Preparatory step 1: For each selected frequency,

determine the performance boundary
ƒ Preparatory step 2: For each selectedfrequency,
determine the robustness boundary

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 Performance and robustness boundaries

Nominal plant
frequency
response

Robustness
boundaries

Performance
boundaries

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 QFT-5
Design step: Modify the loop gain such that for each
selected frequency the corresponding point on the loop
gain plot lies above and to the right of the corresponding
boundary
For the case at hand this may be accomplished by a lead
compensator of the form
1 + sT1
C (s) =
1 + sT2

Step 1: Set T2 = 0, vary T1

Step 2: Keep T1 fixed, vary T2
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 QFT-6

Eventual
design:
T1 = 3
T2 = 0.02

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 QFT-7

Responses of the
redesigned system

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 Prefilter design-1
2½-degree-of-freedom Co
configuration
r Fo F
Closed-loop transfer X
function
+
NF e Y z
H= Fo X + u
P
Dcl −

For the present case:

Dcl ( s ) = 0.02( s + 0.3815)( s + 2.7995)( s + 46.8190)
N (s) = 1

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 Prefilter design-2
Use the polynomial F to cancel the (slow) pole at –0.3815,
and let
ω o2 1 2
Fo ( s ) = 2 2
, ω o = 1, ζ o = 2
s + 2ζ oω o s + ω o

Perturbed
responses

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