Certification,
Exam 220-801
Student Manual
Revised
CompTIA A+ Certification, Exam 220-801
Chief Executive Officer, Axzo Press: Ken Wasnock
Series Designer and COO: Adam A. Wilcox
Vice President, Operations: Josh Pincus
Director of Publishing Systems Development: Dan Quackenbush
Writer: Andy LaPage
Development Assistance: Toby Skandier
Copyeditor: Ken Maher
Keytesters: Cliff Coryea,
Don Tremblay
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HelpsYour SomeoftheprimarybenefitsindividualsreportfrombecomingA+certifiedare:
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Career
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4StepstoGettingCertifiedandStayingCertified
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Contents
Introduction iii
Topic A: About the manual............................................................................... iv
Topic B: Setting your expectations ...................................................................vii
Topic C: Re-keying the course ......................................................................... xi
Printers 6-1
Topic A: Imaging processes............................................................................. 6-2
Topic B: Printer installation............................................................................ 6-16
Topic C: Printer maintenance ......................................................................... 6-24
Unit summary: Printers ................................................................................... 6-29
Notebooks 7-1
Topic A: Notebook hardware components ...................................................... 7-2
Topic B: Notebook displays ........................................................................... 7-25
Topic C: Laptop features ................................................................................ 7-29
Unit summary: Notebooks ............................................................................... 7-34
ii CompTIA A+ Certification, Exam 220-801
Glossary G-1
Index I-1
iii
Introduction
Manual components
The manuals contain these major components:
• Table of contents
• Introduction
• Units
• Appendices
• Course summary
• Glossary
• Index
Each element is described below.
Table of contents
The table of contents acts as a learning roadmap.
Introduction
The introduction contains information about our training philosophy and our manual
components, features, and conventions. It contains target student, prerequisite,
objective, and setup information for the specific course.
Units
Units are the largest structural component of the course content. A unit begins with a
title page that lists objectives for each major subdivision, or topic, within the unit.
Within each topic, conceptual and explanatory information alternates with hands-on
activities. Units conclude with a summary comprising one paragraph for each topic, and
an independent practice activity that gives you an opportunity to practice the skills
you’ve learned.
The conceptual information takes the form of text paragraphs, exhibits, lists, and tables.
The activities are structured in two columns, one telling you what to do, the other
providing explanations, descriptions, and graphics.
Introduction v
Appendices
An appendix is similar to a unit in that it contains objectives and conceptual
explanations. However, an appendix does not include hands-on activities, a summary, or
an independent practice activity.
Course summary
This section provides a text summary of the entire course. It is useful for providing
closure at the end of the course. The course summary also indicates the next course in
this series, if there is one, and lists additional resources you might find useful as you
continue to learn about the software.
Glossary
The glossary provides definitions for all of the key terms used in this course.
Index
The index at the end of this manual makes it easy for you to find information about a
particular software component, feature, or concept.
Manual conventions
We’ve tried to keep the number of elements and the types of formatting to a minimum
in the manuals. This aids in clarity and makes the manuals more classically elegant
looking. But there are some conventions and icons you should know about.
Item Description
Longer strings of Ź In the hands-on activities, any code that’s too long to fit
code will look Ź on a single line is divided into segments by one or more
like this. continuation characters (Ź). This code should be
entered as a continuous string of text.
Select bold item In the left column of hands-on activities, bold sans-serif
text indicates an explicit item that you select, choose,
or type.
Hands-on activities
The hands-on activities are the most important parts of our manuals. They are divided
into two primary columns. The “Here’s how” column gives short instructions to you
about what to do. The “Here’s why” column provides explanations, graphics, and
clarifications. Here’s a sample:
For these activities, we have provided a collection of data files designed to help you
learn each skill in a real-world business context. As you work through the activities, you
will modify and update these files. Of course, you might make a mistake and therefore
want to re-key the activity starting from scratch. To make it easy to start over, you will
rename each data file at the end of the first activity in which the file is modified. Our
convention for renaming files is to add the word “My” to the beginning of the file name.
In the above activity, for example, a file called “Sales” is being used for the first time.
At the end of this activity, you would save the file as “My sales,” thus leaving the
“Sales” file unchanged. If you make a mistake, you can start over using the original
“Sales” file.
In some activities, however, it might not be practical to rename the data file. If you want
to retry one of these activities, ask your instructor for a fresh copy of the original data
file.
Introduction vii
Course prerequisites
Before taking this course, you should be familiar with personal computers and the use
of a keyboard and a mouse. Furthermore, this course assumes that you’ve completed
one of the following courses or have equivalent experience:
• Windows 7: Basic
• Windows Vista: Basic
• Windows XP: Basic
Target student
This course will prepare you for the CompTIA A+ 220-801 certification exam. It is
designed for students seeking to become entry-level IT professionals. You will gain the
skills and knowledge necessary to perform the following tasks on personal computer
hardware and operating systems:
• Identify PC components
• Configure PC network connections
• Provide IT support for portable computers
• Complete preventative maintenance tasks
viii CompTIA A+ Certification, Exam 220-801
Course objectives
These overall course objectives will give you an idea about what to expect from the
course. It is also possible that they will help you see that this course is not the right one
for you. If you think you either lack the prerequisite knowledge or already know most of
the subject matter to be covered, you should let your instructor know that you think you
are misplaced in the class.
After completing this course, you will know how to:
• Observe workplace and electrical safety procedures, and install power supplies.
• Describe motherboard components, identify CPU socket and package type,
configure BIOS settings, and install expansion cards.
• Identify memory characteristics, and install and configure storage devices.
• Identify and distinguish among peripheral interfaces, connections, and devices.
• Identify and distinguish media connectors, and install and configure displays and
multimedia devices.
• Install and configure printers.
• Support and maintain notebook computers.
• Explain basic networking principles.
• Describe physical network components, and use basic networking tools.
• Describe TCP/IP properties, and use TCP/IP port numbers.
• Explain the basics of wireless networking, and install and configure a SOHO
network.
• Conduct themselves professionally, identify environmental issues, and respond
to incidents using standard forensic techniques.
Skills inventory
Use the following form to gauge your skill level entering the class. For each skill listed,
rate your familiarity from 1 to 5, with five being the most familiar. This is not a test.
Rather, it is intended to provide you with an idea of where you’re starting from at the
beginning of class. If you’re wholly unfamiliar with all the skills, you might not be
ready for the class. If you think you already understand all of the skills, you might need
to move on to the next course in the series. In either case, you should let your instructor
know as soon as possible.
Skill 1 2 3 4 5
Skill 1 2 3 4 5
Installing a printer
Maintaining a printer
Hardware requirements
Your desktop computer should have:
• A keyboard and a pointing device such as a mouse
• 1 GHz or higher 32-bit (x86) or 64-bit (x64) processor
• 1 GB or higher RAM on 32-bit processor computers or 2 GB or higher RAM on
64-bit processor computers
• At least 30 GB of free hard disk space on 32-bit processor computers or at least
40 GB of free hard disk space on 64-bit processor computers
• DVD-R ROM drive
• Floppy disk drive
• Monitor with DirectX 9 graphics support; Windows Display Driver Model
(WDDM) 1.0 or higher
• Wired NIC
• Modem
• Sound card and speakers
• Microphone
• Webcam
• A video card with two monitor ports for the independent practice activity in the
“Media devices” unit. If the video adapter cards in your computer has only one
monitor port, you can do all other activities in the course, but you will not be
able to complete this independent practice activity.
Software requirements
You will need the following software:
• Windows 7 Professional installation files and product key.
Network requirements
The following network components and connectivity are also required for this course:
• Internet access, for the following purposes:
– Downloading the latest critical updates and service packs from
www.windowsupdate.com
– Completing activities within the units.
• Your computer needs to be connected through TCP/IP and receive IP addressing
information from a DHCP server.
xii CompTIA A+ Certification, Exam 220-801
Setup instructions
1 Install Windows 7 Professional according to the software manufacturer’s
instructions. Leave at least 1 GB of unallocated space on the drive.
• Select your country or region, time and currency, and keyboard layout.
• Enter a user account: ADMIN01, with a password of !pass1234.
• Enter a computer name of COMPUTER01.
• Enter your product key.
• Select Ask me later when prompted for Automatic Updates.
• Set the appropriate time zone, and time and date for your location.
• Select the Work network.
2 In Network and Sharing Center, Advanced Sharing Options, turn on File and
Printer Sharing.
3 Use Device Manager to verify that all devices are functional. If you need to
download drivers for any devices from the manufacturers’ Web sites, keep a
copy of the drivers for use later.
4 Verify that you have received an IP address from a DHCP server and your
computer has Internet access.
Unit 1
Safety procedures and power supplies
Unit time: 225 minutes
# Objective
Electrostatic discharge
Explanation Electrostatic discharge (ESD) is a phenomenon that occurs when the charges on
separated objects are unequal. One object has an excess positive or negative charge,
compared to the other. Typically, the objects are made of an insulating material (one
that doesn’t transmit electricity easily) or a conductive material that’s insulated from
ground. The charge imbalance creates an electric field that can cause objects to attract or
repel each other—such as when a static field makes your hair stand on end.
From the perspective of a PC technician, the most interesting (and dangerous) aspect of
ESD happens when statically charged objects are brought near each other. When that
happens, a current can flow between them to balance their charges. This current flow is
characterized by a high voltage, but low amperage.
Static dangers
Electrostatic discharges (the current flow) aren’t dangerous to humans, even though the
voltage in the system can measure in the range of thousands of volts. However, such
discharges are potentially harmful to electronics.
The microscopic wires and components that make up chips and other devices are very
sensitive to even small amounts of current. A static spark can melt such components,
rendering them useless. Smaller discharges can alter the data stored in chips or
otherwise upset their operation, without causing physical damage.
Discharge voltages
To feel a static shock, you must experience a discharge of approximately 3,000 volts or
more. Discharges of more than roughly 8,000 volts might generate a visible spark.
Walking across a carpet on a dry day can generate a charge of up to 35,000 volts. Yet
electronics can be damaged by a 30-volt discharge or less—much less than the
minimum discharge you can feel.
Safety procedures and power supplies 1–3
ESD toolkits
An ESD toolkit includes tools that you can use to prevent the buildup of charge
differentials and to equalize them safely. You should purchase and use a good ESD
toolkit. An antistatic wrist strap is a common component of such a kit. Two antistatic
wrist straps, one wired and one wireless, are pictured in Exhibit 1-1,
Exhibit 1-3: Typically, you open the side opposite the port connectors.
Note the slide latch used to release the side panel.
1–6 CompTIA A+ Certification, Exam 220-801
Front cover
Most modern computer cases include a removable front cover. You might remove this
panel to install a new disk drive into the system or to replace a failed unit.
Typically, the front cover is held in place with snap-clips and one or more alignment
posts. The alignment posts help you line up the cover correctly so that the clips engage
and secure the cover. These posts and clips are shown in Exhibit 1-4.
6 Touch the metal frame of the To discharge any static charges present on your
computer and count slowly to body or on the computer.
three
Office hazards
Explanation Part of keeping your computers safe is making sure that the environment in which
they’re used is free of potential hazards and operationally safe. Most of the time, this
involves a simple physical inspection of the work area. Let’s take a look at some of the
factors you should consider when examining office hazards.
Floor surfaces
The following guidelines will help you maintain a safe floor surface:
• Floors should be level and dry.
• Carpets should be secured to the floor.
• Cables and power cords should not cross walkways.
• Equipment should be protected from static electricity. Use antistatic floor mats,
and if necessary, place antistatic mats under the user’s keyboard and/or
computer.
Exhibit 1-5 shows an antistatic mat.
Fire safety
For fire safety, follow these guidelines:
• Keep papers orderly so that, if a fire does break out, loose papers don’t catch fire
easily. It’s best to store papers in metal file cabinets whenever possible.
• If coffee makers, hot plates, personal heaters, and other such small appliances
are used, keep combustibles away from them and be sure they’re used properly.
Not only do these appliances produce heat that can ignite materials, but they can
also catch fire themselves if left on for prolonged periods of time.
• Keep working smoke detectors in all areas of the building.
• Keep fire extinguishers readily available for each type of equipment you have.
Some fire extinguishers use chemicals that shouldn’t be used on certain types of
equipment. Each fire extinguisher lists the types of combustible materials it’s designed
to handle. Newer fire extinguishers have pictures on them to indicate the types of fires
they’re designed to put out, as shown in Exhibit 1-6. Older ones use color-coded shapes
with letters to designate which types of fires they’re for.
Safety procedures and power supplies 1–9
Some fire extinguishers are made to put out fires on multiple types of flammable
materials. The following table describes them.
A Ordinary Puts out fires involving wood or paper. The label shows either a green
combustibles triangle with an “A” inside it or a wastebasket and a pile of logs on fire.
B Flammable Puts out fires involving grease, oil, gasoline, or similar liquids. The label
liquids shows a red square with a “B” in it or a gas can on fire.
C Electrical Puts out fires involving electrical equipment. The label shows a blue
equipment circle with a “C” in it or a plug and cord on fire.
D Flammable Designed specifically for certain types of flammable metals. The label
metals shows a yellow star with a “D” inside it. There’s no picture label for this
class of extinguisher.
Fire extinguishers are filled with one of four substances for putting out fires. These
substances are described in the following table.
Type Description
Dry chemicals These are designed for putting out fires from multiple types of flammable materials by
using an extinguishing chemical along with a nonflammable gas propellant.
Halon Halon gas interrupts the chemical reaction of burning materials. It’s designed for use
on electrical equipment.
Water Class A fire extinguishers use water, along with compressed gas, as a propellant.
CO2 Carbon dioxide fire extinguishers are designed for Class B and Class C fire
extinguishers. CO2 cools the item and the surrounding air.
1–10 CompTIA A+ Certification, Exam 220-801
Electrical safety
To keep your work area free from electrical hazards, follow these guidelines:
• Avoid overloading electrical circuits, which can lead to tripped breakers and
fires.
• Label the breakers in the electrical box so you know which outlets are serviced
by which breakers.
• Use surge protectors and uninterruptible power supplies (UPSs) to protect
computer equipment from surges and spikes. The delicate connections in a
computer circuit board can easily be damaged by the surges and spikes produced
by inadequate electric circuits.
• Avoid stringing together or overloading power strips, an example of which is
shown in Exhibit 1-7.
• Don’t run electrical cords or network cables across walkways. If the wires inside
the cable or cord become frayed, power cords won’t work properly, and network
cables will fail.
• If there’s no alternative, and power cords must be run across a walkway, they
should be encased in cord protectors. These are most often made of a rubber or
plastic strip through which the cords and cables can be easily inserted. The top
of the strip is slightly domed so that people won’t trip over it, and it contains
ample room for the cords and cables to be protected.
• Provide good ventilation for computer equipment so it doesn’t overheat.
Overheating can lead to melted components.
• Phone cords, network cables, and electrical lines should be secured out of the
way. You can use cable ties, which are commonly available in nylon and Velcro.
Some cable ties include a small tag that you can use to label the cables you’ve
secured together.
Air quality
Computers like clear, clean air, but they’re often used in less than ideal conditions, such
as on factory floors and in other locations where dust, dirt, and particulate matter
abound. To maintain air quality, follow these guidelines:
• If necessary, use fans to keep the air as clear as possible.
• Avoid smoking around computers. The pollutants from cigarette smoke adhere
to computer components and can cause them to fail.
• Periodically clean computer fans to remove dust and debris.
• Place working carbon monoxide detectors throughout the building. This
precaution is more important for users than for computer equipment, but it’s still
important. A carbon monoxide detector is shown in Exhibit 1-8.
Computer hazards
Computers can be hazardous to your health. The two major types of hazards are
physical and electrical. In addition, toner and ozone emissions from laser printers and
photocopiers can be hazardous.
Physical hazards
Computer equipment—especially laser printers, servers, and large CRT monitors—can
be heavy and bulky. Use care when lifting and moving equipment, not only for the sake
of the equipment, but also for the sake of your back and other muscles. When lifting
equipment, take a balanced stance. If the item is on the floor, squat close to it and use
your leg muscles to lift it as you stand up. Keep your back straight with your chin
tucked in. Grip the equipment, using your entire hand rather than just your fingers, and
bring the equipment close to your body, keeping your elbows close to your body as
well. With CRT monitors, keep the glass face towards your body. It is the heaviest part
of the monitor and is easier to carry when placed closer to your center of gravity. Also,
make sure that you can see where you’re going with the equipment! Crashing into
another person, a wall, or other equipment can also be hazardous. And know the weight
limitations of any office furniture on which you’re going to place computer equipment.
It’s also important to restrain or remove neckties, loose clothing, dangling jewelry, and
long hair, so that such things don’t become entangled with components.
1–12 CompTIA A+ Certification, Exam 220-801
The electronic components of computers generate heat. Many times, the heat generated
by these components is enough to cause a serious burn, if they’re touched. For example,
while a notebook computer is often referred to as a “laptop,” if placed on your lap
covering the bottom air vents, you’ll find that, after a while, the heat becomes quite
uncomfortable and can actually burn your skin.
If you’ll be working with a notebook computer on your lap, it’s best to purchase a lap
desk. These allow air to circulate through the air vents on the bottom of the notebook as
if on a desk. They also protect your skin from the hot air moving away from the
components.
You should exercise caution working on the internal components of a computer, as they
can retain heat. Even if you aren’t working on a component that generates heat itself,
you’re working in close quarters and can accidently brush up against a component that
is hot.
Electrical hazards
Some components—notably CRTs, power supplies, and laser printers—contain high-
voltage components. When working around these pieces of equipment, take special care
by following these guidelines:
• Always use care when working with any electrical equipment. Be sure that it’s
turned off and unplugged before you begin to make repairs, unless you don’t
have an ESD strap. Without an ESD strap, you need to leave it plugged in for the
electrical ground. Otherwise, you could fry internal components.
• Visually inspect the equipment’s wiring for defects, such as faulty insulation or
loose connections, before each use.
• Don’t use damaged or frayed electrical cords.
• Remove metal jewelry, watches, rings, etc., before working on computer
components.
• Don’t place containers of liquid, including beverages, on or near computer
equipment.
• Always know the electrical ratings of the computers and other equipment in your
work area, so that you don’t overload electrical circuits.
Only specially trained technicians should attempt to repair a CRT or the high-voltage
components in a laser printer. Such training is beyond the scope of this course.
Always send used toner cartridges to a recycler for proper disposal. Never send them to
the landfill. Chemicals in the toner cartridges can contaminate the environment.
You’ll remember that the charged corona wire in a laser printer creates ozone, an air
pollutant capable of causing respiratory illness. To keep the concentrations of ozone
below the currently regulated standard, many newer laser printers employ replaceable
ozone filters. Make sure you follow the manufacturer’s instructions for replacing the
ozone filter at proper intervals to protect against unsafe levels of ozone emissions.
Incident reporting
An organization should have policies in place for handling accidents. The policy should
include the procedure for reporting incidents. Proper documentation in a timely manner
is necessary for OSHA, workers compensation claims, and insurance purposes.
4 If a physical injury were sustained during the service call, what would your
company’s policy be for reporting the incident?
1–14 CompTIA A+ Certification, Exam 220-801
Reusing equipment
The first choice when your computer equipment no longer meets your needs should be
to donate the equipment to an organization that can use it. This might be a local school
or other charitable organization. Many PC recyclers attempt to send usable equipment
back out for use rather than dismantling it for materials reclamation.
Methods of disposal
Some municipalities offer local electronic-equipment recycling services, and local
regulations might dictate the method of disposal. These might be available year round or
offered periodically. There’s often a small fee for disposing of the equipment.
Considering the amount of manual labor involved in recycling these materials, the fees
aren’t exorbitant.
If no local service is offered, you can check the Web for recyclers. If you have pallet
upon pallet of equipment, a recycler might be able to pick it up from you or arrange to
have it picked up.
Safety procedures and power supplies 1–15
# Objective
Characteristics of electricity
Explanation Electricity is the flow of electrons, which are one of the fundamental building blocks of
all matter. In some materials, electrons flow easily, while in others, electrons are tightly
bound to their atoms and hardly flow at all.
A conductor is a material that permits the flow of electricity. An insulator is a material
that inhibits the flow of electricity. Most metals, some plastics, and some liquids are
conductors. Most ceramics, plastics, and gases are insulators.
Voltage
Voltage is the force of electricity caused by a difference in charge, or electrical
potential, at two locations. This value, measured in volts, is also called the potential or
potential difference. The abbreviation for volts is officially an uppercase “V,” though a
lowercase “v” is commonly used.
Electricity flows to equalize potential. More electricity flows when there’s a greater
difference in potential than when there’s a smaller difference in potential. Thus, more
energy can be drawn from a high-voltage system than from a low-voltage system.
Current
Current is a measure of the flow of electrons past a given point—essentially measuring
the speed of the electrons through the conductor. It is measured in amps, or amperes.
For current to flow, there must be a complete circuit, or path, from the source, through
any intervening devices, and back to ground. A complete circuit is called closed; an
incomplete circuit is called open.
Any interruption in the circuit causes the current to stop. This is the principle behind a
switch, which is simply a device with which you can open a circuit to stop the flow of
current.
Safety procedures and power supplies 1–17
2 Why might you be concerned about the output power rating of a power supply?
4 Given what you’ve learned about electricity (particularly voltage and current),
speculate on the purpose of a PC’s power supply.
Safety procedures and power supplies 1–19
Electricity
Explanation Electricity is the source of energy for electronic equipment, including personal
computers. Electricity can be dangerous. If you don’t follow proper safety precautions,
electricity could kill you.
Calculating current
Voltage, current, and resistance are related through the following formula:
V = i * r
In this formula, V is voltage in volts, i is the current in amps, and r is the resistance in
ohms (ȍ). At a given voltage, current increases as resistance drops. A dangerous level
of current can be reached if resistance is reduced sufficiently.
Safety precautions
You should always follow common-sense safety precautions to avoid electric shock.
These precautions include the following:
• Don’t touch exposed electrical contacts with any part of your skin.
• Touch only insulated handles and parts of tools, probes, cords, etc.
• Leave covers on equipment, unless you need to access their internal
components.
• Work one-handed. If you use only one hand, electricity is less likely to flow
through your body (specifically, your heart or head) and cause injury or death.
• Never insert anything into a wall outlet other than a power cord.
• Rings, watches, and jewelry can cause unintended contact with electrified
components. Furthermore, these metallic items can increase the surface area
that’s in contact with an electrical source and thus lower your body’s resistance.
Remove jewelry and watches when working around electricity.
• Keep your hands clean and dry.
• Don’t work with electricity in wet surroundings, especially on wet floors.
2 Could you feel the current generated if you were to wet your fingers and touch
both leads of a 9 V battery?
PC power supplies
Explanation A PC power supply, shown in Exhibit 1-9, is the internal component that converts AC
wall voltage (110 VAC or 220 VAC) to the various DC voltages used by the computer’s
other components. Power supplies have a fan to cool their components and to help cool
the other components inside the PC. Typically, a power supply provides some
conditioning functions and can maintain DC supplies during very brief drops in and
outages of supply voltage.
Motherboard 30 W, not including the power for the CPU chip and memory. This is for
full power mode. Sleeping states use less.
CPU chip AMD Phenom processors use 65–140 W; AMD Athlon 64 processors use
45–125 W; single- and dual-core Itanium processors use approximately
100 W; Pentium 4 and Athlon-class processors use 65 or more watts; older
CPUs use 50 W or less. The voltage can vary based on the processor’s
workload. Voltage spikes as the processor swings between light and heavy
workloads.
Hard drive 5–15 W. Some manufacturers print the power requirement right on the
drive.
Optical drive Newer CD or DVD drives can use as little as 5 W. Older optical drives
may require 10–20 W.
Adapter card 5–30 W. For example, the high-end graphics cards used by professional
graphics software developers and computer-aided designers require more
power than a normal graphics card.
Sizes
The form factor of a power supply refers to its size and shape. In the past, the most
popular form factor was the AT form factor. Later, the ATX form factor became more
popular, and that popularity continues today. Micro-ATX was developed after ATX, and
it’s designed to be smaller than the ATX form factor.
The form factor you use must not only fit into the case you use, but it must also fit in
relation to the motherboard and other components. The names of power-supply form
factors match those given to system cases, because together these components form a
matched set.
Safety procedures and power supplies 1–23
Power connectors
Standard connectors are used to connect the power supply’s output to the various
devices. Separate standards exist for drive and peripheral power connectors and
motherboard power connectors.
Exhibit 1-10: Serial ATA (SATA) power connectors (left), a Molex connector (center),
and a floppy power (Berg) connector (right)
Due to their shapes, these connectors can be inserted into drives in only one orientation.
They are said to be “keyed,” which ensures that you connect the appropriate power
input wires to the correct point on the device.
The following table lists the individual wires and pins that carry power through the
various connectors.
Red 7, 8, 9 4 1 (optional) +5 V
Orange 1, 2, 3 +3.3 V
1–24 CompTIA A+ Certification, Exam 220-801
Connector Description
Floppy 4-pin connector to power floppy drives; also called a Berg connector
4/8-pin Connect to motherboard for extra CPU power and graphics cards
PCIe 6/8-pin Connects PCIe devices using 6 pins or a 6+2 pin configuration
Voltage selection
On dual-voltage supply units, which are most units nowadays, you can adjust the power
supply to run on 110-120 VAC or 220-240 VAC wall voltage. To make this adjustment,
with the computer off, you slide a small switch to the appropriate voltage. This switch is
normally next to the electrical cord port on the back of the PC, as shown in Exhibit 1-
13. Auto-switching power supplies detect the incoming voltage and make the switch
automatically.
The desktop voltage switch shown in Exhibit 1-13 allows you to select an operating
voltage of 115 or 230. The Americas and Japan provide electrical power within a range
of 90–135 V. Europe and most other countries in the world use a voltage twice that
amount—between 220 and 240 volts. When your computer is operating in the Americas
or Japan always have the switch set to 115. If your computer is operating in a country
that supplies power at the higher range, set the power supply toggle switch to 230.
Exhibit 1-13: Voltage selection switch near the electrical cord port
Not having the voltage selection switch set properly for your country can prevent your
computer from turning on, keep it from operating properly, or cause serious damage to
the computer. Some power supplies have an auto-switching feature that senses the
incoming voltage and switches itself accordingly. Most laptop power supplies are auto-
switching.
1–26 CompTIA A+ Certification, Exam 220-801
5 Determine if your computer has a The power supplies in newer computers provide
SATA power connector these connectors. You can purchase adapters for
older power supplies.
5 Connect the power cables to the Make sure to attach connectors in the
motherboard and other internal appropriate orientation.
components
8 Boot the computer To verify that you have installed the power
supply correctly.
1–28 CompTIA A+ Certification, Exam 220-801
Review questions
1 What type of fire extinguisher should you keep handy for computer fires?
A Class A C Class C
B Class B D Class D
2 What type of fire extinguishing substance interrupts the chemical reaction of
burning materials?
A CO2 C Halon
B Dry chemicals D Water
3 True or false? You need to be concerned about electrostatic discharge, because it
can be fatal to humans.
False. Electrostatic discharges aren’t dangerous to humans, even though the voltage in the
system can measure in the range of thousands of volts. However, such discharges are potentially
harmful to electronics.
4 True or false? Laptops are meant to be used on your lap.
False. Laptops are hot, particularly if they are placed on your lap. Components can overheat due
to the lack of airflow through the underside openings, and users can get burned when the laptop
is placed on their laps.
5 True or false? Batteries, toner cartridges, and ink cartridges can be disposed of in
landfills without any consequences.
False. Many batteries contain heavy metals that can’t be sent to the landfill. Batteries in the
equipment might contain nickel, mercury, or cadmium. Toners are usually a mixture of plastic
resin, iron powder, and carbon black. Chemicals in the toner cartridges can contaminate the
environment. Ink cartridges aren’t usually as toxic as toner cartridges, but they still contain
electronic and metal components that can be reclaimed.
6 Which of the following are conductors? [Choose all that apply.]
A Ceramics D Metals
B Gases E Plastics
C Liquids
Safety procedures and power supplies 1–29
Safety procedures
In this activity, you’ll practice applying safety practices to a computer environment.
1 Practice lifting equipment, using the proper technique and moving it from one desk
to another.
2 Compile a list of organizations to which you can donate used equipment.
3 Locate an electronics recycler and obtain a quote for disposing of outdated
equipment in your office.
Power supplies
In this activity, you’ll research power supplies and practice calculating current.
1 Determine the replacement cost for the power supply in your computer.
2 Determine if there is an upgraded power supply you can purchase for your
computer. What’s the cost difference?
3 How much current (in amps) flows through a circuit with a 100 ȍ resistance if 100
V of electricity is applied?
V = i * r, so i = V/r = 100/100 = 1 amp
4 Would you feel that voltage, or would it be sufficient to contract your muscles or
kill you?
A 1 amp current would kill you, if it were to pass through your heart or head. It could instead
cause an electrical burn if it passed through an extremity, such as a leg or arm.
2–1
Unit 2
Motherboards and CPUs
Unit time: 225 minutes
Topic A: Motherboards
This topic covers the following CompTIA exam objectives for A+ 220-801.
# Objective
Motherboards
Explanation The motherboard is the main circuit board in a personal computer. It’s made up of
various components, including the CPU and other electronic devices, wires, and adapter
sockets to which additional circuit boards and devices can be attached. Exhibit 2-1
shows a motherboard with some of its primary components labeled.
Component Function
CPU The chip that processes instructions, manipulates data, and controls the
interactions of the other components in your computer.
Expansion slots Slots into which you can plug additional circuit boards to expand the
capabilities of your computer.
AGP graphics A slot into which you can plug an AGP graphics adapter card, which produces
adapter slot the output displayed on your monitor.
Hard drive interface A header into which you can plug cables to connect hard drives, CD drives, and
connectors DVD drives to the system.
Floppy drive A header into which you can plug the cable to connect a floppy drive to the
interface connector system.
Optical drive IDE or SCSI connector to connect a CD or DVD drive to the system.
interface connector
Power connections Connector to which you connect the output of the power supply to provide
electrical power to the motherboard. Older systems have a pair of connectors
rather than a single connector.
RAM slots Slots into which you insert memory modules to add system memory to your PC.
PS/2 mouse and Ports into which you can plug PS/2-style keyboard and mouse connectors.
keyboard ports
USB port One or more ports into which you can plug cables to connect USB devices to
your PC.
IEEE 1394/FireWire One or more ports into which you can plug cables to connect FireWire devices
port to your PC.
Serial port One or more ports into which you can plug cables to connect serial devices,
such as modems or mice, to your PC.
Parallel port One or more ports into which you can plug cables to connect parallel devices,
such as printers, to your PC.
CMOS battery A battery to provide power for maintaining system configuration information,
date, and time, while your PC is turned off or disconnected from the outlet.
Network interface Network interface circuitry built into the motherboard to enable connections to a
network without using an add-on adapter card.
Video connector Video circuitry built into the motherboard, which provides a video connector on
the back of the system case.
Fan connectors Cooling fans connected directly to the motherboard use 3- or 4-pin Molex
connectors. Other fans are connected to the power supply instead of to the
motherboard.
Jumpers Jumpers (small conductive sheaths) and jumper pins are used to manually
configure settings on the motherboard. When jumper pins, arranged in pairs, are
connected by a jumper, an electrical circuit is completed, which issues a
command to the motherboard. In older computers, jumpers were used to
configure CPU and other settings. They can also be used to clear and reset
CMOS settings.
Motherboards and CPUs 2–5
The motherboard is sometimes called the system board or main board. However, the
latter term is typically used to describe the main circuit board in non-PC devices, such
as alarm systems, televisions, and so forth.
Daughter boards
A daughter board is a circuit board that connects to a circuit board (sometimes, though
not normally, a motherboard) to provide or assist with its functions. Daughter boards are
often used with video cards to add more video-processing capabilities.
Form factor
The form factor of a motherboard is its size and shape. In addition, the form factor
describes the power supply and case that can be used with a motherboard. It also
describes the general physical layout of the components on the motherboard.
Of course, motherboards must fit into cases, which means that screw holes or retaining-
clip locations between motherboards and cases must match. Standardized dimensions
and mounting layouts help make sure that components work together.
The following table lists some common PC motherboard form factors. Other form
factors are available. Be sure to check the manufacturer’s specification documents for
your PC when choosing a replacement motherboard.
ATX 9.6 by 12 inches Standard created by Intel in 1996 and still one of the most
popular form factors.
Micro-ATX 9.6 by 9.6 inches Released in 1996. Offered fewer slots than the ATX form.
A smaller power supply could be used in PCs with this
motherboard design.
5 Boot your PC
Log on to Windows 7 as
ADMIN## with a password of
!pass1234
Computer buses
Explanation In computer terminology, a bus is a communication pathway. A PC has multiple buses
to enable communication among the various components of the PC. A bus is defined by
various characteristics, including how many bits it can transmit at one time, which
signaling techniques are used across it, and how fast it can transfer data.
Bus types
A typical PC has the following types of buses:
• Address — The bus that transmits memory addresses between the CPU and the
RAM. The memory controller also plays a crucial role between the RAM and
the CPU.
• Data — The bus that transfers data between the CPU and the RAM. It’s known
as the system bus or system data bus.
• Expansion — The bus to which add-on adapter cards are connected in order to
enhance the functionality of the PC.
Expansion bus
An expansion bus is the communications pathway over which non-core components of
your computer interact with the CPU, memory, and other core components. For
example, data sent to and from your computer’s hard drive travels over an expansion
bus.
Expansion slots
Each mother board has slots to accommodate additional components to expand the
capabilities of your computer. By installing cards into expansion slots that connect to an
expansion bus, you can add new hardware to your PC. For example, your desktop
computer might not have come with a wireless network card for connecting to the
network through your wireless router. You can purchase a wireless network adapter
card and plug it into an expansion bus to add this capability to your computer. The
following sections describe the various types of expansion slots.
Exhibit 2-2: PCI slots on a motherboard (left), and a PCI card (right)
PCI-X
The PCI-eXtended (PCI-X) standard was developed to address several shortcomings in
the PCI standard, most importantly to increase bandwidth for high-performance
components, running at 133 MHz and transferring up to a theoretical maximum of 1.06
Gpbs. PCI-X has been replaced in newer systems with the PCIe standard.
PCIe
PCI Express (PCIe) uses serial communication instead of the parallel communication
that PCI uses. A connection between a PCIe device and the system is known as a link.
Each link uses a dedicated, bidirectional, serial, point-to-point connection called a lane.
In PCIe version 1.0, each lane can transfer 2.5 Gbps (0.25 GBps) of data simultaneously
in each direction using 8b/10b encoding. A link can use more than one lane at a time,
but all links must support at least a single-lane connection. This is referred to as an “x1”
(pronounced “by-one”) link. PCIe supports x1, x2, x4, x8, x12, x16, and x32 bus widths.
Motherboards and CPUs 2–9
PCIe cards can’t connect to the system through PCI buses, but they are compatible with
software that uses the PCI standard. PCIe cards physically fit into slots designed for
their lane configuration or higher (up-plugging) but not into slots designed for lower
lane configurations (down-plugging).
Mini PCI
Mini PCI was added to the PCI standard to create expansion devices for laptops. Mini
PCI is a 32-bit standard that runs at 33 MHz. Mini PCI devices include wireless
adapters, hard drive controllers, sound cards, and Bluetooth adapters.
Exhibit 2-3: An AGP adapter (note the hook beside the edge connectors)
2–10 CompTIA A+ Certification, Exam 220-801
You will see AGP speeds referred to as #x. Using various techniques, the effective bus
speed of an AGP port is increased, or “pumped,” to a multiple of the standard speed.
The “x” in AGP specifications refers to how many times data is transferred during each
clock cycle. For example, an AGP 3.0 8x slot transfers data 8 times per clock cycle,
making it 8 times faster than the bus speed. The maximum speed would be 2.13 GBps,
assuming an effective clock rate of 533 MHz for the PCI bus.
You might encounter some older systems with slower bus speeds. AGP 1.0 was released
with both 1x and 2x speeds. AGP Pro was released for cards that required more power.
The AGP 2.0 4x bandwidth is up to 1.06 GBps on a virtual 266 MHz bus system. The
AGP 2.0 2x slot would have a bandwidth of up to 533 MBps on a virtual 133 MHz bus
system. This and other information about AGP is summarized in the following table. All
bus widths are 32-bit.
AGP slots
AGP slots are typically brown, though sometimes maroon or another dark color.
Modern video adapters require active cooling (fans) and thus more space than other
adapters. For this reason, an AGP slot is typically well separated from other bus slots. A
graphic of an AGP slot is shown in Exhibit 2-4. Most systems include a single AGP slot.
However, some high-end systems include multiple, independent AGP slots.
Identify them
Chipsets
In older PCs, separate microchips were used to provide each individual function. For
example, one chip controlled the processor’s interaction with memory, another managed
the CPU’s interaction with add-on peripherals, and so forth. The cost and complexity of
designing motherboards with many separate chips led designers to integrate the
functions into single chips or sets of chips.
A chipset is one or more chips, packaged into a single unit and sold together, that
performs a set of functions in a computer. The term is used most often to describe the
core features of a computer, which often include:
• Memory control • Video display functions
• System bus functions • System management functions
• Audio functions
The chipset doesn’t actually include the CPU. However, each chipset is designed to
support a select few CPUs.
Sometimes the term “chipset” is used with video adapter cards. In such cases, the
(video) chipset combines what used to be separate video chips into a single chip or unit.
In addition to the back panel connections shown in Exhibit 2-1, most computers provide
front panel connections, including USB and IEEE 1394/FireWire connections, as shown
in Exhibit 2-5.
Connector Description
Power light Indicates when the computer is powered. Can also indicate when the
computer has gone to sleep.
Reset button Causes an immediate reboot. Sometimes this button is behind the
front panel, which must be removed for access to the button.
# Objective
1.6 Differentiate among various CPU types and features and select the appropriate cooling
method.
• Socket types
– Intel: LGA, 775, 1155, 1156, 1366
– AMD: 940, AM2, AM2+, AM3, AM3+, FM1, F
• Characteristics
– Speeds – Virtualization support
– Cores – Architecture (32-bit vs. 64-bit)
– Cache size/type – Integrated GPU
– Hyperthreading
• Cooling
– Heat sink – Thermal paste
– Fans – Liquid-based
Processors
Explanation The central processing unit (CPU), or processor, is the “brains” of your computer. It’s
the chip that processes instructions, manipulates data, and controls the interactions of
the other circuits in your computer. A CPU is shown in Exhibit 2-6.
Older CPUs and processors, in even modern mini-computers and mainframe computers,
were built from multiple chips and components. CPUs contained on a single chip are
called microprocessors. Almost all CPUs in personal computers are microprocessors.
Execution units
Execution units are responsible for the processing of instructions and data. Execution
units are built from the arithmetic logic unit (ALU) and the floating-point unit (FPU).
The ALU calculates and compares numbers. The ALU does most of the work of the
processor, but it’s best suited to working with operations that act on whole numbers (not
fractions).
The FPU is designed specifically to work with real numbers (numbers with fractional
components, and very large, very small, or very precise numbers). It’s faster and more
efficient at performing mathematical manipulations than the ALU is.
Older CPUs didn’t include an FPU, though one was sometimes offered as a separate
add-on chip called a math coprocessor. The Intel 80386 and some 80486 processors,
which predate the Pentium line of CPUs, didn’t include an FPU. In these older CPUs,
the functions of an FPU were performed by the ALU, but at a slower pace.
A processor can have one or more execution units. A single-core processor has one
execution unit. A core is an execution unit. A dual-core processor has two execution
units, a triple-core processor has three, and a quad-core processor has four.
In a single-core processor, the processor orders, executes, and then selectively stores
strings of instructions in its registers. Registers are very small, yet very fast, memory
locations available on the CPU for holding instructions or units of data. Registers
operate at the same speed as the CPU, whereas normal system memory can be many
times slower. The CPU can access the contents of a register more quickly than it can
access other types of storage.
During operation, CPUs store data and instructions in registers. That information is then
transferred back to main system memory. To speed operations, the control unit can
“pre-fetch” instructions and data from system memory and store them in the CPU’s
registers. When the processor needs data outside its registers, it must retrieve the data
from RAM through the system bus or from a storage device, such as the hard disk. This
process slows down performance to the maximum speed of the bus, memory, or storage
device. This speed is slower than the actual speed of the processor itself. The situation is
worse when the processor must multitask. When multitasking, the processor switches
back and forth between sets of instructions and programs.
CPUs can have many registers, with groups of registers devoted to a specific purpose
(and thus unavailable for other uses). Some modern processors can use registers as
needed for the task at hand, rather than being constrained by a limited quantity of
special-purpose registers.
2–16 CompTIA A+ Certification, Exam 220-801
Multi-core processor
In a multi-core processor, each core handles incoming strings of instructions
simultaneously. When one core is executing instructions, other cores can be accessing
the system bus or executing their own string of instructions. To utilize a multi-core
processor, the operating system must be able to recognize multi-threading, and the
software must have simultaneous multi-threading technology (SMT) or Non-Uniform
Memory Access or Non-Uniform Memory Architecture (NUMA) written into its code.
SMT enables parallel multi-threading, meaning that multi-threaded instructions are
delivered to the cores in parallel. NUMA builds upon SMT by providing separate
memory for each processor. Without SMT or NUMA, the software can recognize only
one core.
A multi-core processor is different from a multi-processor system. In a multi-core
processor, system resources are shared and all cores reside on the same chip. In a multi-
processor system, there are two separate processors, each with its own system resources.
All other components being equal, a multi-processor system is faster than a system with
a multi-core processor.
CPU performance
An instruction is the low-level, hardware-specific command that the processor acts on.
It might be something like “ADD AX, BY” to add the contents of the A and B registers.
Before this instruction can be executed, a previous instruction must have moved the
value of the X from a location in memory and stored it in the A register. Another
instruction must have moved the value of the Y from memory to the B register. One
more instruction is required to write the resulting sum back into a register, from where it
is transferred by the control unit to a new memory location.
You can determine the performance of a processor by examining the number of
instructions it can perform in a second. With microprocessors, this amount is usually
rated in millions of instructions per second (MIPS).
CPUs are often rated according to their clock speed. In a PC, the clock circuit keeps the
CPU and other chips synchronized so that they can work together.
Older CPUs took more than one clock cycle to perform a single instruction. Modern
processors perform many instructions in a single cycle. In fact, the clock speed is no
longer a good indicator of the performance of a modern CPU. By using the techniques
listed in the following table, a modern CPU can perform more than one instruction per
clock cycle and even perform multiple instructions at the same time.
Ultimately, many factors control the actual speed (performance) of a CPU. The
following table describes some of these factors.
Motherboards and CPUs 2–17
Addressable The total amount of memory accessible to the processor. The width of the address
RAM bus controls the amount of addressable RAM to which the CPU can read or write.
Bus, address The bus (pathway) that connects the processor to main memory. The wider the
address bus, the more memory can be accessed. Data isn’t transferred over this bus.
Bus, data The bus that connects the CPU, memory, and peripherals. The data bus is used to
carry data. The width and the clock rate of the data bus determine its data rate.
Bus, internal The bus that determines how many bits of information the processor can work with at
once. The size of the internal register determines how much data the processor can
handle at one time and how it moves data around internally within the chip. If the
internal bus is smaller than the data bus, data and instructions must be manipulated in
parts. For example, a processor with a 32-bit internal bus and a 64-bit data bus must
deal with data in two halves.
Cache High-speed temporary storage. Accessing data from cache is considerably faster than
accessing it from main memory. Various computer components use caches—such as
CPUs and hard disks. Processors use levels 1, 2, and 3 caching, where level 1 is the
fastest and most closely coupled to the processor, level 2 less so, and level 3 even
less (yet still much faster than normal system memory.)
Graphics Newer processors, including Intel’s Core i series and AMD’s Fusion, have an
processing unit integrated GPU right on the processor. This unit speeds video performance,
(GPU) especially for high-end gaming and other graphics-intensive software.
Hyperthreading Officially called Hyper-Threading Technology (HTT), this is an Intel technology that
enables each single processor core to execute two streams of instructions at the same
time, sharing the workload between two virtual processors when possible. Other
manufacturers use similar hyperthreading technology in their processors.
Multiprocessing The use of more than one processor within a system to speed program execution.
Operating systems and applications need to be written to support multiprocessing, or
no speed benefits are realized.
Overclocking Running the CPU at a higher speed than it was rated to run at. Overclocking
increases performance, but also increases the potential for errors. Also, more heat is
generated by an overclocked CPU.
Pipelining The overlapping of the steps involved in processing instructions. Instructions are
normally fetched, decoded, and executed, and the results are written out to memory.
Modern processors overlap these steps to speed overall execution. While one
instruction is being executed, another is being decoded, and a third is being fetched.
Superscalar A technique that enables a processor to execute more than one instruction in a single
clock cycle.
Throttling A technique by which the speed of the processor is scaled back so that it uses less
power and creates less heat. Throttling reduces performance. It’s most useful with
portable computers, for which low power consumption and low heat production are
critical design factors.
Virtualization Not all processors support virtualization, a software feature that allows you to run
support multiple “computers” on a single system. You will need to access your processor’s
documentation to determine if it supports virtualization, and if it does, if you need to
enable it in the BIOS settings.
2–18 CompTIA A+ Certification, Exam 220-801
Processor specifications
There are several manufacturers of CPUs. Probably the two most recognizable in the
personal computer realm are Intel and AMD (Advanced Micro Devices). These two
have the largest market share.
CPUs can be compared according to many specifications, including:
• Primary specifications — Clock speed, front-side bus speed, addressable RAM,
and cache sizes.
• Bus width specifications — The width, or number of bits, that can pass at one
time over the processor’s internal bus and data bus, plus the address bus width,
which determines the maximum addressable memory.
• Internal specifications — The internal and external voltages used by the chips,
the number of transistors that make up the processor, and whether it includes an
integrated FPU.
Refer to manufacturer Web sites for specific information about the following items for
individual processors:
• Clock speed • L2 cache size
• Front-side bus speed • Internal bus size
• Maximum RAM • Data bus size
• L1 cache size • Address bus size
These are the appropriate Web sites:
• AMD desktop processors:
products.amd.com/en-us/DesktopCPUResult.aspx
• AMD notebook processors:
products.amd.com/en-us/NotebookCPUResult.aspx
• Intel: www.intel.com/products/processor/index.htm
Motherboards and CPUs 2–19
Internal specifications
The internal specifications of processors refer to the way the CPU’s circuits are
constructed. The core voltage value describes the voltage level required by the core
processing components of the CPU. The I/O voltage value, sometimes called the
external voltage, is the level required by the CPU’s input and output circuitry. In
modern processors, the core and I/O voltage values typically differ.
On modern processors, one or more voltage ID (VID) pins send a signal containing the
exact voltage requirements to the voltage regulator module (VRM) on the motherboard.
The VRM then supplies that specific power to the CPU. Not all motherboards include a
VRM. On many older motherboards, you must set jumpers or switches to match the
voltage supplied to the CPU with what it requires. If you supply the wrong voltage, you
can ruin the CPU.
The number of transistors is simply a count of the transistors (microscopic electronic
switches) that make up the CPU. This count provides a rough estimate of the size and
complexity of the chip.
Older processors didn’t include an integrated floating-point unit (FPU). Modern CPUs
all include this feature.
Again, for information on the specific core and I/O voltage values, number of
transistors, and inclusion of an integrated FPU on a specific processor, refer to the
technical documentation on the manufacturer’s Web site.
4 Touch the metal frame of the To discharge any static charges present on your
computer and count slowly to 3 body or on the computer.
5 Remove the cover So you can view the motherboard and processor.
7 Record the manufacturer and Your instructor will provide this information.
model of CPU in your computer Manufacturer: __________________________
Model: _______________________________
Leave the computer open for the next activity.
2–20 CompTIA A+ Certification, Exam 220-801
CPU packaging
Any type of microchip is made up of microscopic wires, transistors, and other
components. This plain chip is called the die. To be useful, it must be connected to the
rest of the circuitry of your computer. Due to the size differences between the wires on
the die and the circuit boards of your computer, the die can’t be connected directly to
the circuit board.
Instead, the die is built into a package. A package is in a case made from plastic,
ceramic, glass, metal, or other material, plus the wires and connectors that bridge the
microscopic connections on the die with the external circuitry. A package might also
include support function chips, memory, and cooling-related components. A plastic case
package is shown in Exhibit 2-7.
Older package types, such as the PDIP pictured in Exhibit 2-7, used connectors that
were large compared to the die. Newer packages use ever smaller connectors, packing
more connections into a smaller area. The pin grid array (PGA) package, shown in
Exhibit 2-8, includes many more connections into an area not much larger than the die.
Exhibit 2-8: The underside of an 80486DX2 CPU, showing the pins of its Pin Grid
Array package
Motherboards and CPUs 2–21
Even though newer packages use smaller connectors, the need for more functionality
has driven increase in connection count so that overall package size may grow even as
more efficient connectors are developed. Some CPU packages you may encounter will
include support chips, cache memory, and features that enhance the cooling of the
processor. These may be much larger than a typical CPU, often housed on a separate
circuit board which plugs into a slot on the motherboard. One such larger package is
shown in Exhibit 2-9.
Manufacturers vary packages with updated lines, so be sure to check the technical
specifications for your particular CPU on the manufacturer’s Web site.
• AMD: www.amd.com/us/products/technologies/packaging-
technology/Pages/packaging-technology.aspx
• Intel desktop processor packages:
www.intel.com/support/processors/sb/cs-009863.htm
• Intel notebook processor packages:
www.intel.com/support/processors/sb/CS-009864.htm
Exhibit 2-10: A Pentium MMX CPU atop its associated Socket 7 socket
2–22 CompTIA A+ Certification, Exam 220-801
LGA 1156 LGA Pentium, Core i3, Core i5, Allows connections to PCIe 2.0 x16
(also called Core i7 (800 series), Xeon graphics card. PCIe 2.0 x4 connection
Socket H) for DMI communication to platform
controller hug. Two memory
channels for DDR3 SDRAM.
LGA 1155 LGA Core i3, i5, and i7 Designed to replace LGA 1156.
(also called
Socket H2)
LGA 1366 LGA Core i7 (900 series), Replaces LGA 775. Access up to
(also called Xeon (5500 series) three channels of DDR3 memory.
Socket B)
AM2+ PGA Athlon 64, Athlon 64 X2, Can work in AM2 slots.
Phenom, Phenom II
Chipsets
In the same way that the socket is the physical interface between the CPU and the rest
of the computer, the chipset is the logical interface which allows the CPU to
communicate with other devices. This means that a given CPU will only function with a
specific range of chipsets.
Traditionally, the Northbridge chip on the motherboard controlled functions most
closely tied to the CPU: cache, memory control, AGP or PCIe video, and
communications between the CPU and the Southbridge chip controlling other hardware
devices.
Over time, many of these functions became integrated into the CPU itself, such as cache
and later memory controllers. A CPU purchased today may contain most traditional
Northbridge functions internally, and you may see Accelerated Processing Unit (APU)
used to describe CPUs with integrated video functions, such as the AMD Fusion and
Intel HD Graphics architectures.
Usually, a motherboard with a compatible socket for a given CPU also contains a
compatible chipset, but this is not always the case. When placing a CPU into a
motherboard, first verify that its chipset supports the specific CPU you are installing.
2 Identify the chipset chip on your It’s typically a very large chip placed near the
motherboard CPU socket.
4 Boot your PC
Log on to Windows 7 as
ADMIN## with a password of
!pass1234
Cooling techniques
Explanation Processors generate a lot of heat during their operation and require some method to keep
cool. CPUs and the other components in a computer are designed to operate within a
range of temperatures. Temperatures outside that range can damage components. In
particular, too much heat can cause logic errors, in which data within the chips and
wires are altered, or circuit damage, which can melt components!
The current crop of desktop CPUs (excluding the processor classes defined as energy-
efficient or low-power) can draw over 100 watts of power. The CPUs must dissipate the
heat from all that power. To maintain that temperature range, PC designers must include
one or more of the following features to cool the case and the processor itself:
• Fans • Peltier coolers
• Heat sinks and cooling fins • Phase-change cooling
• Heat pipes • Undervolting
• Water pumps
Exhibit 2-11: A system case with power supply and auxiliary fans to improve air flow
Motherboards and CPUs 2–25
The fins are normally connected directly to the die or to an integrated metal plate on the
CPU, depending on its packaging design. A thermal compound—a fluid with similar
properties to grease and that transmits heat well—is used between the parts to improve
heat flow. You might also hear thermal compound referred to as thermal paste or
thermal grease.
A heat sink (such as a set of cooling fins) relies on convection—warm air rises away
from the fins while cooler air flows in from below. At some point, heat can’t dissipate
quickly enough on its own. Thermal engineers can add fans to the cooling fins to
forcibly improve convection, as shown in Exhibit 2-13. A heat sink without a fan is
called passive heat sink cooling; a heat sink with a fan is called active heat sink cooling.
Heat sinks can get only so large before they no longer fit in the case or are too heavy for
the components to which they’re attached. If more heat must be dissipated, designers
can turn to other techniques, such as heat pipes.
2–26 CompTIA A+ Certification, Exam 220-801
Heat pipes
Heat pipes are small tubes, typically built into cooling fins, filled with a small amount
of fluid. Heat vaporizes the fluid, which expands and rises to another area of the piping.
There, heat is transferred away, and the fluid condenses, flowing back toward the CPU
and heat source.
Even though no pump is involved, heat pipes provide an effective way of moving heat
away from the CPU. Additionally, the heat can be moved further away so that
convection can be more effective. Heat pipes also permit smaller and lighter fins.
Water pumps
For systems that generate too much heat for fins and heat pipes to cool, designers can
turn to more exotic cooling systems. One such system is a pumped water system. Like
heat pipes, tubes carry water or other liquid past the CPU to pick up heat. The heated
liquid is transported away from the CPU, often outside the computer’s case, where it
passes through cooling fins to transfer its heat away.
Some computer-game aficionados and others who work their PCs hard go even further.
They run the water cooling pipes through an ice-water bath or put the cooling fins
outside their windows during the winter. Typical office computer use rarely requires
such extreme cooling methods.
Peltier coolers
All of the preceding cooling methods rely on some form of convection. Heat moves
from the hot CPU to the cooler surroundings. What if the surroundings aren’t cooler
than inside the PC’s case? Factory floors and some other environments can be very hot.
Convective cooling devices can’t work in those situations.
A Peltier (pronounced “PELT-ee-Ɨy”) device is an electronic component that gets
colder when a voltage is applied. Peltier coolers for CPUs provide cooling when
convective methods won’t work.
A Peltier device is connected directly to the CPU. Devices that can drop the temperature
of a CPU by 70° C are available. If more cooling is needed, Peltier devices can be
combined with water coolers.
Phase-change cooling
Phase-change cooling utilizes a vapor compression unit, much like a window A/C unit,
to cool the processor. The computer sits on the compression unit, and a tube runs from
the compressor to the processor. The compressor compresses a gas or gases into liquid,
and then that liquid runs through the tube to the processor. There it passes through an
expansion device. As the liquid absorbs the heat from the processor, it evaporates and
returns to the compressor in gas form to begin the process again. Phase-changing
cooling systems are more efficient than a single-phase water cooling system—up to 10
times more efficient—but they generate significantly more noise.
Motherboards and CPUs 2–27
4 If necessary, open your PC’s case Make sure to follow proper electrical and ESD
safety precautions.
6 If your instructor has one To view the thermal compound that connects the
available, examine a CPU with its two components.
cooling fins removed
# Objective
BIOS
The BIOS (Basic Input/Output System) is the computer’s firmware—a set of software
instructions stored on a chip on the motherboard. The BIOS instructions enable basic
computer functions, such as getting input from the keyboard and mouse, serial ports,
and so on. Without the BIOS, your computer would be a useless collection of wires and
electronic components.
CMOS
CMOS (complementary metal oxide semiconductor) is memory that stores BIOS
configuration information. CMOS is actually a type of computer chip, and its best
known use is to store BIOS configuration data. The term “CMOS” is frequently used to
refer to the storage location of the BIOS configuration information, rather than to the
chip-manufacturing technology.
Motherboards and CPUs 2–29
Component information
If you ever need basic hardware information, the CMOS setup utility provides data on
the following components:
• RAM — The amount of memory installed, the amount available, the speed, and
the type of memory.
• Hard drive — The type of hard disks and their connection types.
• Optical drive — The type of optical drives and their connection types.
• CPU — The manufacturer, type, and speed of the CPU. You might also see
information about any CPU caches.
Configurable settings
Typical BIOS configuration settings include:
• Date and time — Sets the system date and time.
• Boot sequence — Specifies the order of devices that the BIOS searches when
looking for an operating system to load.
• CPU options — Specifies the type of CPU installed in your system, and
configures clock speed and voltage settings.
• Optical drive options — Specifies which drives (CD and DVD), and in which
order, the system should boot from. You can also typically enable, disable, and
configure optical drive options.
• Floppy drive options — Specifies which floppy drives, and in which order, the
system should attempt to boot from. These include both internal floppy drives
and external floppy drives, such as USB. You can also typically enable, disable,
and configure floppy drive options.
• Hard drive options — Specifies the hard drive’s type, size, and geometry, and
enables or disables onboard hard drive controllers.
• Serial port options — Sets configuration options, such as device addresses and
communication modes.
• Parallel port options — Specifies whether to enable unidirectional or
bidirectional printing, and configures ECP (Extended Capabilities Parallel port)
and EPP (Enhanced Parallel Port) settings.
• Integrated devices — Enables or disables integrated devices, such as video
adapter, network adapter functionality, and ports, such as USB, LPT, Serial, and
PS/2.
• Performance features — Configures performance features, such as enabling or
disabling multiple CPU core technologies and setting HDD acoustic mode.
• Plug and Play — Enables or disables hardware support for Plug and Play
features.
2–30 CompTIA A+ Certification, Exam 220-801
Monitoring
Some CMOS setup utilities provide a monitoring or diagnostic service that provides
system health data, including the following information:
• Temperature — The temperature of the CPU.
• Fan speeds — The speed of the cooling fans.
• Intrusion detection — Information on whether the computer case has been
opened.
• Voltage — CPU voltage settings.
• Clock — The clock speed of the CPU.
• Bus speed — System bus speed.
This information is useful if you need to troubleshoot performance issues or you want to
make any adjustments to improve performance, such as adjusting the clock speed.
5 Exit and save your configuration Your system automatically restarts when you’re
changes done.
BIOS updates
Explanation The BIOS is provided in a form of a memory chip that doesn’t lose its contents when
the power is turned off. The BIOS can be implemented either in ROM (read-only
memory) or flash memory (a type of electronically reprogrammable memory chip).
• ROM-based BIOS is programmed at the factory. This is an older technology.
You can’t change this kind of BIOS without replacing the chip itself.
• Using a special program provided by the computer (or BIOS) manufacturer, you
can update a flash-memory-based BIOS without changing the BIOS chip. This
action is often called “flashing the BIOS.”
Usually, the BIOS version that ships with your PC is all you ever need. However, you
might need to upgrade your BIOS in the following situations:
• There are device problems or other bugs that your PC manufacturer identifies as
being caused by BIOS problems.
• There are device problems that you can attribute to no other cause than the
BIOS. Additionally, you have exhausted all other troubleshooting avenues in
trying to fix the problems.
• You need to use new hardware options that, while supported by your system,
aren’t supported by your BIOS.
Exhibit 2-14: The System Information utility displays the BIOS version
2 Log on to Windows 7 as
ADMIN## with a password of
!pass1234
# Objective
Safe handling
Expansion cards are sensitive to ESD (electrostatic discharge). You should always
follow ESD precautions when working with these cards or any device that must be
installed inside a PC’s chassis. When handling expansion cards, follow these guidelines:
• Unplug the computer before opening it.
• Work at a static-safe workstation, which includes a grounded work surface that
is not prone to a buildup of static charges. Such workstations sometimes provide
built-in antistatic wrist straps or grounded points to which you can connect wrist
straps.
• Ground yourself to the chassis before touching internal components.
• Keep expansion cards inside static-protective bags or packaging until you’re
ready to install them.
• Handle cards by their edges or slot cover plates. Don’t touch board components,
traces, or edge-connector pins.
Drivers
Drivers are utilities that enable a device’s functionality. Every expansion device or
adapter card in your PC requires a driver. Some drivers are supplied with the operating
system. Other devices require drivers supplied by the device manufacturer.
Device vendors often supply their drivers to Microsoft. If Microsoft’s Windows
Hardware Quality Labs (WHQL) determines that the driver doesn’t destabilize
Windows, they digitally sign the driver. At that point, Microsoft either includes the
driver in the operating system files or makes the driver available on the Windows
Update Web site. Sometimes, however, you need to use the driver supplied with your
expansion device, either on a CD that comes with it or on the vendor’s Web site.
Motherboards and CPUs 2–35
Riser cards
As shown in Exhibit 2-15, a riser card is a circuit board that connects to a motherboard.
Unlike a daughter board, the purpose of a riser card is to provide additional expansion
slots or sockets. Riser cards are most often used with special, small motherboards
designed for small cases.
Inserting cards
This information applies to the types of expansion cards described in the following
table.
Serial and parallel Printers, video displays, and any other devices that support serial
and parallel transmissions.
FireWire MP3 players, printers, storage devices, and any other devices that
support FireWire transmissions.
Storage External hard drives, card readers, and any device that provides
external storage capability.
Wireless/cellular Wireless and cellular network for local network or Internet access.
Video capture Devices that capture and record video, such as video from TV
signals.
2–36 CompTIA A+ Certification, Exam 220-801
Although exact steps might vary for specific hardware, you generally follow these steps
to install an expansion card in a PC:
1 If you’re not using a PnP-compatible expansion card or operating system,
determine the available system resources (IRQs, I/O addresses, and so forth).
Configure the DIP switches or jumpers on the card, as necessary, to assign
available system resources to it.
If you’re using a PnP-compatible card and operating system, the vendor might
direct you to run an installation utility before installing the device. This
installation program puts the necessary drivers in a location where Windows can
find them, when you’re done installing the device. If appropriate, run that setup
program.
2 Shut down the PC, unplug it, and open the case. You might want to remove any
peripheral cables before opening the case. You might need to do so simply to
move the PC to a convenient work location. Removing the cables also prevents
static discharges from traveling from the PC to the peripheral. Also, doing so
prevents an electrical fault in the peripheral from conducting to the PC while
you’re working on it.
3 Locate an empty and available expansion slot of the correct type.
4 Remove the cover for that slot. These covers are generally either screwed in
place or held by spring-clips.
5 If necessary, move or remove wires or other expansion cards that are in the way,
so that you can access the slot.
6 If you need to connect wire assemblies to the expansion board—not to its back
slot cover plate, but to the board itself—connect that end of the wire assembly
before installing the card. That way, you can easily reach the connector and be
sure you’re installing the wire assembly in its correct orientation. Connect the
other end after you’ve installed the card.
7 Begin inserting the end of the edge connector that’s farthest from the slot cover.
When the edge connector is level with the slot, gently push the card into place in
the slot. This helps you line up the connector correctly. Inserting the card at an
angle is usually easier than pushing it straight into the slot.
8 Fix the card in place with screws or clips, as appropriate to the case’s design.
9 Connect any wiring assemblies, including those you temporarily removed to
install this card.
10 Close the case, connect peripherals (if necessary), and start the system.
11 Depending on the operating system, OS version, and adapter card technology,
configure the card. If you’re using PnP-compatible components, PnP handles
this for you.
12 If necessary, install required drivers. If you have to install drivers yourself, you
most likely need to configure them to use the same hardware resources you
configured the card to use.
When you’re done, some devices and operating system versions require you to restart
the computer. This step fully loads the drivers and configures the operating system to
support the new device.
Motherboards and CPUs 2–37
2 If necessary, shut down your PC Follow electrical and ESD safety precautions.
and open its case
6 If your PC has an integrated video You’ll need to disable the onboard video
adapter, boot the PC and load the adapter.
system’s BIOS setup program
9 If necessary, configure the driver You’ll probably have to choose a resolution and
color depth at which you want the driver to
operate.
10 Remove the video adapter and Unless your instructor directs you to do
reinstall or re-enable the original otherwise.
adapter
2–38 CompTIA A+ Certification, Exam 220-801
Sound cards
Explanation The sound card you use must be compatible with the expansion bus in your computer.
For example, you’ll need a PCI sound card if your computer has only PCI slots available.
Many motherboards include integrated sound card functionality.
CD audio connection
Older internal CD drives include an audio-out cable that you can connect to your sound
card. When you do so, you can play audio CDs in your CD drive and have the sound
played through your PC speakers. When you install the sound card or the CD drive, if
you don’t connect this cable, you won’t be able to play audio CDs, as no sound will
come from the speakers.
Drivers
As with any add-on hardware, sound cards require device drivers. Typically, you install
the drivers before installing the hardware. This process puts the driver files where
Windows (specifically, Plug and Play) can find them after you install the card.
2 If necessary, shut down your PC Follow electrical and ESD safety precautions.
and open its case
6 If your PC has an integrated sound You’ll need to disable the onboard sound card.
card, boot the PC and load the
system’s BIOS setup program
Drag the volume slider up or The computer should play a “ding” sound
down and release it through your speakers.
12 Remove the sound card and Unless your instructor directs you to do
reinstall or re-enable the original otherwise.
card
2 If necessary, shut down your PC Follow electrical and ESD safety precautions.
and open its case
6 Start your PC
Review questions
1 Which type of bus connects the processor to the main memory?
A Address bus C Internal bus
B Data bus D Generic bus
2 A(n) ________ card is a circuit board that connects to a motherboard to provide
additional expansion slots or sockets.
Riser.
3 By convention, PCI slots are typically which color?
A Brown C Tan
B Gray D White
4 Typically, the PCI bus is a(n) ____-bit bus.
32
5 The AGP bus is a(n)____-bit bus.
32
6 The bus speed of a 2x, 4x, or 8x AGP card is _____ MHz.
66
7 Which is not a component of a CPU?
A Bus architecture C Execution unit
B Control unit D Register
Motherboards and CPUs 2–41
19 You open your PC and look at the CPU. How can you tell if it uses active or passive
cooling?
If there is just a heat sink on the CPU, it uses passive cooling. If there’s a fan attached to the
CPU, it uses active cooling.
20 Before the Pentium CPU was introduced, what was the most common CPU cooling
mechanism?
A simple fan, typically part of the power supply, was all that was used with the 80286 and 80386
CPUs. Some 80386 and most 80486 CPUs also used cooling fins.
21 True or false? The same key combination get you access to the system utility on all
personal computers, except laptops.
False. BIOS manufacturers provide various ways to access the system setup utility.
22 Which isn’t a reason to update your system BIOS?
A Your system has device problems or other bugs that your PC manufacturer
identifies as being caused by BIOS problems.
B Your system has device problems that you can attribute to no other cause than
the BIOS.
C Your PC manufacturer has sent out a technical document notifying you of an
update.
D You need to use new hardware options that, while supported by your
motherboard, aren’t supported by your BIOS.
23 True or false? Every BIOS manufacturer uses the same flashing utility.
False. Flashing utilities are proprietary to the BIOS manufacturer, and you should always use the
correct version for your BIOS.
24 What is the best source for BIOS updates?
The PC manufacturer’s Web site.
25 Name the typical connectors on a sound card.
Typically, sound cards provide speaker-out, line-out, microphone-in, line-in, and MIDI/game port
connectors.
26 True or false? A TV tuner card allows you to record your favorite television
programs on your hard disk.
False. A TV tuner card allows you only to receive the TV signal for your favorite television shows
and watch them. To record the show on your hard disk, you need a video capture card. Some,
though not all, video capture cards include TV tuners.
Motherboards and CPUs 2–43
BIOS settings
In this activity, you’ll practice support tasks related to the computer system’s BIOS.
1 Change the boot order, so that your PC attempts to start from disks in this order:
CD-ROM drive, hard drive, floppy drive (if present).
2 Test your work by inserting a bootable CD in the CD-ROM drive and a bootable
floppy disk in the floppy drive. Your computer should boot from the CD, even
though your hard disk is bootable.
Expansion cards
In this activity, you’ll practice completing support tasks for expansion cards.
1 Install the adapter card provided by your instructor. If necessary, install device
drivers. Verify that the card is functional.
2–44 CompTIA A+ Certification, Exam 220-801
3–1
Unit 3
Memory and physical storage
Unit time: 200 minutes
# Objective
Importance of RAM
Having sufficient RAM in your system is critical for the following reasons:
• Performance — Having more RAM almost always leads to improved computer
performance. When you have insufficient RAM, the CPU must work harder
shuffling data between RAM and the page file.
• Software support — Many applications require a minimum amount of RAM.
Having less RAM than specified can prevent you from running these
applications. Or, if they do run on your system, they perform so badly as to be
unpleasant to use.
Poor-quality or defective RAM is a major source of system crashes. One bad memory
storage location out of the millions of such locations in your RAM chips can bring your
system down. Your computer tests the RAM during the POST, but that test isn’t
exhaustive, and problem chips can slip through.
Memory and physical storage 3–3
Additionally, the type of RAM your system uses, as well as the maximum amount of
RAM supported by your motherboard, has a direct effect on your system’s
upgradeability. Make sure to buy a system that will support your future RAM needs, as
well as those of your current applications.
Measuring memory
The actual storage locations on a memory chip are called cells. Each cell stores a single
bit of data. A bit is a 0 or a 1, representing an on/off or yes/no binary state.
The data you work with and the programs you run are made up of millions and billions
of individual bits of data. Describing such large units is confusing and inconvenient.
Instead, computer professionals use various units of memory storage to describe
memory and storage amounts.
Nibble 4 16 (24)
Larger units
Saying that a computer has 2,147,483,648 bits of RAM is more confusing and less
convenient than saying it has 2 GB of memory. The common units of memory are listed
in the following table.
Memory types
Memory can be classified in various ways:
• Volatile vs. nonvolatile
• Static vs. dynamic
• Asynchronous vs. synchronous
RAM Volatile The working memory for your computer. Because RAM is volatile, its
contents are lost when power is removed, even for a very brief period.
CMOS Volatile The storage location for BIOS configuration data. CMOS requires a
battery to retain its information. Without the battery, CMOS loses its
contents. Thus, despite what many sources say, it’s volatile memory.
ROM Nonvolatile Read-only memory. ROM is used to store the BIOS and other
programs and data that must be preserved when the computer is
unplugged. ROM must be written at the factory.
EPROM Nonvolatile Erasable programmable read-only memory. You erase the contents of
an EPROM chip by exposing its glass window to ultraviolet light.
Then you can program the chip by using a PROM burner.
Flash Nonvolatile (Similar to EEPROMs.) Chips that don’t lose their memory when
power is removed and can be burned using burners or circuitry within
your computer. Flash memory is written block by block.
Memory and physical storage 3–5
Memory access
To access the data in a particular memory cell, the CPU must have the address of that
cell. Although memory cells could be arranged in one long line, giving each cell an
individual sequential address, such a design would lead to slow and large chips.
Instead, chip designers arrange cells into rows and columns, much like the cells in a
spreadsheet. To read the data of any cell, the CPU needs both row and column
addresses.
The exact way that CPUs address memory, along with many other factors, leads to a
confusing array of abbreviations describing memory types. The following table
compares the types of RAM found in older and more current computers. The
technologies are listed in approximately increasing order of performance.
FPM Fast Page Mode The CPU sends a row address, followed by a column
address. If the CPU needs more cells from the same
row, it can send just the column address.
VRAM Video RAM A modified version of FPM. VRAM has two ports;
one port can be read to refresh the image on the
screen, while the other can be used to generate the
next image to be displayed.
EDO Extended Data Out Works essentially like FPM, except that a new cell
access request can begin before a previous request has
finished.
BEDO Burst Extended Data Out Adds pipelining technology to EDO to improve
performance. This technology never caught on.
SDR SDRAM Synchronous DRAM Is synchronized with the system clock to improve
performance. Internal interleaving enables overlapped
accesses, as with EDO and BEDO.
DRDRAM Direct Rambus DRAM (Formerly called just RDRAM for Rambus DRAM.)
Uses a 16-bit data bus running at up to 800 MHz,
transferring data on both the rise and fall of the clock
signal.
DDR SDRAM Double Data Rate Doubles the transfer rate by transferring data on both
the rise and fall of the clock signal (compared to
SDRAM, which transfers just on the rise).
DDR2 SDRAM Double Data Rate 2 Doubles the transfer rate of DDR SDRAM by placing
twice as much data on the rising edge and twice as
much on the falling edge.
DDR3 SDRAM Double Data Rate 3 Doubles the transfer rate of DDR2 SDRAM.
Memory and physical storage 3–7
Access time
It takes a certain amount of time to access the data in memory, regardless of type or
technology. Of course, some memory types are faster and some are slower.
All memory has an initial latency, the amount of time between when an address (of the
data being requested) arrives on the bus and when the memory is ready to return that
data. After initial latency, a certain time passes before the data is retrieved and put onto
the bus, so that the CPU can use it.
Access time is the overall amount of time between when a request is made and when the
data is available on the bus. In modern RAM, this time is very short, sometimes as little
as a few nanoseconds. A nanosecond is a billionth of a second.
Memory speed
Although RAM speeds are often measured in nanoseconds (ns), you’re more likely to
see modern RAM rated by megahertz (MHz). A hertz is a cycle per second, so a
megahertz is a million cycles per second. The net result is that the MHz rating of RAM
is simply 1 divided by its speed in nanoseconds; alternatively, you can divide 1 by the
MHz rating to determine the speed in nanoseconds.
Overall speed
While you might see a module rated at 10 ns and another rated at 20 ns, you shouldn’t
conclude that the 10 ns module is twice as fast. DRAM ratings don’t include the initial
latency required for address decoding. Furthermore, today’s DRAM, in the form of
SDRAM, is tied to the system clock. The actual speed at which your memory operates
is controlled by your system’s bus speed, which is determined by your motherboard’s
chipset and clock speed.
In reality, the speed rating of a memory module represents a maximum speed at which it
can operate. You simply need to choose memory that’s fast enough to keep up with the
rest of your system. Doing so today is easier, because SDRAM modules are rated to
match the front-side bus speed used with the CPU and motherboard.
Bandwidth
Bandwidth, or maximum theoretical throughput (or just throughput), is the amount of
data that can be transferred to or from memory per second. It’s perhaps even more
important than a raw speed rating. Overall bandwidth is determined by the speed of the
RAM itself, plus the chip’s memory technology design. For example, an SDRAM
module operating at 100 MHz has a lower bandwidth than a 100 MHz DDR module
does.
Speed ratings
How can you know whether a memory module will be able to keep up with your
system? Memory and motherboard manufacturers have created a speed notation
standard you can use to choose the correct memory.
The following table lists the common PC memory types, along with their technologies,
single-channel-mode bandwidths, and speed ratings.
Consult your PC owner’s manual to determine which type of memory the PC can
support, or match new modules to existing ones. Then purchase that type of memory.
Often, your system supports faster memory (a type with a higher rating) than its
minimum required type. For example, if your system requires PC2100 memory, you can
probably install PC2700 memory without a problem. However, if the system requires
PC2700, you can’t install PC2100 memory. Make sure to consult your owner’s manual
before installing any type of memory.
Memory and physical storage 3–9
2 What does the number in a PC rating, such as PC2100, tell you about that
memory?
3 Which of these memory types are volatile memory? (Choose all that apply.)
A RAM
B Flash
C EEPROM
D CMOS
Packaging
Explanation In the very early days of PC computing, you purchased individual DRAM chips and
installed them into sockets on your motherboard or video card, an example of which is
shown in Exhibit 3-1.
That era passed with the release of the IBM AT computer. Since that time, DRAM chips
have been factory-installed on small circuit boards, called packages. You install the
package, more commonly called a module, into a slot in your computer.
Modules are easier to handle and work with than are individual chips. A memory
module has metal pins, or contacts, along its bottom edge. When inserted into the
appropriate motherboard socket, these pins complete the electrical connections between
the computer’s circuitry and the memory module circuits.
Package types
The following table lists the most common memory package (module) types. The
memory package type you use must match the memory slots on your motherboard. Two
common examples of PC memory modules are shown in Exhibit 3-2.
Note that 30-pin SIMMs are 8-bit devices, 72-pin SIMMs are 32-bit devices, and
DIMMs are 64-bit devices. You must install enough devices to satisfy the width of the
system data bus. For example, for a 64-bit Pentium class CPU, you install eight 30-pin
SIMMs, two 72-pin SIMMs, or one DIMM.
SIMM 30 386-class desktops, Single inline memory module. A notch on one end
early Macintoshes ensures this module is inserted in the correct orientation.
SIMM 72 486 and early One notch in the middle and another notch at one end
Pentium desktops ensure this module is inserted in the correct orientation.
DIMM 100 Printers Dual inline memory module. Has 50 pins on the front
and 50 pins on the back. Two notches, one centered and
the other off-center, ensure correct installation.
DIMM 168 SDR SDRAM in Has 84 pins on the front and 84 pins on the back. Two
desktops notches, one centered and the other off-center, ensure
correct installation.
DIMM 184 DDR SDRAM in Has 92 pins in front and 92 pins in back. Single notch.
desktops
DIMM 240 DDR2 SDRAM in Supports 64-bit memory and processors. Has 120 front
desktops pins and 120 back pins. Single notch.
DIMM 240 DDR3 SDRAM in Has 120 front pins and 120 back pins. Single notch.
desktops
RIMM 184 Intel Pentium III Used with RDRAM chips and trademarked by Rambus.
Xeon and 16-bit RIMMs have 92 connectors on each side with 1
Pentium 4 systems mm pad spacing. 32-bit RIMMs have 232 pins.
RIMM is sometimes incorrectly used as an acronym for
"Rambus inline memory module.”
MICRODIMM 144 Subnotebook Micro dual inline memory module. Pins and notches may
computers vary.
SODIMM 144 Laptop and Small outline dual inline memory module. Has 72 front
notebook pins and 72 back pins. A single off-center notch ensures
computers correct installation.
Note: 32-bit SODIMMs have 72 or 144 pins. SODIMMs
with 144 or more pins are 64-bit devices.
SODIMM 200 DDR memory for Has 100 front pins and 100 back pins. A single off-center
laptops/notebooks notch ensures correct installation.
SODIMM 200 DDR2 memory for Has 100 front pins and 100 back pins. A single off-center
laptops/notebooks notch ensures correct installation. DDR and DDR2
SODIMMs are virtually indistinguishable in appearance.
SODIMM 204 DDR3 memory for Has 102 front pins and 102 back pins.
laptops/notebooks
3–12 CompTIA A+ Certification, Exam 220-801
Exhibit 3-2: A DDR or DDR2 SODIMM package from a laptop (note the notch
location) (left) and a 168-pin DIMM package from a desktop computer (right)
Parity
Parity is a method used to detect loss of integrity in bits of data stored in memory.
Consider a memory module that stores eight bits (a byte) of data in eight chips. If the
data in one or more chips goes bad, the entire byte becomes corrupt. To help detect
when an error occurs, a ninth bit, or parity bit, is added in a ninth chip.
In even parity, the parity bit is set to zero, if the sum of all the other bits is an even
number. In odd parity, the parity bit is set to one, if the sum of the bits is odd. To detect
whether the bit in one chip has gone bad, the computer recalculates parity after reading
the data and comparing the result to the value in the parity bit. When the parity bit is not
used and is always set to one, it’s called mark parity, and when the parity bit isn’t used
but is set to zero, it’s called space parity.
Exhibit 3-3: Two early SIMMs, one with parity support and one without
Memory and physical storage 3–13
Unfortunately, with this simple scheme, your computer can’t tell which of the eight bits
in the byte was corrupted. It knows just that one of the bits has been changed.
Exhibit 3-3 shows two early SIMMs. One module, from a Macintosh, had just eight
DRAM chips and didn’t support parity. The other module, from a PC, had nine chips
and supported parity.
ECC
Error correcting code (ECC) permits your computer not only to detect that an error has
occurred, but also to correct that error. As with parity, when the computer reads the data
from the module, it recalculates the ECC value and compares it to the value on the
module. If the values match, no errors have occurred. If they don’t, then by using other
calculations on the ECC value, the computer can determine what was changed and what
its original value was.
# Objective
1.5 Install and configure storage devices and use appropriate media.
• Optical drives
– CD-ROM
– DVD-ROM
– Blu-Ray
• Combo drives and burners
– CD-RW – BD-R
– DVD-RW – BD-RE
– Dual Layer DVD-RW
• Connection types
– External – Internal SATA, IDE and SCSI
ƕ USB ƕ IDE configuration and setup
(Master, Slave, Cable Select)
ƕ Firewire
ƕ SCSI IDs (0 – 15)
ƕ eSATA
– Hot swappable drives
ƕ Ethernet
• Hard drives
– Magnetic – 10,000 rpm
– 5400 rpm – 15,000 rpm
– 7200 rpm
• Solid state/flash drives
– Compact flash – Mini-SD
– SD – xD
– Micro-SD – SSD
• RAID types
– RAID 0 – RAID 5
– RAID 1 – RAID 10
• Floppy drive
• Tape drive
• Media capacity
– CD – Blu-Ray
– CD-RW – Tape
– DVD-RW – Floppy
– DVD – DL DVD
Memory and physical storage 3–15
1.7 Compare and contrast various connection interfaces and explain their purpose.
• Physical connections
– SATA1 vs. SATA2 vs. SATA3, eSATA, IDE speeds
ATA/IDE
The AT Attachment (ATA) interface, also commonly known as IDE, is an especially
popular drive interface thanks to good performance and low implementation costs for
manufacturers. ATA evolved from Western Digital’s Integrated Drive Electronics (IDE)
and was standardized in 1994 by ANSI as X3.221-1994.
ATA has undergone many revisions since its first release. It can be divided into two
categories: Parallel ATA (PATA) and Serial ATA (SATA). Currently, SATA has just
about replaced PATA in consumer PCs. PATA continues to be used in CompactFlash
storage applications. The following table describes various incarnations of the ATA
interface.
3–16 CompTIA A+ Certification, Exam 220-801
ATA 3.3–8.3 MBps The first ATA standard. Programmed Input Output
Supported only hard drives. (PIO) modes 0, 1, and 2;
single- and multi-word DMA.
SATA 1 Up to 1.5 Gbps Serial ATA—a serial bus Many enhancements, including
(SATA 150) (150 MBps) implementation of an ATA- a dual cable arrangement and
style interface. dedicated connections to each
device.
PATA
Explanation Parallel ATA cables send data using 40-pin connectors. The following exhibits (Exhibit
3-4, Exhibit 3-5, Exhibit 3-6 ) show PATA motherboard connectors and PATA drive
cables and connectors. PATA is being replaced by the SATA standard.
IDE cables
PATA (also referred to as IDE or EIDE) cables have a maximum allowable length of
only 18 inches according to the specification, though you might find 24-inch examples.
This short length is why you will normally see IDE cables only inside a computer case.
You won’t see these cables often at all in newer systems, though, because PATA has
been mostly replaced by SATA.
Each PATA cable supports two devices. These are typically called “master” and
“slave”, but despite the names both devices operate independently of one another. Each
PATA device has a set of jumpers or DIP switches enabling you to set its role as master,
slave, single drive, or automatically selected by its placement on the cable.
Later PATA standards used 80-wire drive cables, as shown in Exhibit 3-6. While these
used the same 40-pin connectors as earlier PATA cables, every alternating wire is
connected to ground, increasing signal quality and enabling higher speeds. You can use
an 80-wire cable with older devices, but high-speed PATA devices will suffer reduced
performance if used with a 40-wire cable.
Exhibit 3-6: 40-wire (left) and high-speed 80-wire (right) PATA drive cables
3–18 CompTIA A+ Certification, Exam 220-801
Exhibit 3-7: SATA data cables (left) and eSATA connectors and cable (right)
eSATA cables and connectors are used to connect external SATA devices. The
connectors are similar to SATA connectors but different enough that you won’t confuse
them. eSATA cables run up to 2 meters. An example of an eSATA cable with
connectors is shown on the right in Exhibit 3-7.
SCSI
Explanation Internal SCSI connections use a ribbon cable with 68-pin connectors, like the one
shown in Exhibit 3-8. External SCSI devices use a cable with 50-pin connectors, shown
in Exhibit 3-9. Some older SCSI connections, particularly in Apple products, used 25-
pin connectors.
Exhibit 3-9: External SCSI drive with SCSI ID selector and termination slide-switch
SCSI cables
SCSI typically uses a flat ribbon cable like IDE and floppy drives. Its length is not as
limited as those standards, but it’s still quite short. Earlier (Pre-1998, SCSI-1, 5 MB/s)
cables are limited to 6 meters for a single-ended host adapter and 25 meters for a
differential host adapter. Fast SCSI and Ultra SCSI cable lengths are limited to 3 meters
for single-ended host adapter and 25 meters for a differential host adapter. A low-
voltage differential interface can support cable lengths of 12 meters.
2 Following all electrical safety and ESD precautions, open your PC’s case
6 Determine if your PC supports Look for the SCSI data and power connectors on
SCSI drives the motherboard.
CDs
Explanation CDs are 120 mm (12 cm) plastic discs that contain a layer of reflective metal-alloy foil
encased in transparent plastic. The CD contains a single spiral track. A standard 74-
minute CD can hold 650 MB of data; an 80-minute CD can hold 700 MB of data.
Exhibit 3-10 illustrates the components of a CD.
Recordable CDs
Writable CDs are written using a process called burning. This is what you do when you
write to CDs with your PC. CD-R discs can be read many times but written to just once.
They’re composed of a gold metal alloy and an organic dye. The dye is heated with the
laser, and this process causes pits and bumps.
CD-RW discs have a silver alloy layer. The alloy can exist in two states—crystalline
and amorphous (non-crystalline)—each of which reflects the read laser’s light
differently. A two-powered laser system is used to transform the alloy between states. A
high-power laser melts the alloy, which cools to its amorphous state. A lower-powered
laser melts the alloy so that it crystallizes as it cools. CD-RW discs can be written to
multiple times, and you don’t have to write the entire disc in a single operation. CD-RW
discs have a capacity of 650 MB.
CD drives
Plain CD drives have largely been supplanted by multi-format combo drives that can
read and write CDs, DVDs, and Blu-Rays. If your computer has a plain CD drive, it is
typically one of two types:
• CD-ROM drive — Can only read from CDs.
• CD-RW drives — Can read from and write to CDs.
CD drives of either type contain three major parts, which are illustrated in Exhibit 3-11.
• The drive motor — Drives the spindle, which spins the disc.
• The laser lens and laser pickup — Focuses in on and reads the disc.
• The tracking drive and tracking motor — Moves the laser to follow the track
on the CD.
Memory and physical storage 3–21
Drives might also contain buttons to control the operation of the CD. The buttons
include:
• Start
• Stop
• Next track
• Previous track
The drive might also contain:
• A headphone jack.
• A volume control dial.
• A release hole. Pushing a stiff wire, such as a straightened paper clip, into this
hole forces open the tray or ejects the disc. You use this hole if software cannot
be used to eject the disc, such as when the power is off. Be careful if you use this
mechanism, as it is possible to damage the disc or the drive itself, if the wire
misses the release lever inside the drive.
CD drive speeds
The speed of a CD drive is expressed as #X, where # is a number. A 1X CD transfers
data at approximately 150 KBps. The original tactic to improve performance was simply
to spin the disc faster. Thus a 2X drive spins the disc twice as fast to double the
throughput. This technique worked up to approximately 12X, at which point vibrations
and heat problems prevented any further speed increases.
In practice, the X rates higher than about 10X don’t represent an actual spin rate
difference. They do, however, represent an approximate throughput multiplier. (Actual
rates are often not quite as good as the advertised values.) Thus, a 52X drive spins about
10 times faster than the original 1X drive and achieves further throughput increases
through faster electronics, multiple read heads, and other techniques. The theoretical
throughput of a 52X drive is 7,800 KBps.
3–22 CompTIA A+ Certification, Exam 220-801
DVDs
Like CDs, DVDs are 120 mm (12 cm) diameter discs but are often thinner than CDs.
DVDs use a different encoding method than the one CDs use, and DVDs are higher-
density discs. The higher density requires a narrower laser beam than CDs require. A
DVD track is 0.74 microns wide, whereas a CD track is 1.6 microns wide.
DVD drives and DVD/CD combo drives have become standard devices on computers,
typically replacing plain CD drives. In fact, most computers include DVD-Rewritable
(DVD-RW) drives. A DVD drive running at 1X transfers data at 1.38 MB per second.
DVD drives are available in higher speeds, up to 24X.
DVD media
A standard DVD disc has a 4.7 GB capacity. This DVD is also known as a DVD-5; the
“5” refers to the DVD holding almost 5 GB. Discs can be single-sided and single-
layered, as the DVD-5 disc is. A 3" mini-disc is also available; it holds 1.5 GB of data.
Data DVDs use the UDF (universal disc format) file system. (Movie and other non-
computer data DVDs don’t use UDF.)
DVDs can also be double-sided, dual-layered, double-sided single-layered, or any
combination of single and double sides and layers. Dual layering is achieved by having
two layers of pits, one deeper than the other. The laser is refocused on the deeper layer
to read the second layer.
The following table summarizes the number of sides and layers and the capacities of
various types of DVDs.
DVD standards, which were created by the DVD Forum, include DVD-R, DVD-
RW.(Like CD-RW, DVD-RW are rewritable discs.) Media created according to these
standards can display the DVD logo. Full details can be found on the DVD Forum Web
site, at http://dvdforum.org. Another source for further information about DVDs is
http://dvddemystified.com/dvdfaq.html.
Memory and physical storage 3–23
Blu-ray discs
Blu-ray discs are optical discs created with a “blue” (actually, violet) 405 nm laser.
Because of the violet laser’s shorter wavelength, standard dual-layer Blu-ray 12cm discs
hold up to 50 GB of data, and single-layer Blu-ray discs hold up to 25 GB of data. This
capacity is significantly higher than a DVD’s capacity. It’s important to note that the
Blu-ray specifications don’t indicate a maximum upper storage limit. There are less
common higher capacity discs available such as:
• Quad-layer (100 GB) discs consisting of four layers containing 25 GB each
• Discs that can hold 200 GB of data on a single side, using six 33 GB data layers.
• 400 GB discs containing 16 data layers of 25 GB each
Blu-ray discs are also available in a mini size of 8cm designed for use in consumer
electronic equipment, such as HD camcorders. The mini-Blu-ray single-layer discs hold
up to 7.8 GB of data, and the double-layer discs hold up to 15.6 GB.
Blu-ray recordable
There are two types of recordable Blu-ray media:
• BD-R discs can be written once
• BD-RE can be erased and rerecorded multiple times
The maximum recording speed for Blu-ray discs is currently 14×. This isn’t as high as a
standard DVD’s because the higher speeds of rotation cause too much wobble for Blu-
ray discs to be read properly.
Drivers
After you install an optical drive and restart your PC, Windows should detect the new
hardware. Windows will try to identify and install the appropriate driver for the drive. If
Windows can’t find it, you’ll be prompted to supply the driver from another source.
If your drive requires specific drivers, they should have been supplied on a disc with the
drive. The drivers are usually available from the Internet as well. Hardware
manufacturers maintain up-to-date drivers on their Web sites. Other third-party Web
sites also maintain drivers for many devices, but third-party sites might not have the
most current versions of drivers.
CD software
By default, you can read and write audio CDs by using Windows Media Player. If you
have other software installed that can read from or write to CDs, then when you insert a
CD, the “What do you want Windows to do?” options includes the actions provided by
the additional software.
Remove the drive from the drive Unscrew any screws securing it to the bay.
bay
4 Locate pin 1 on the drive’s data So that you install the data interface cable
connector correctly in a later step. It’s easier to do this
before installing the drive, while you can hold it
up to the light, turn it over, and inspect it more
closely. Pin 1 is most often located on the side
nearest the power connection.
3–26 CompTIA A+ Certification, Exam 220-801
Secure the drive in place Use screws or whatever mechanism your system
uses to secure the drive to the bay.
7 Verify the alignment with the case To make sure the drive door and disc tray can
open freely.
Connect the power cable Be sure that it’s properly oriented and firmly
plugged in.
Connect the audio cable If the sound card contains a wire to connect to
the optical drive.
10 Observe the New Hardware A message should be displayed, stating that new
bubble hardware was found.
Click Finish Windows Media Player opens and the first track
on the CD begins playing.
Component Description
Platters The metal or plastic disks on which the magnetic material is coated. Data is recorded
in that magnetic material as a set of magnetically polarized regions.
Spindle The axis, or central hub, that the platters spin around. A motor rotates the spindle
very quickly. The faster the rotational speed, measured in revolutions per minute
(RPM), the faster the hard disk can access and save data. The slower speed of 5400
RPM means the time between the start of the rotation and data access (known as
latency) is greater than hard disks that are rated at 7200 RPM, 10,000 RPM, and
15,000 RPM, common speeds you’ll find on most modern hard disks.
Read/write heads The magnetic devices that both read and write data on the platters. The heads are
attached to the arms, which are moved by the actuator.
Voice coil The mechanism that moves the heads very precisely into position over the magnetic
actuator tracks written on the platters.
Solid-state drives
Some hard disk drives are solid-state drives (SSDs), meaning that they use memory
chips (RAM or flash memory) to read and write data, instead of using a rotating disk.
SSDs have no moving parts. Therefore, they are less fragile than magnetic hard drives
and are silent. RAM-based disks require power to maintain their data and typically
include backup batteries.
SSDs are becoming increasingly available in laptops, netbooks, and smartphones. They
are more expensive than magnetic hard drives of comparable capacity, form factor, and
transfer speed.
Solid-state drives have the following advantages:
• Faster startup time, because the drives don’t need to “spin up” like magnetic
drives do
• Faster transfer speeds, because the drives don’t have to move a read/write head
• Lower power consumption
• Less heat generated
• Ability to operate in higher temperatures (magnetic drives typically operate
between 40°F and 130°F; solid-state drives can operate at up to 160°F)
• Less risk of failure, because SSDs don’t have the magnetic drive’s mechanical
parts
Magnetic drives have the following advantages:
• Lower cost
• Greater capacity than what is available with current solid-state drives
• Higher number of write/erase cycles than SSDs
• Faster write speeds
• Powering all the way down when the PC is turned off (RAM-based SSDs can
continue to draw power when the PC is off)
Memory and physical storage 3–29
Chassis installation
You can typically use any available bay for a hard drive. However, one or more smaller,
drive-sized bays are typically available for this precise purpose. Make sure you install
the drive in a location that the data and power cables can reach.
Most modern drives work equally well mounted horizontally or vertically. Unlike with
older drives, there’s typically no harm in mounting a drive one way and then mounting
it in a different orientation later.
2 Open your PC’s case Follow all electrical and ESD precautions.
3 Set the jumpers or switches, as You’ll need to set master, slave, single drive, or
appropriate, to specify the drive cable-select for an IDE drive, or set the SCSI ID
identification for a SCSI drive.
4 Locate an available drive bay and Install the cable in the correct orientation, and
install the drive attach the drive to the correct connector on the
cable.
10 In the left pane, select To verify that the hard disk is recognized by the
Disk Management operating system. You should see two hard
disks.
Fault tolerance
Explanation Fault tolerance is the ability of a system to continue operating during a component or
environmental failure. For example, by using a backup power generator, your server can
continue running even during a blackout. A multi-processor computer might continue
running in the event one of its CPUs fails. Even though it would perform more slowly,
the server could continue running until you replaced the failed CPU.
Data backups are not an example of fault tolerance, even though they are critical to
prevent data loss. If a hard drive fails, data created since the last backup is lost.
Furthermore, your system can be offline until you provision a new server and restore
data from your backup.
RAID (Redundant Array of Independent [or Inexpensive] Disks) is a fault-tolerant data
storage scheme in which multiple drives are used to store your data. In its simplest
form, two disks are used. Data is written to both disks simultaneously. If one drive fails,
data can still be accessed from the remaining drive. Many more advanced RAID
schemes exist and are covered in the next section.
RAID can be implemented through software, which manages writing and reading data
from the multiple disks and managing operations in the event of a disk failure. RAID
can also be implemented through hardware. For example, you might use a special disk
adapter to which you connect two hard drives. The adapter handles writing to the disks
during normal operations and accessing or rebuilding data when a drive fails.
The Windows Server products support software RAID configurations via built-in
features. Third-party utilities also enable you to create RAID configurations without
relying on operating system-specific features. Third-party hardware-based solutions are
also widely available. Most RAID solutions enable hot-swapping, which is the ability to
remove one drive and connect another without having to shut down or restart the
system.
3–32 CompTIA A+ Certification, Exam 220-801
RAID levels
RAID is a technique for adding redundancy, lengthening disk life, improving
performance, and enabling relatively uninterrupted access to data. There are various
basic levels of RAID, which have been extended by nesting the basic types.
The basic RAID levels are as follows:
• RAID level 0 — Striping with no redundancy features. Striping works by
spreading data equally over two or more drives, as shown in Exhibit 3-15. It is
used to extend disk life and to improve performance. Data access on striped
volumes is fast because of the way the data is divided into blocks that are
quickly accessed through simultaneous disk reads and multiple data paths. The
disadvantage is that if one disk fails, you can expect a loss of all data on the
volume.
Exhibit 3-16: RAID level 1, disk mirroring (left) and duplexing (right)
Memory and physical storage 3–33
Exhibit 3-17: RAID 5 stripes data and parity across a set of drives
• RAID 1+0 (or RAID 10) — A striped set of mirrored disks. For example, as
shown in Exhibit 3-19, two mirrored drives are striped with another pair of
mirrored drives.
Many other nested RAID combinations are possible. Each offers a mix of benefits, such
as greater redundancy or higher performance, and detractions, such as higher costs and
greater complexity.
Level-specific considerations
In addition to the general considerations given in the preceding section, there are factors
specific to each level that you should examine when choosing a solution.
RAID 0 Reduces the wear on multiple disk No fault tolerance other than that gained
(striping) drives by equally spreading the load. through reduced wear.
Increases disk performance compared A loss of a single disk in the stripe set
to a single disk. destroys the data on the entire volume.
Enables you to create larger volumes
than a single physical drive might
permit.
RAID 1 Increases read performance over With mirroring, write performance can be
(mirroring or single-disk solution. degraded, because a single adapter
duplexing) manages write operations to both disks in
Can protect the boot and system the set.
volumes.
Depending on the software and hardware
You can “split the mirror” to back up implementation, read performance might
one drive while the other one services not be enhanced. For example, older IDE
ongoing disk requests. adapters could read from only one of the
drives in a set. Software might compare
data read from each drive to check for
errors, thus reducing performance to a
single-drive level.
RAID 5 Read and write performance can be When writing chunks of data smaller than
(striping with better than with a single drive as long a single stripe, the overhead for
distributed parity) as writes, on average, involve the calculating parity can reduce
same amount of or more data than performance below that of a single disk
will fit in a single stripe. (or mirror or stripe).
Lower cost-per-gigabyte compared to The performance of random write
RAID 1. operations, such as those associated with
databases, is slower than with a single
disk (or mirror or stripe).
Mean time between failures (MTBF) can
theoretically be worse than that of a
single disk.
2 What term is used to describe disk mirroring when each drive is connected to its
own hard disk controller?
A Disk mirroring
B Disk duplexing
C Shadowing
D Controller mirror
Media cards
Explanation Media cards are removable storage devices that you can use to store any type of data,
from pictures on a camera to personal data on a smartphone. There are several different
types of media cards. The following table describes the media cards you’re likely to
encounter. They all use solid-state circuitry with no moving parts. Exhibit 3-20 shows a
few of the media cards described in the table.
There are two methods for using media cards with PCs: You can connect a USB card
reader to a USB port on your computer, or you can insert the card into a built-in
onboard card reader. You install the USB reader like you would any USB device: run
any installation program provided by the manufacturer, and then connect the device to a
USB port. Many times, though, you’ll just be able to connect the reader and Windows
will install the drivers automatically. To use a built-in card reader, just insert the card
into the appropriate slot. Other devices that use these cards, such as smartphones and
cameras, will be able to access the cards when they’re inserted, without having to install
any drivers.
Type Description
CompactFlash Oldest media card technology. Comes in two versions: CF-I and CF-II.
Capacity: Up to 16 GB for HC (high-capacity) cards.
Memory Stick Comes in two versions: MS and MS Duo. Duo is often sold with an adapter so that
it can be read by or used in devices that use MS.
Capacity: Up to 8 GB.
Exhibit 3-20: Memory Stick, SD, and CompactFlash flash media cards
3–38 CompTIA A+ Certification, Exam 220-801
A floppy disk drive (FDD) is the PC component that reads data from and writes data to
floppies. This drive can be internally connected, typically through a 34-pin data
connector on the motherboard. External FDDs are available with USB, IEEE 1394, and
eSATA connections.
Floppy disks were the original storage medium for PCs. By today’s standards, they hold
a miniscule amount of data and are very slow to access. Most modern computers don’t
include a floppy drive.
Form factors
The original PC floppy disks measured 5.25" in diameter. These disks featured a soft,
flexible outer cover. They held relatively little data, even compared to other floppy disk
technologies. A 5.25" floppy is pictured in Exhibit 3-22.
Later floppy disks were 3.5" in diameter and were protected by a hard outer case with a
sliding metal door. Despite their hard outer case, these disks aren’t “hard disks”; that
term refers to the high-capacity disk drive typically installed inside your PC’s case.
Even though they’re physically smaller, the most popular 3.5" disks stored a lot more
data than their larger predecessors. A 3.5" floppy disk is shown in Exhibit 3-23.
Capacities
Capacities of floppy drives vary by size and recording techniques. Information is
recorded onto the floppy disk in a series of concentric circular tracks. Floppy disks use
either 40 or 80 tracks.
The density of a floppy disk refers to the number of sectors per track, as compared to
the original floppies used in pre-PC computers. PC floppy densities vary from double
density (9 sectors per track) to extended density (36 sectors per track).
The storage capacities of the popular PC floppy disks are listed in the following table.
Write protection
You can prevent writing to floppies by engaging write protection. With 5.25" floppies,
you must cover a notch in the plastic case with tape or a label designed specifically for
that purpose. In the associated drives, a mechanical pin “feels” for the presence of this
notch, and if present, writing is enabled.
With 3.5" disks, you slide open a small “door” to enable write protection, as shown in
Exhibit 3-24. In the associated drives, if an LED light can shine through this door, then
writing is disabled.
2 Examine the 3.5" diskette that So that you can view its flexible inner disk.
your instructor has opened up
Exhibit 3-25: A floppy cable with pin-style connectors for 3.5” drives
The typical floppy controller connector is a 34-pin male connector soldered to the
motherboard. Such a connector, technically called a header, is shown in Exhibit 3-26.
Floppy disks were the original storage medium for PCs. By today’s standards, they hold
a miniscule amount of data and are very slow to access. Most modern computers don’t
include a floppy drive.
External FDDs are available with USB, IEEE 1394, and eSATA connections.
3–42 CompTIA A+ Certification, Exam 220-801
Tape drives
Tape drives are used to create backups of data from a hard drive. The tapes are typically
removed to an offsite location for storage. This way, if a disaster occurs in the building
the computer is in, the tape is safe in another location. There are companies you can
contract with for secure, fireproof storage of your tapes. You can also use a safety
deposit box at a bank or a fireproof safe, if you don’t require more stringent storage of
the tapes.
Magnetic tapes are used to record information in burst mode, in which data is written in
blocks. Burst mode results in faster data transfer. An interblock gap is a physical space
between blocks on the tape. These gaps help prevent blocks of data from being
overwritten. Tape capacities can reach up to 1 TB, depending on the type of data and
whether data compression has been enabled. Compression can sometimes double a
tape’s capacity.
Tape drives are sequential-access devices. Instead of being able to go directly to a
specific file when you need to restore it, you must wait while the drive advances the
tape past all of the files before that file on the tape.
Various types of compression are used to fit more data onto the tape at a faster rate.
Most data backup algorithms use lossless compression so that reconstructed data is the
same as the original. Most of these algorithms compress data at a 2:1 ratio or better.
2 Remove the insert or plate cover Many modern computers don’t include a floppy
that closes the floppy drive bay drive.
3 Install the drive into the bay Secure the drive with at least four screws. This
drive receives more pressure than other drives
because users push floppies in or eject them.
4 Connect the floppy cable to the Make sure you plug the correct connector into
motherboard the correct socket on the motherboard.
6 Connect an available power cable Modern floppies use the small peripheral power
to the floppy drive’s power socket connector; older drives use the large connector.
Review questions
1 The actual storage locations on a memory chip are called what?
A Bits B Cells C RAM D Word
2 Which memory unit’s size depends on the processor?
A Bit B Byte C Nibble D Word
3 Which term refers to the type of memory that loses its contents when power isn’t
present?
A Asynchronous D Static
B Dynamic E Synchronous
C Nonvolatile F Volatile
4 Which of the following memory types are nonvolatile? [Choose all that apply.]
A CMOS C EEPROM E PROM G ROM
B EPROM D Flash F RAM
5 What type of RAM loses its contents quickly, even when power is present?
A DRAM B Flash C SRAM
6 Which type of memory is tied to the system clock?
A Asynchronous D Static
B Dynamic E Synchronous
C Nonvolatile F Volatile
3–44 CompTIA A+ Certification, Exam 220-801
7 Which of the following is defined as "the amount of data that can be transferred to
or from memory per second”?
A Access time C Memory speed
B Bandwidth D Overall speed
8 Individual memory chips installed on the motherboard were replaced with memory
______________.
packages or modules
9 Which of the following memory packages are used in laptop or notebook
computers? [Choose all that apply.]
A 144-pin MICRODIMM C 200-pin SODIMM
B 184-pin RIMM D 240-pin DIMM
10 True or false? Parity permits your computer not only to detect that an error has
occurred in memory, but also to correct that error.
False. ECC permits your computer to detect and correct errors. Parity enables just error
detection.
11 Lower power consumption and less heat generation are advantages of a
______________ hard disk.
solid-state
12 Lower cost and higher storage capacities are advantages of a _________ hard disk.
magnetic
13 You can configure a PATA drive to be _________, _________, or
________________ by using jumpers or switches on the drive.
master; slave; cable-select
14 The following graphic is illustrates which RAID level?
A Level 0 C Level 3
B Level 1 D Level 5
Memory and physical storage 3–45
A Level 0 C Level 3
B Level 1 D Level 5
A Level 0 C Level 3
B Level 1 D Level 5
17 What is the capacity of a single-sided, dual-layer DVD?
A 4.7 GB C 9.4 GB
B 8.5 GB D 17.1 GB
18 What is the capacity of a double-sided, dual-layer (on both sides) DVD?
A 4.7 GB C 9.4 GB
B 8.5 GB D 17.1 GB
19 What are the two sizes of floppy disks?
A 3.0" D 5.0"
B 3.25" E 5.25"
C 3.5" F 5.5"
3–46 CompTIA A+ Certification, Exam 220-801
20 Which types of removable memory cards come in the largest capacity? [Choose all
that apply]
A CompactFlash D SmartMedia
B MemoryStick E xD-Picture Card
C Secure Digital
Memory
In this activity, you’ll practice identifying correct memory upgrade modules for a PC.
1 Open the Control Panel, and then open System and Security, and System.
2 How much RAM is installed on your computer?
Answers will vary.
3 Using your computer manufacturer’s support Web site or computer’s user manual,
determine the type of memory modules that your computer supports.
Answers will vary, but will include:
RAM type, such as DDR2 SDRAM
Package type, such as DIMM
Error correcting (ECC or non-ECC)
Memory speed, specified in MHz
Speed rating, specified as PC-#, PC2-#, or PC3-#
4 Using your Web browser, determine the cost to replace 2 GB of RAM for your
computer.
Answers will vary.
5 Close all open windows.
Unit 4
Connections and peripherals
Unit time: 130 minutes
# Objective
1.7 Compare and contrast various connection interfaces and explain their purpose.
• Physical connections
– Other connector types
ƕ Serial
ƕ Parallel
Explanation A port is a connector into which you can plug cables from external devices, or
sometimes, plug in the devices themselves. An interface is the communications standard
that defines how data flows to and from a device through a specific port.
Some ports are general purpose, designed for connecting a wide variety of devices, such
as USB or FireWire. Others are designed for very specific connections, such as
networking, video, or proprietary devices. Electronically speaking, nearly any interface
can be categorized as either serial, or parallel.
Serial transmission
Serial transmission is a technique in which bits of data are sent, one at a time, across the
transmission medium. You can imagine the bits marching single-file down a single data
transmission wire (or across a single wireless transmission channel), as illustrated in
Exhibit 4-1. Special sequences of bits delineate data from associated control
information, such as marking the beginning and end of bytes or blocks of data.
Examples of serial interfaces on PCs include:
• COM • FireWire • SATA
• USB • Ethernet • PCI Express
Serial ports
While many types of devices and ports use serial transmission, when most people speak
of serial ports, they mean the ports in use since the earliest PCs to connect devices such
as modems and mice. These ports are called the communication or COM ports, and
function according to the RS-232 standard.
While COM ports have been largely superseded by newer technologies for many
peripheral devices, they are still commonly found in many industrial and specialty
applications. A new PC may not include any COM ports, but they can be added by
adapter cards or external devices.
The basic PC hardware supports four COM ports: COM1, COM2, COM3, and COM4.
You can use only two of those at any one time. Windows supports software emulation
of additional COM ports, when extra ports are necessary. Therefore, you might find PCs
with higher-numbered COM ports.
To configure the resources used by these ports, you can use your system’s BIOS setup
utility or Windows Device Manager. Plug and Play should detect these settings and
configure Windows accordingly. You can confirm PnP settings by using Windows
Device Manager.
Serial standards
Standard serial cables come in the following types:
• EIA/TIA-232 • EIA/TIA-530 • X.21
• EIA/TIA-449 • V.35
The maximum distance for a serial cable depends on the data rate. In general, the slower
the data rate, the longer the maximum distance can be without signal degradation. The
following table lists the various data rates and corresponding recommended maximum
distances for the various types of serial cables.
Typically, the male connector is used on the computer, while devices usually have the
female connector. Thus, to connect a serial device, you usually need a cable with a male
connector on one end and a female connector on the other end.
By convention, the serial ports on modern PCs are teal or surrounded by a teal label.
This color helps you distinguish the serial port from the other connectors on your PC.
Sometimes they’re labeled with “COM” or with a series of ones and zeros to suggest the
one-by-one transmission of bits of data.
The pins (or sockets) in the connector at one end of a serial cable connect to certain
sockets (or pins) at the other end. To assist cabling technicians, the manufacturers assign
standard numbers to pins (and sockets). The standard numbers are shown in Exhibit 4-3.
Parallel transmission
Parallel transmission is a technique by which data is transmitted simultaneously over
multiple conductors, with each bit traveling over its own path in the transmission
medium. Parallel transmission is illustrated in Exhibit 4-4. In a wired configuration,
each bit would travel over its own wire. Control and timing information is sent over
additional wires.
Parallel ports
Parallel ports are connectors into which you plug devices that use parallel transmission
to communicate with your PC. Most often, when people speak of parallel ports, they’re
referring to the ports used for printers. These ports are called the LPT ports, and are
defined by the IEEE 1284 standard. LPT stands for “line printer,” reflecting the use of
this sort of printer with early-model PCs.
The basic PC hardware supports two LPT ports: LPT1 and LPT2. Additional LPT ports
can be added through expansion adapters. Most modern printers don’t use the LPT port
at all, instead using the newer and more capable USB port. Likewise, modern PCs
commonly will have no LPT ports, so if you need to connect a parallel device you will
need to add an adapter.
Connections and peripherals 4–7
Exhibit 4-7: Parallel printer cables have DB-25 (left) and Centronics connectors
# Objective
1.7 Compare and contrast various connection interfaces and explain their purpose.
• Physical connections
– USB 1.1 vs. 2.0 vs. 3.0 speed and distance characteristics
ƕ Connector types: A, B, mini, micro
– Firewire 400 vs. Firewire 800 speed and distance characteristics
• Speeds, distances and frequencies of wireless device connections
– Bluetooth
– IR
– RF
Explanation A peripheral is any device that connects to a computer. In technical terms, any device
outside of the motherboard, CPU, memory, and power supply is a peripheral. In more
general use, peripherals are external devices connected to a computer, and while internal
devices may be peripherals they are less commonly called such.
A wide variety of peripheral connections are found on new PCs. Some of these are for
specific uses, such as connecting displays or input and output devices. Others are more
general purpose, allowing you to connect a wide variety of devices using a single
interface. The most common peripheral connections found on a modern PC include:
• USB
• IEEE 1394, or FireWire
• Wireless interfaces
4–10 CompTIA A+ Certification, Exam 220-801
USB classes
According to the specification, USB components are categorized into classes. There are
two basic classes, which are described in the following table.
Class Description
Host There’s just one host per bus. This class is responsible for managing the USB
bus. The host provides power to devices and manages the configuration process
that’s followed when devices are added or removed. A system might include
multiple hosts, each representing a separate USB bus. Windows Device Manager
identifies the host as a Hub or Controller.
Device This class is divided into two subclasses: Functions and Hubs. The Functions
subclass includes the peripherals that you connect to the USB bus. Equipment in
this class can send and receive data over the bus, and control the flow of data.
These are the devices themselves, such as keyboards, mice, external drives, and
so forth. The Hub subclass (not to be confused with the Windows labeling of the
Host as a hub) defines the expansion devices that provide no functionality other
than providing more USB ports.
Connections and peripherals 4–11
USB versions
The USB specification is an active and growing standard. The following table compares
these USB versions.
USB 1.1 12 Mbps This specification is generally called “USB” and is still
sometimes used by devices that don’t need high-speed data
transfers or other functions provided by the newer
specifications, such as keyboards and mice.
Half-duplex, meaning that it can upload or download, but
cannot do both simultaneously.
USB 2.0 This specification defines Backward-compatible with USB 1.1, in that you can
three transfer rates: connect USB 1.1 devices to this bus. However, they will
operate at USB 1.1 speeds. Additionally, the entire bus will
Low-speed: 1.5 Mbps slow to USB 1.1 speeds. Most USB 2.0 devices also work
Full-speed: 12 Mbps on a USB 1.1 bus, though at USB 1.1 speeds (USB 2.0’s
Hi-Speed: 480 Mbps full-speed mode).
Like USB 1.1, USB 2.0 is half-duplex.
USB 3.0 Supports USB 1.1 and Uses slightly different plugs and sockets that are upwardly
2.0 rates compatible. The means you can plug a USB 1.1 or 2.0 cable
into a USB 3.0 socket. It will not fit in all the way, making
Adds SuperSpeed mode, contact with only the pins necessary to provide USB 1.1 or
with up to 5.0 Gbps 2.0 connectivity. However, a USB 3.0 cable will not fit into
an older style socket.
Full-duplex, meaning that it can upload and download
simultaneously (it’s bidirectional).
You can determine which USB version a device supports by examining the USB logo
on the device or its connector. USB connectors are typically identified by the symbol
shown on the left in Exhibit 4-8.
Exhibit 4-8: The USB port symbol (left) and the USB 2.0 label (right)
Devices that comply with the USB 2.0 specification often display the label shown on
the right in Exhibit 4-8, and USB 3.0 devices display one of the labels shown in Exhibit
4-9
USB power
The USB standard specifies that the host must provide power to the bus for use by
devices on the bus. Low-power devices, such as mice and keyboards, can be completely
powered by the USB bus and thus don’t require an external power supply. Other
peripherals, such as external drives, require more power than USB can provide. Such
devices require an external source of power. Some devices will use two USB ports to
get enough power without an external source.
USB ports
USB ports and connectors come in two shapes, generally called Type A and Type B.
Both types use four pins or conductors. Type A ports and connectors are wide and flat
and are used at the PC end of a USB-to-device connection. If the device uses a
removable cable rather than a permanently connected one, it uses the Type B connector.
These two port and connector types are shown in Exhibit 4-10 and Exhibit 4-11.
Various smaller versions of these connectors have been created. Digital cameras, cell
phones, MP3 players, and so forth use these smaller connectors. Most phone
manufacturers have standardized the micro-USB over the mini-USB connector to
provide both battery charging power as well as connectivity to your PC or other devices.
The USB specification permits you to daisy-chain up to five hubs, that is, connect one
hub to another hub. In practice, you’ll probably encounter problems with more than two
hubs in a line.
For USB 1.1 buses, cables can be up to 3 meters long. For USB 2.0 buses, cables can be
up to 5 meters long. In theory, at least, you could connect devices up to 25 meters away
by daisy-chaining hubs. The practical limit is closer to 15 meters. The USB 3.0 standard
doesn’t define maximum cable assembly lengths. However, it’s estimated that its top
speed is achievable with a maximum cable length of 3 meters.
Connections and peripherals 4–13
USB devices
Explanation Typically, you must run an installation or setup program supplied with your USB device
before connecting it the first time to put the device drivers into your Windows system
folder, where Windows can locate them. Depending on the device and driver, you might
be prompted to restart your computer during these steps.
Other devices, such as USB thumb drives and even some smartphones, don’t require an
installation program. You can connect them, and Windows will install the drivers
automatically, if it has them. Otherwise you’ll just be prompted to provide a location
where it can find the drivers.
Devices that connect via the USB port include:
• Barcode readers
• Keyboards
• Mice
• Touch-screen monitors
• Multimedia devices, such as Web cameras, digital cameras, camcorders, and
MIDI controllers
• Digitizers and graphics tablets
• Scanners
• Printers
• Biometric devices, such as fingerprint readers
• KVM switches
• External storage devices, such as hard disks and optical drives
• Joysticks and game pads, although some of these are connected using FireWire
or wirelessly using Bluetooth
Once you learn how to install one USB device, you know how to install just about any
USB device. Of course, configuring different USB devices requires different steps, but
you can determine configuration options from the device’s documentation or web site.
4–14 CompTIA A+ Certification, Exam 220-801
4 If one is provided with your To place the device’s drivers in the Windows
device, run the installation System folder, where Windows can find them.
program
5 Connect the USB device to your Windows should recognize the device and make
computer it available for use.
IEEE 1394
FireWire, also known as IEEE 1394, is a high-speed peripheral interconnection bus.
FireWire offers these features:
• Hot-swapping and self-configuration — The bus and its devices are hot-
swappable and self-configuring.
• Multiple-device support — You can connect up to 63 devices to the FireWire
bus and interconnect up to 1023 of these buses in a tree topology.
• High-speed data transfer — FireWire supports transfer rates of 800 Mbps and
beyond.
• Asynchronous and isochronous transfer modes — FireWire supports devices
that require time-critical transfers on the bus.
FireWire was originally developed by Apple Computer Corp., which trademarked the
name. Later, with support from Microsoft, Philips, National Semiconductor, and Texas
Instruments, this specification was standardized by the IEEE (the Institute of Electrical
and Electronics Engineers) as IEEE 1394. Rather than using either of those names, Sony
decided to use i.Link to identify its implementation of this technology. Other than their
names, all of these technologies are identical. FireWire is trademarked, so companies
must pay to use the name. You’ll find that many companies will use “IEEE 1394” on
their devices instead of “FireWire” to avoid paying the licensing fee.
Architecture
FireWire is a peer-to-peer bus, in which every device is an intelligent component. This
means that devices work together to negotiate access to the bus and handle data
transfers. The best device on the bus is put in charge of managing access and data
transfers.
In contrast, USB uses a master-slave model, in which the PC controls all aspects of the
bus. As a result, even though FireWire’s “raw” throughput rating might be comparable
to that of USB, FireWire 400 outperforms USB 2.0 in actual use.
FireWire versions
The IEEE 1394 specification has undergone some revisions since its original release.
Some people now refer to the original IEEE 1394 specification as FireWire 400 or
1394a. IEEE 1394b is a revision to the original standard and is usually called FireWire
800.
FireWire 400 supports data transfers of up to 400 Mbps, with cable lengths up to 4.5
meters. The specification also says that there can be a maximum of 17 physical devices
on the bus, interconnected by up to 16 cables. Any of these devices can support multiple
connections, each of which can be connected to a distinct bus. Such multiple
connections enable you to interconnect up to a theoretical maximum of 64,449 devices.
As a peer-to-peer system, the “central” PC is not necessarily involved in communication
and might not actually be centrally located on the overall FireWire network.
FireWire 800 supports transfers at up to 800 Mbps, with cable lengths up to 4.5 meters.
Additionally, you can use optical repeaters with FireWire 800 to extend cable lengths to
1000 meters. FireWire 800 also supports multiple connection devices and the
interconnected buses specified by FireWire 400.
4–16 CompTIA A+ Certification, Exam 220-801
FireWire connections
FireWire 400 devices use either a 4-pin or 6-pin connector. The 4-pin connector is used
at the device end of the cable, while the 6-pin connector hooks up to the PC. The 4-pin
port and connector are shown in Exhibit 4-12. The 6-pin port and connector are shown
in Exhibit 4-13.
FireWire 800 devices use a 9-pin connector at both ends of the cable. With the
appropriate adapter cables, you can connect FireWire 400 devices into FireWire 800
ports and vice versa. FireWire 800 devices operate at full speed only when you connect
them to a FireWire 800 port.
FireWire power
The IEEE specification calls for up to 1.5 amps at 30V for a total of 45 watts of power
provided on the FireWire 800 bus. This is considerably higher than USB, so you should
have fewer power-related problems connecting FireWire devices to the bus. The 4-pin
FireWire connector doesn’t support power.
Connections and peripherals 4–17
Wireless communications
Wireless connections generally use one of the following:
• Infrared light
• Radio waves
• Bluetooth
Infrared
Infrared wireless technology uses pulses of invisible infrared light to transmit signals
between devices. It offers relatively low-speed, line-of-site connections between
devices. Infrared light can’t pass through obstructions or around corners. Connection
speeds can be up to 16 Mbps, with a typical range of one meter. To make connections,
devices must aim their transceivers almost directly at each other. Devices that are more
than 30 degrees off to the side of a receiver, shown in Exhibit 4-14, are generally unable
to connect.
Devices that use infrared include handheld computers, such as PDAs, and some wireless
keyboards, mice, and printers. Infrared connection technology standards are set forth by
the Infrared Data Association (IrDA).
Radio waves
Radio-based wireless communications use signals sent over electromagnetic radio
waves to transmit data between devices. Radio transmissions can pass through most
nonmetallic obstructions and around corners. Thus, it isn’t a line-of-site technology.
Radio offers moderate- to high-speed local and wide area connections.
Various radio networking technologies have been developed. Currently, the most
common of these include 802.11g and 802.11n. The 802.11n standard offers a
theoretical maximum of 300 Mbps for business or home networking and Internet
connectivity over modest distances. Intel is seeing real-world speeds of 100–140 Mbps.
This range is in comparison with the 802.11g standard’s theoretical maximum speed of
54 Mbps, with real-world speeds of 22–24 Mbps.
Radio networking technologies are sometimes called "RF technologies,” where "RF”
stands for "radio frequency.” RF devices have antennae, which are sometimes hidden
inside the devices. For example, a laptop’s 802.11n wireless network adapter antenna is
typically hidden within the laptop’s case. A Linksys WRT160N 802.11n wireless router,
with additional wired Ethernet ports, is shown in Exhibit 4-15. The wireless antennas
are hidden inside the case.
Bluetooth
Bluetooth is a short-distance (up to 10 meters) radio communications technology.
Bluetooth is designed to enable devices—such as cellular telephones, PDAs, personal
audio players, PC peripherals, and PCs—to discover the presence of other Bluetooth
devices within range. Once detected, these devices self-configure and begin
communicating. With Bluetooth devices, you shouldn’t have to configure any
communications parameters, such as network addresses.
Bluetooth devices have antennae, which are usually hidden inside the devices. A cell
phone that supports Bluetooth probably has an external antenna for both cellular
telephone communications and Bluetooth connectivity.
Connections and peripherals 4–19
# Objective
Explanation As the primary input devices for most PCs, keyboards and mice are the most common
peripherals, alongside displays. Today these devices commonly use USB or Bluetooth
connections, and can be installed like any devices of their type.
Additionally, the legacy PS/2 connector is still commonly found even on new PCs. PS/2
connections remain popular for reasons of compatibility with specific hardware, or for
organizations that prefer to disable all USB connectivity for security reasons.
PS/2 connections
There are two primary kinds of PS/2 ports on a PC: keyboard and mouse. Both are
identical in physical connection, but they are not generally interchangeable, so you will
need to rely on other markings, position, or even trial and error to connect the proper
device to the proper port.
One exception is found in laptops or modern motherboards with only one PS/2 port: in
these cases the port may function with either type of device, or sometimes even both at
once using a Y-connector.
Unlike USB, the PS/2 port is not designed to be hot-swappable. Attaching or switching
PS/2 devices while the PC is in operation will not usually damage the computer or
devices, but the device may not work properly until the system is restarted.
PS/2 keyboards
Explanation The typical PS/2 keyboard port is a round, six-pin mini-DIN port (mini-DIN 6), about a
quarter inch in diameter. Exhibit 4-16 shows this port. It’s typically called a “PS/2” port
because it was used for the first time with that model of IBM PC.
Keyboard ports are typically purple or surrounded by a purple label. There might be a
keyboard icon next to the port. The keyboard port is usually located right next to the
nearly identical mouse port, making it easy to mistakenly connect these devices to each
other’s ports.
The keyboard connector for this style of port is the male version of the mini-DIN
connector, as shown in Exhibit 4-17. Sometimes the connector has a label or keyboard
icon molded into the plastic to make identification easier. Sometimes you’ll have to
trace the wires back to the device to see if it connects to the keyboard or the mouse.
As you can see from Exhibit 4-16 and Exhibit 4-17, the PS/2 keyboard connector is a
“keyed” connector. The large, rectangular pin, along with notches in the plastic of the
inner barrel, helps ensure that you insert the connector into the port in the correct
orientation. Don’t force the connector into the port; if it doesn’t fit easily, try turning it
until it does fit.
Some bar code readers connect to the keyboard port. A Y-adapter is used to connect
both the bar code reader and the keyboard to the port. An example of such a connection
is shown in Exhibit 4-18.Other barcode readers have a USB connection.
Exhibit 4-18: A bar code reader and a keyboard connected to the keyboard port
Connections and peripherals 4–21
The typical PS/2 mouse port is identical in form to the PS/2 keyboard port, as shown in
Exhibit 4-16. It’s typically green or surrounded by a green label and might be
accompanied by a mouse icon.
The mouse connector for this style of port is the male version of the mini-DIN
connector, as shown in Exhibit 4-19. Sometimes the connector has a label or mouse icon
molded into the plastic to make identification easier. Mouse ports and connectors, like
their keyboard equivalents, are keyed so that you connect them in the right orientation.
4 Re-insert the mouse and keyboard To practice installing this type of connector.
connectors into the correct ports
KVM switches
Explanation KVM stands for “keyboard, video, mouse.” A KVM switch is a hardware device that
allows you to connect multiple computers to a single keyboard, video display, and
mouse. Each computer is connected to the box through a cable set provided with the
box. The keyboard, video display, and mouse are connected to the specified ports on the
box.
You use a manual switch on the front of the device or a keyboard shortcut to select
which computer you want to use with the keyboard, display, and mouse. Typically, a
light on the front of the switch box will light up, indicating which computer has control
of the keyboard, video, and mouse, as shown in Exhibit 4-20.
Exhibit 4-21 shows the back of the KVM shown in Exhibit 4-20. It is an older-style
KVM that provides PS/2 ports for the keyboard and mouse.
Newer KVM switches have USB ports and also sometimes provide speaker and
microphone ports, as shown in Exhibit 4-22.
Connections and peripherals 4–23
The KVM switch typically receives its power from the computer itself through the PS/2
mouse connection or USB connection. Thus, many KVM switches don’t require
connection to an external power source.
5 Verify that the ports on the KVM For example, a USB KVM switch can’t be used
switch match the corresponding to connect a PS/2 keyboard and mouse.
device ports on your computer
Log on to Windows 7 as
ADMIN## with a password of
!pass1234
Log on to Windows 7 as
ADMIN## with a password of
!pass1234
Review questions
1 True or false? In parallel transmission, bits of data are sent one at a time across the
transmission medium.
False. In serial transmission, bits of data are sent one at a time across the transmission medium.
2 Which USB version has a top transfer speed of 480 Mbps?
A USB 1.0 C USB 2.0
B USB 1.1 D USB 3.0
3 Which FireWire version supports data transfers of up to 400 Mbps?
A FireWire 400
B FireWire 800
C FireWire S3200
4 The following picture is a connector for what type of communication?
A Parallel
B Serial
5 What color is a PS/2 keyboard port?
A Black D Purple
B Green E Red
C Pink F Yellow
6 What color is a PS/2 mouse port?
A Black D Purple
B Green E Red
C Pink F Yellow
4–26 CompTIA A+ Certification, Exam 220-801
A FireWire 400
B FireWire 800
C FireWire S3200
10 How many pins does a FireWire 800 connector have?
A 4 C 8
B 6 D 9
Unit 5
Media devices
Unit time: 150 minutes
# Objective
1.7 Compare and contrast various connection interfaces and explain their purpose.
• Physical connections
– Other connector types
ƕ VGA
ƕ HDMI
ƕ DVI
ƕ Audio
– Analog vs. digital transmission
– VGA vs. HDMI
Video interfaces
In the earliest years of the PC, IBM was the only significant source of personal
computers for business use. Thus, the video adapters and associated standards that IBM
created were adopted as the official standards to be implemented by third-party
manufacturers.
VGA was the last widely accepted standard created by IBM. Shortly after it was
introduced, VGA was superseded by the capabilities of third-party graphics adapters.
Although the offerings from many of these vendors came to be called “SuperVGA,”
there was no official standard beyond VGA. Until the digital interfaces of DVI and
HDMI were developed, all video interfaces were analog. Modern flat-panel monitors
are connected via either analog or digital lines.
Media devices 5–3
VGA
The typical VGA connector is a 15-pin connector officially called a DE-15 connector, as
shown on the left in Exhibit 5-1. The DE-15 connector is also known as a DB-15
connector or HD15 connector. A typical VGA socket is shown on the right.
Exhibit 5-1: A VGA (DE-15) connector and cable (left) and a VGA socket (right)
Red Green Blue (RGB) cables use the same analog signal as VGA cables, but RGB is
three separate cables instead of a single cable like the VGA cable. Each of the RGB
cables has its own connector. Only older analog display devices use RGB connectors
and cables.
DVI
Explanation If you want to use the DVI interface, you will need to determine what type of DVI
connection the card accepts. The different types of DVI connectors are shown in Exhibit
5-2.
Exhibit 5-3: A dual-link DVI-D port (left) and a DVI-I port (right)
The DVI family of standards supports single- and dual-link configurations; for example,
a DVI-D single link (with 18 conductors/pins) and a DVI-D dual-link (with 24 pins).
The extra six conductors are used to transmit additional pixel data along the cable to
enable both higher resolutions and higher refresh rates. For example, a single link DVI
interface can handle a maximum of 60 Hz and 2.75 megapixels. That’s the equivalent of
1,915 × 1,436 pixels in a 4:3 aspect ratio arrangement. For higher resolutions, or higher
refresh rates, additional bandwidth is required. The additional “link” provides 6 extra
conductors to transmit the additional information. A dual-link DVI interface can handle
4 megapixels at 60 Hz.
HDMI
Like DVI-D, HDMI (High-Definition Multimedia Interface) delivers video signals in a
digital format without analog conversion. DVI-D and HDMI are similar to one another
in terms of image quality, but HDMI cables can deliver up to eight channels of digital
audio in addition to video. HDMI also supports higher resolutions than DVI-D does,
including some not generally available commercially. HDMI uses a different type of
connector than does DVI-D.
As of this writing, there are four types of HDMI connectors: types A, B, C, D, and E.
Types A, C, and D have 19 pins, though wiring arrangements vary between these types.
The type C connector, called Mini-HDMI, is smaller than type A, and type D is even
smaller. The smaller connectors are intended for portable devices. Type B connectors
have 29 pins and support the dual-link configuration. Dual-link configuration doubles
the maximum transfer rate and permits much higher resolutions. Type E connectors
aren’t very common in the world of an A+ technician, as it is defined as an automotive
connection system.
A Type A port is shown in Exhibit 5-4.
DisplayPort
Display projectors enable you to show what’s on your screen to a room full of people.
These projectors are useful for meetings and classes. The DisplayPort digital display
interface is a newer specification. It covers CRT, LCD, plasma, and projection displays.
It also covers connections to PCs, game systems, DVD players, and other image
sources. The cable can carry high-quality audio along with the video information. An
example of a DisplayPort connector and cable is shown in Exhibit 5-5.
Media devices 5–5
The specification defines a common interface for internal and external display
connections. The high bandwidth in the specification supports higher-resolution
monitors, higher refresh rates, and more colors.
The DisplayPort connector is smaller than connectors meeting the current video
standards. The smaller cable accommodates thin notebook computers and other devices,
as well as desktop computers. Multiple ports fit on a single video card.
RCA
Explanation You might encounter computers with RCA connections for connecting video devices
and/or cable-TV cable. These are on a separate card from the sound card. They are often
used for connecting VCRs or video cameras that don’t have FireWire or USB ports to
transfer the analog images to the computer for conversion to DVDs or for use in digital
editing applications. Exhibit 5-6 shows RCA connectors on a PC.
Exhibit 5-7 shows the RCA connectors on the cable. The yellow connector is for
composite video connection. The white connector connects to the left audio channel,
and the red connector connects to the right audio channel.
S-Video
Separate Video (S-Video) is an analog video connection using a single cable in which
analog signals for brightness and color are carried separately. In standard composite
video connections, both brightness and color are carried together, resulting in a lower-
quality image. An S-Video connection enables you to connect devices, such as
televisions and game systems, that otherwise could not be connected to the computer.
As shown in Exhibit 5-6, the S-Video connection is a 4-pin mini-DIN connection.
Component video
Component video uses five cables to carry audio and video, compared to composite
video’s three cables. Component video is paired with the white and red audio cables just
like with composite video. However with component video, the video signal is sent over
red, green and blue cables. Component video has twice the resolution of composite
video.
Coaxial
Some computers have a coax connector for a cable television connection, enabling the
computer to be turned into a digital video recorder. By using this TV tuner card and
adding software to the computer, you can tune in specific TV channels and record the
broadcast to your hard drive. A video capture card can be used to record video and
might include a TV tuner. A TV tuner/video capture device can be either an internal
expansion card or an external USB device. TV tuner cards and video capture cards are
available in both analog and digital versions.
A coax connector, on traditional coaxial cable, is similar to what you’d use to connect to
satellite or cable TV. It’s the rightmost connector in Exhibit 5-8.
BNC
Copper thinnet (RG-58) cables connect to the computer with a BNC barrel connector.
The standard BNC is considered a 2-pin connector—pin 1 is the center conductor,
which carries the data signal, and pin 2 is the tinned copper braid, which provides the
ground.
The components of a BNC cable and connector are called out in Exhibit 5-9.
Audio connections
Explanation Sound cards typically feature connectors for speakers, microphones, line-input or line-
output devices. The function of each connector is typically labeled with a small icon.
Exhibit 5-10 shows some of these connectors and their functions. The connectors shown
use standard 1/8” audio connectors. Other audio connections can use HDMI for
connection for high-end audio output, especially in home-theater settings.
MIDI connectors
MIDI connectors are found on musical instruments that are connected using the musical
instrument digital interface (MIDI) protocol. MIDI defines the port connector, the
format of the data sent, and the format in which the sounds are stored. The port is a large
DIN connector. Devices can be daisy-chained together, with one device connecting
from its MIDI output port to another device’s MIDI input port. You can use double-
ended cables to extend the connection’s length. The devices can also be connected to a
mixing board, a synthesizer, or a computer. A hub or connection box enables you to
disconnect an individual instrument without rerouting the remaining instruments.
Some high-end sound cards include MIDI connections, but usually an adapter is used.
The MIDI cable has the DIN connection on the MIDI device end and has either a 15-pin
joystick connector or a USB connector on the other end. There are also MIDI controller
boxes that have MIDI ports built into them; the box then connects to the computer
through a USB cable.
Exhibit 5-11 shows a MIDI device and MIDI cables. The MIDI drum kit on the left side
of the picture has MIDI-in and MIDI-out cables connected. A close-up of the MIDI
ports is shown in the upper right. Below the instrument is a MIDI connection device.
The MIDI instruments connect to the MIDI ports on the box, and a USB cable connects
it to the computer. Notice that the MIDI cable ends in a large DIN connector, similar to
the old-style keyboard connector.
S/PDIF
Sony/Philips Digital Interface (S/PDIF) is a standard developed by Sony and Philips for
digital audio transfer. This connection is found on CD and DVD drives. It connects to
an S/PDIF connector on a sound card or on the motherboard.
Because they are digital rather than analog, S/PDIF connections eliminate the need to
convert digital CD or DVD data to analog. And because the signal doesn’t have to be
converted, S/PDIF eliminates the noise that would be created during the signal
conversion and would lower the audio quality.
In addition to internal drives, you can have external S/PDIF connections. These are
typically added through a card dedicated to digital multimedia connections. External
devices using S/PDIF connections include home theater receivers and professional-
quality CD and DVD players. The external devices connect via either a square
connector or a coaxial connection. Examples of these are shown in Exhibit 5-12.
The square connectors shown in Exhibit 5-12 have spring-loaded covers that close
automatically when you disconnect a cable. This arrangement prevents potentially eye-
damaging light (from the internal fiber) from exiting the connector when nothing is
connected to it. You can connect TOSLINK connectors to the square-style S/PDIF
sockets.
# Objective
Safety
Caution: Never open a display device unless you’ve been specifically trained in
internal repair techniques, which aren’t covered in this course.
Color cathode ray terminals (CRTs), use three electron beams to produce images. Each
beam is for a separate color—red, green, or blue. (This is why CRTs are also referred to
as RGB devices.) The beams pass through horizontal and vertical deflection coils and
are focused by the magnetic yoke. Exhibit 5-13 shows a CRT display device.
The inside of a CRT is a vacuum with a few key components. The cathode is a heated
element at the rear of the display device. When the cathode is heated, negatively
charged rays are emitted. These are attracted by a positively charged anode, which
focuses the rays.
Red, green, and blue light phosphors are arranged in a triad of dots or in strips. The
three electron beams allow the dots to be illuminated simultaneously. The high-speed
electron beam passes through a device that positions the electronic beams and strikes
the phosphor-coated screen.
To control the electronic beam, CRTs use one of three technologies: shadow mask,
aperture grill, and slotted mask. A shadow mask is a sheet of metal with a hole for each
pixel triad. A pixel triad is a grouping of the three color dots. The mask or grill prevents
stray electrons from illuminating dots that shouldn’t be illuminated. An aperture grill is
composed of thin, vertical, metal strips to block stray electrons. The slotted mask
combines features of shadow mask and aperture grill technologies. Exhibit 5-14
illustrates how CRTs produce images.
Coils move the beam horizontally and vertically. Changing the voltages in the coils
enables the electron beams to be aimed anywhere on the screen. A device called a
flyback transformer, which produces high-voltage signals from a low-voltage power
source, controls the horizontal motion of the beam. Because high voltages are present,
you must take caution if attempting to repair a CRT.
Some display devices have a degaussing button. Powerful magnets, such as those found
in speakers or industrial motors, can magnetize the mask or grill, causing the focusing
of dots to be misaligned. The degaussing button enables you to demagnetize the display
device. Most display devices automatically perform a degaussing process when you turn
them on. Repeated degaussing can damage a CRT.
Screen size
The screen size is the diagonal measurement, in inches, of the entire picture tube. This
measurement can be misleading because it includes areas of the picture tube that are
within the bezel (the plastic case that surrounds the viewable area of the screen). For
this reason, you might also find another measurement, called the viewable area, which
measures just the portion of the tube that’s visible.
5–12 CompTIA A+ Certification, Exam 220-801
Viewable areas for CRTs are typically between 15 and 21 inches diagonal. If you work
in an environment with much older equipment, you might occasionally find a 12" or 14"
display device, but with the advent of graphical user interfaces for operating systems
and applications, larger screens are far more useful. Engineers, graphics artists, and
other users with specialty applications typically have the larger displays.
Aspect ratio
The aspect ratio of the screen is the relationship between width and the height of the
screen. It is expressed as x:y, where x is the width and y is the height. When an image is
measured in x units, y is always measured and displayed in the same units, usually
pixels in computer terms, producing a standard image size of x:y pixels.
Standard CRT display devices have a 4:3 ratio, the same as a standard-definition TV,
which produces an almost square image. Current flat panel displays support a 4:3, 5:4,
and 16:9 or 16:10 aspect ratios, the latter two producing the wide-screen image that’s
typical of high-definition content.
Resolution
Resolution refers to the number of pixels on the display device. The resolution is
expressed in rows and columns. A display device with a 1280×1024 resolution has 1280
columns of dots and 1024 rows of dots.
Resolution is affected by screen size. Both 15" and 21" display devices with a
1280×1024 resolution have the same number of pixels. They’re just closer together on
the smaller display. Having the pixels closer together creates a sharper image.
Some applications, especially games and graphics applications, require that the
resolution be set to a specific setting. Common Windows 7, Windows Vista, and
Windows XP settings are 800×600, 1024×768, 1152×864, 1280×800, 1280×1024, and
1600×1200. Exactly which ones are available on your system depends on the
resolutions your display device and video adapter support.
Refresh rate
For an image to stay on the screen, it needs to be refreshed multiple times per second.
The refresh rate is the number of times per second the screen is refreshed or redrawn.
This rate is measured in Hertz (Hz). At 60 Hz, the display is refreshed 60 times per
second. The image appears more stable, with less noticeable flickering, at higher refresh
rates. The human eye usually doesn’t notice the redraw at 72 Hz or higher. A refresh
rate of 85 Hz is recommended for a 1280×1024 resolution.
If your display device can’t support that combination, it drops back to the previous
setting so it can show the screen image and prevent damage to the hardware.
Color depth
Color depth specifies how many bits are used to describe the color of a single pixel.
VGA display devices use 16-bit color depth, known as High Color or HiColor, and can
show 65,536 colors. SVGA display devices are capable of 24-bit color depth, using 8
bits for red, 8 bits for blue, and 8 bits for green. An SVGA display device can show
16,777,216 colors; this setting is also known as True Color. The 32-bit color depth uses
the additional bits for showing additional information in the image. This setting is useful
for games and other graphics-intensive applications.
Media devices 5–13
Screen size
LCD display devices are measured diagonally, just like CRT display devices. Such
measurements don’t include areas of the screen hidden by the bezel.
Viewing angle
The viewing angle can be an important factor to consider. When you’re viewing an
LCD display straight on, as you do most of the time, the display device should be fine.
However, if you want to show other people what’s on your display, and they’re viewing
it from an angle, the image might not be visible or might be distorted, or the colors
might look wavy or incorrect.
Angles are measured in degrees. The maximum angle at which the image isn’t distorted
is listed as the viewing angle. Because various manufacturers measure this differently,
you should check it yourself. Be sure to check from both sides of the screen, as well as
from top and bottom angles, if you think people might need to see from those angles as
well.
Response rate
The response rate measures how quickly the pixels can change colors. This number is
important if you have moving images, such as in Web sites, videos, or gaming. The
response rate is measured in milliseconds. A response rate should be a lower number for
better performance. New LCD displays have a response rate of down to 2 to 4 ms.
Contrast ratio
Contrast ratio is the ratio between the display device’s brightest white and darkest
black. The higher the contract ratio, the better the image, so 1000:1 is better than 600:1.
Native resolutions
The native resolution is the number of individually addressable pixels in the screen
matrix for that specific display device. Resolution can range from 1280x1024 to
1920x1200. LCD display devices produce the clearest picture when all pixels are used.
Although you can usually configure an LCD display device for a lower resolution than
the native resolution, the image will be somewhat blurry or distorted, because not all
pixels will be illuminated. On a few LCD display devices, you can set a higher
resolution than the native resolution, but again, the image might not be as clear as the
image at the native resolution.
Brightness
Brightness or luminescence is the amount of light produced by an LCD display,
measured in candelas per square meter (cd/m2). A typical range is 250 to 500 cd/m2,
though a range of 250 to 300 cd/m2 is adequate for most tasks. Brighter displays are
better for movies and games. You might also see brightness measured in nits, with one
nit equal to 1 cd/m2.
Media devices 5–15
Other features
Other features you might find in the LCD display device descriptions include:
• Orientation — Some display devices can be pivoted so that you can view the
image in portrait or landscape mode.
• Privacy/anti-glare filters — These filters are usually a thin sheet of plastic that
adhere to the front of your display device. They reduce the viewing angle to
prevent anyone from seeing the display contents unless they’re seated directly in
front of the display device. They also help reduce glare from the device and
reflections from light sources in the surrounding environment.
• Built-in speakers — Speakers are incorporated in the LCD display device.
• USB hub — You can connect other USB devices to the computer through the
display device.
• Wall mounting — This option allows multiple people to view the display, such
as in conference rooms and classrooms.
2 Display the LCD display devices You’ll compare the lowest-price device, a mid-
that are for sale priced device, and the highest-price device.
3 Select a standard size to compare For example, compare 19" LCD devices.
Brightness
Contrast ratio
Native resolution
Response rate
Viewing angle
Brightness
Contrast ratio
Native resolution
Response rate
Viewing angle
Brightness
Contrast ratio
Native resolution
Response rate
Viewing angle
Multiple displays
If you’re using an operating system that supports multiple displays, such as Windows 7,
Windows Vista, Windows XP, Windows 2000, or Windows 98, you can use two or
more devices simultaneously. This arrangement is useful when you’re working with
large spreadsheets, multiple related documents, and other large documents.
Using dual devices in Windows 7 gives you a larger space to display two windows than
the Aero Snap feature does. Aero Snap displays each window in half of a single device.
To use multiple devices, you need two devices, two video cables, and either two video
adapters or one video adapter with two ports.
You can connect CRTs, LCD devices, or a mix of each. The setup depends on which
adapters your computer has and what types of devices you have. The Microsoft
Knowledge Base article "Hardware requirements for multiple-display support in
Windows XP” (article 296538), Windows Vista article located at
http://www.microsoft.com/whdc/device/display/multimonVista.mspx,
or Windows 7 Help at http://support.microsoft.com/kb/976064. This
contains information that can help you figure out what equipment you need to set up
multiple devices. Exhibit 5-16 shows an example of a connecting two devices to a
computer.
2 Disconnect the power to the Devices have very high voltages and need to be
device handled carefully.
Media devices 5–19
4 Examine the connector and the The standard analog VGA female port has 15
port for the LCD device holes, and the male cable end has 15 pins. If
your system has a DVI port, it’s most likely the
DVI-D port, with three rows of pins and a
separate area of four more pins.
5 Connect the video cable from the Be careful not to bend pins as you make the
LCD device to the port connection.
Plug the device into the power Devices should be plugged into surge protector
outlet strips to help protect them.
6 Turn on the computer The display image should be clear and centered,
with no distortions.
Choose Personalize
Click Display
Click
Change display settings
8 Raise the Screen resolution to the This depends on the capabilities of your display
highest available setting device.
Raise the Color quality to the This also depends on the capabilities of your
highest available setting video card and device.
# Objective
1.7 Compare and contrast various connection interfaces and explain their purpose.
• Physical connections
– Other connector types
ƕ Audio
– Analog vs. digital transmission
Audio devices
To produce a signal for your speakers, a sound card must convert digital data into
analog sound waves. To enable you to input, or capture, audio, the sound card must also
convert analog sound signals into digital signals. Older sound cards enabled you to
connect a game device, such as a joystick or game paddle, and many of those also
enabled you to connect MIDI (musical instrument digital interface) instruments.
Nowadays, such functions are most often enabled through USB, FireWire, or even
wireless links.
Exhibit 5-18 shows a sound card. To perform its functions, a typical sound card includes
these components:
• Digital signal processor (DSP) — Functions like a CPU for sound processing
functions.
• Analog-to-digital converter (ADC) — Converts analog signals (such as sound
waves) to digital signals.
• Digital-to-analog converter (DAC) — Converts digital signals to analog,
producing the signals needed by speakers or other analog audio devices.
• Various jacks — Used to connect speakers, microphones, line-input or line-
output devices, game adapters (joysticks), and sometimes MIDI devices.
Discrete sound cards like that pictured today are only in common use among audio
enthusiasts and professionals – most computers will instead use audio functions built
into the motherboard. The functionality of both devices is the same, except that a sound
card will usually feature higher quality components and more connectors.
Media devices 5–21
Speakers
Explanation You hear operating system and application sounds through the speakers. A system with
a CD or DVD player can play music or video, and the audio portion will be played
through the speakers. Exhibit 5-19 shows speakers connected to a computer.
Exhibit 5-20: Speakers connect to each other and then to the computer
Some sound cards (or motherboards) feature separate connectors for the various
speakers in a surround-sound system. Others have a single 1/8" port to which you
connect all of the speakers in the system. Consult your computer’s owner’s manual for
information about connecting your speaker system.
Microphones
Microphones can be used with a computer to record sounds. The microphone connects
to a microphone port on the sound card. To identify this port, look for a picture of a
microphone, the word “Mic,” or a pink port, if it’s color-coded. Exhibit 5-21 shows a
microphone and the port to which you connect it on a computer.
5 Locate the microphone jack on the You’ll connect a microphone to your computer.
computer
9 Speak into the microphone For example, say your name and count to ten.
12 Observe the location on the hard By default, it’s saved in your Documents folder.
disk where the file will be saved
Click Save
14 Open Documents
Digital cameras
Explanation Digital cameras most often use USB connections. Digital video cameras use either a
USB connection or an IEEE 1394 connection. Some cameras require drivers, but others
just show up as another storage device on the computer when the connection is made.
Some cameras use a docking station to recharge the batteries and to transfer the images
from the camera to the computer. Some docking stations also include a photo printer.
Some docking stations can print the pictures without being connected to the computer;
others require a computer connection.
6 Access the camera through The camera might show up as a removable drive
Computer or the camera’s or might be accessible only through the camera
software vendor’s software.
8 Display the picture Usually, you can double-click the image file to
display it in a preview window or other
application.
Media devices 5–25
Web cameras
Explanation Web cameras (or webcams), shown in Exhibit 5-23, are specialized cameras designed to
record live video and transmit it across a network or the Internet. The video can be
transmitted live, or recorded and saved for transmission at a later time. Many webcams
include built-in microphones, and most include software for video e-mail, video capture,
videoconferencing, and still-image capture. Webcams must be connected to a desktop
PC, usually via a USB connection. Many laptops have Web cameras built into the lid
above the display screen.
Connection software
In order to make a connection with a webcam, you need to connect to a service provider,
such as Skype or Vonage, which enable people across the globe to communicate with
one another, often at no charge. The exact steps to install, configure, and connect vary
by provider, so it’s best to use the instructions on your chosen provider’s Web site to get
your webcam transmitting across the Web.
5–26 CompTIA A+ Certification, Exam 220-801
Follow the program’s prompts to Do not install any add-ons or bundled software.
install Skype
4 In the Skype sign-in window, The “Create an account” page opens in your
click Create an account Web browser. Enter your full name and email
address, a Skype name (or choose one of the
suggested names), and a password.
Be sure to remember (or write down) your new
Skype name and password.
Complete any other required fields At the time this activity was written, the page
on the page required a “Captcha” challenge to be completed
before an account could be created.
Click Sign In
Complete any additional steps to At the time this activity was written, the
finish Skype setup remaining steps would allow you to verify that
your speakers, microphone, and webcam are
working properly with Skype, and to take or
select a picture for your Skype profile.
Enter the other student’s Skype Search results should appear below the search
name in the search box box.
Locate the other student’s Skype The other student’s Skype name should be at the
name in the search results top of the results, since it is an exact match.
8 Coordinate with your lab partner One of you will place the call; the other will
to decide who will place the call answer it.
If you’re placing the call, select Placing a call by clicking Video call starts the
your contact and click call with your camera “live”. To start a call
without video, click the Call button. (You can
enable video after the call has connected.)
If you’re receiving the call, To answer the call with your camera “live”. To
click answer a call without video, click the Answer
button. (You can enable video during the call.)
11 Close Skype
5–28 CompTIA A+ Certification, Exam 220-801
Review questions
1 Which DVI connection types support both digital and analog signals?
[Choose all that apply.]
A DVI-D single link C DVI-I single link
B DVI-D dual-link D DVI-I dual-link
2 Which type of video port is shown in the following graphic?
A DVI-A C HDMI
B DVI-I D VGA
3 What size are the connectors on a sound card?
A 1/16" C 1/4"
B 1/8" D 1/2"
4 The multimedia ports shown in the following graphic are which type?
A Coax D RCA
B Coax S/PDIF E S-Video
C MIDI
Media devices 5–29
A Coax D RCA
B Square S/PDIF E S-Video
C MIDI
6 What’s another name for a CRT device?
A DVI device C LCD device
B Flat-panel device D RGB device
7 How is a CRT device’s size measured?
A Diagonal measurement, edge to edge
B Diagonal measurement, picture tube edges only
C Total area, length × width
D Width
8 True or false? The device that has a better image is one with a dot pitch of 0.15
compared to 0.30.
True. The smaller the dot pitch number, the better the image.
9 True or false? "Resolution” refers to the relationship between the horizontal and
vertical sizes of the screen.
False. Resolution refers to the number of pixels on the display device.
10 True or false? "Contrast ratio” refers to the difference between the shades of each
color on an LCD device.
False. Contrast ratio is the ratio between the device’s brightest white and darkest black.
11 True or false? A response rate of 20 ms is better than a response rate of 8 ms.
False. A response rate should be a lower number for better performance.
12 True or false? LCD devices use thin film transistor technology.
True
13 What does the response rate on an LCD device refer to?
A How quickly, in milliseconds, the pixels change colors
B The ratio between the device’s brightest white and darkest black
C The measurement, in candelas per square meter (cd/m²), of the light produced
D The number of individually addressable pixels in the screen matrix
5–30 CompTIA A+ Certification, Exam 220-801
14 Why is an LCD device display somewhat blurry when configured below its native
resolution?
Because not all pixels are illuminated at the lower resolution.
15True or false? Windows 7 supports the use of multiple displays simultaneously.
True
16 Which of the following colors indicates a microphone port?
A Pink C White
B Green D Blue
17True or false? All webcams include built-in microphones and software for video e-
mail, video capture, videoconferencing, and still-image capture.
False. Some webcams include built-in microphones, and most include software for video e-mail,
video capture, videoconferencing, and still-image capture.
Media connectors
In this activity, you’ll practice identifying different types of media connectors, and
cables. Your instructor will provide you with either a variety of cables and connectors,
or photos of cables and connectors. You need to successfully identify each example.
1 Given devices or photographs, correctly identify the following connection types:
Display devices
In this activity, you’ll install and configure dual monitors on your PC.
2 If your system supports two monitors, connect a second monitor to it.
3 Extend your Windows desktop onto the second monitor.
4 Open Notepad and drag it to the second monitor.
5 Open Windows Explorer and leave its window on the primary monitor.
6 Close all open windows.
7 Return your desktop to a single monitor.
8 Disconnect the second monitor.
6–1
Unit 6
Printers
Unit time: 240 minutes
# Objective
4.1 Explain the differences between the various printer types and summarize the associated
imaging process.
• Laser
– Imaging drum, fuser assembly, transfer belt, transfer roller, pickup rollers, separate
pads, duplexing assembly
– Imaging process: processing, charging, exposing, developing, transferring, fusing and
cleaning
• Inkjet
– Ink cartridge, print head, roller, feeder, duplexing assembly, carriage and belt
– Calibration
• Thermal
– Feed assembly, heating element
– Special thermal paper
• Impact
– Print head, ribbon, tractor feed
– Impact paper
Inkjet printers
Explanation Inkjet printers, also known as ink dispersion printing technology, produce images by
forcing ink through tiny nozzles and onto the paper. Each nozzle is approximately 50 to
60 microns in diameter. The ink is forced through the nozzles through either of two
basic methods: thermal bubble or piezoelectric bubble. Exhibit 6-1 shows an inkjet
printer.
Piezoelectric technology
Piezoelectric technology creates a bubble with a piezo crystal behind each nozzle. An
electrical current sent to the crystal causes it to vibrate. When it vibrates inward, it
releases ink onto the paper; when it vibrates outward, it pulls ink from the cartridge.
Ink cartridges
Ink cartridges are the reservoirs that hold ink for inkjet printers. The number of
cartridges used varies, but most printers have a black cartridge plus a color cartridge
with compartments for yellow, cyan, and magenta. The entire color combination is often
referred to as CYMK (cyan, yellow, magenta, and black). Some printers have separately
replaceable cartridges for each of the colors. Some have more colors than these three
basic ones. Some inexpensive printers don’t have a separate black cartridge. Instead,
when black is required, they mix all three colors together to produce a dark color.
Exhibit 6-2 shows two inkjet cartridges: one black, and one containing cyan, yellow,
and magenta inks.
Print heads
The print head for an inkjet printer is usually part of the ink cartridge. Because this is the
printer part that wears out the soonest, having it replaced each time you replace the ink
means that you always have a good print head. It also makes the cartridges more
expensive. If the print head is part of the printer rather than the cartridge, the cartridges
are usually less expensive, but after a couple of years, you might notice that the print
quality has degraded. Exhibit 6-3 shows the print head on an inkjet cartridge.
The print head moves across the page on a small carriage pulled by a belt, printing
columns of pixels. To increase the resolution, a second pass is made across the page to
overwrite between the existing dots. On some printers, printing occurs on both passes
across the page—left to right and right to left. On others, it prints in only one direction,
and as the stepper motor advances the page, the print head moves back across the page
to begin printing the next line.
6–4 CompTIA A+ Certification, Exam 220-801
Print quality
Inkjet printers provide a major improvement over the quality offered by impact printers.
The ink dots can be grouped much closer together than the pins in the dot-matrix printer.
Originally, laser printer output was the standard that the print quality of inkjet printers
was measured against. This is still true for text output. Now, however, with advances in
inkjet technology, the print quality of graphics and photos is compared to the standard
provided by traditional, analog, chemically produced darkroom photographs.
In addition to printer resolution, your choice of paper affects the quality of the output.
Regular copier paper doesn’t produce as clear an image as specially coated inkjet paper
does. The ink bleeds out on regular paper, creating fuzzy edges to characters and
images. Coated inkjet paper has a waxy layer that the ink sits on, thus preventing bleed-
out of the ink. You will probably find that the bleeding issue is more important for
photographs than for text documents.
Attempting to print on a shiny surface, such as a transparency, can also prove difficult if
the wrong type of transparency plastic is used. The ink might not dry properly and could
smudge on the kind of transparency plastic that’s used to write on with markers.
Transparency sheets with a special textured coating allow the ink to adhere and dry
properly.
The ink in most inkjet cartridges is water-soluble. This can be a problem if your
printouts get wet. Being caught in the rain with a poster containing images printed from
an inkjet printer can result in the ink running down the page. You can purchase
waterproof inks for some inkjet printers.
Calibration
Sometimes you might have to clean the print nozzles and calibrate the printer.
Calibrating the printer involves printing a test page and making adjustments to the
printer based on what you see printed on the page. Often you notice one color isn’t quite
printing as it should, and you can adjust the printer settings to ensure it prints properly.
You can do this by following the manufacturer’s instructions, which typically have you
use the printer’s control panel or a software utility. Then print a test page to verify that
the adjustments have cleared up the problem.
Dithering
Shades of each of the basic colors are often produced through dithering, which is also
known as halftones. By varying the pattern of dots, as well as the density of the dots,
you can make a color appear to be more saturated or darker. Newspapers use this
method to print photos.
Printers 6–5
Paper path
Some inkjet printers have a paper tray behind the printer and pull the paper through the
printer on a straight-through path using feeder rollers. This setup leads to fewer paper
jams and is good for heavy paper stock. Exhibit 6-4 shows a straight-through paper path
in an inkjet printer.
Other printers store the paper in a tray below and to the front of the printer and pull the
paper up through rollers and under the print head. Printers using this technology pull the
paper up through an S-curve or a U-curve. Exhibit 6-5 shows a curved paper path in an
inkjet printer.
Some printers provide duplexing capabilities, meaning they can print on both sides.
Others require a special assembly that you attach to the printer that moves the paper
through the paper path a second time to print on the reverse side of the page.
Laser printers
Explanation Laser printers provide the standard level of quality by which other printers are
measured. They can produce high-quality printouts in a high-volume printing
environment. Many laser printers are black-and-white output devices, but color laser
printers are more common than they were just a few years ago. Exhibit 6-7 shows a
laser printer.
Toner cartridge
A toner cartridge is shown in Exhibit 6-8. A toner cartridge contains:
• A hopper filled with toner. Toner is a fine powder composed of plastic, iron, and
carbon particles.
• An EP drum covered with a photosensitive coating that holds a static charge
until exposed to light.
• A blade for removing used toner from the drum.
• A corona charging assembly, which applies a static charge to the drum after an
image has been printed.
Output capacity varies from manufacturer to manufacturer. Check the specifications for
the printer you’re considering to determine the lifespan of a toner cartridge for that
printer.
Power supplies
A high-voltage power supply (HVPS) converts standard 120 volt AC current into high-
voltage electricity used by the electrophotographic process. A DC power supply (DCPS)
is used to power components, such as the laser and fuser, that don’t require high
voltages. The DC power supply provides +5V and -5V for the printer’s logic circuitry
and +24V for the paper transport motors.
Fusing assembly
The fusing assembly is composed of rollers and a heating lamp. It applies heat and
pressure to adhere the toner permanently to the page.
The following table describes the steps in the laser printing process shown in
Exhibit 6-9.
Stage Description
Cleaning and A rubber blade clears the excess toner from the drum. Another roller or
erasing corona wire removes the charges from the drum.
Charging or The primary charge roller (in newer laser printers) or primary corona wire (in
conditioning older laser printers) applies a negative charge of approximately -600 volts to
the EP drum.
Writing or The laser beam reduces the negative charge to about -100 volts on the EP
exposing drum in the areas that become the image to be printed.
Developing Areas of the drum that were written to by the laser attract toner.
Transferring A positive charge of about + 600 volts is applied to the paper by the transfer
charging roller or corona wire. The ink is transferred to the paper due to the
charge.
Fusing Pressure and heat set the toner to the paper. A 350°F fusing roller melts the
toner, and by squeezing the paper through a set of rollers, presses the toner
into the paper.
Note: Some sources place the cleaning and erasing stage at the beginning of the
process. Others place it at the end of the process. In either case, it prepares the drum for
receiving and printing the next image.
Impact printers
Impact printers strike the paper with an inked ribbon to produce images. Impact printers
include dot-matrix printers and daisy wheel printers.
Dot-matrix printers
Dot-matrix printers have been around for as long as personal computers have been
available. They are rather rare today, but they still have their place in some companies,
because multipart forms can be printed on them. These printers are noisy and slow
compared to other printer types. The noise comes from the impact nature of the print
method. Print quality on dot-matrix printers is comparable to that produced by a
typewriter. One of the main uses of typewriters was typing letters. Thus, the top print
quality of a dot-matrix printer is referred to as near letter quality (NLQ).
A dot-matrix printer uses a print head that usually contains 9 or 24 pins. The pins are
pushed forward in patterns to form letters, numbers, and other characters. The pins
strike an inked ribbon, and the ribbon strikes the paper.
Nine-pin printers produce low-quality images. Some printers print over the same area
after moving the paper slightly to overprint the first set of dots, thus improving the print
quality. Twenty-four-pin printers have smaller pins closer together, so they produce a
finer image than 9-pin printers do.
The paper is pulled through the printer by a tractor feed or friction. A tractor feed uses a
sprocket to mesh with holes in the side of continuous-form paper. The sprockets turn,
pulling the paper through the printer. Friction feed uses single sheets of paper. The
roller is held tight against the print head, and the paper moves through. Typewriters use
friction feed. Most printers have a lever for switching between tractor feed and friction
feed.
The continuous-form paper usually has perforations at 11-inch or 14-inch intervals so
the paper can be separated into standard-sized pages. The paper is also perforated along
the side, so that the area with the tractor holes can be removed after printing. When
you’re setting up the paper in the printer, align the top of the page with the print head so
that pages don’t print across the perforations.
Banners are often printed on dot-matrix printers using continuous-feed paper. Banners
can be printed on perforated paper, usually without worrying about whether the paper is
at the top of the first page. You might also print banners on paper that has no
perforations between sheets.
Multipart forms are the main use of dot-matrix printers now that other printer types have
become more affordable and easier to use. The forms can be preprinted or blank.
Preprinted forms require careful alignment so that the print falls inside the boxes or on
the lines of the forms.
Friction feed was primarily used for envelopes and single sheets of paper. Some dot-
matrix printers include a paper tray from which single sheets are fed, but more often,
you must insert the single sheet, set the lever for friction feed, and print each page, one
at a time.
Dot-matrix printers usually have either a serial or parallel interface connection. These
printers were the usual choice for users when personal computers were first introduced
(before interfaces such as USB, infrared, and IEEE 1394 were introduced). It’s also rare
to find a dot-matrix printer with a built-in network interface. Some printers have both
serial and parallel interfaces so that users can choose.
6–12 CompTIA A+ Certification, Exam 220-801
Dot-matrix printers don’t usually have a lot of optional features. However, some
printers have slots for adding font cards, memory, or additional paper feeders for easy
switching between single sheets and continuous-form paper.
Band printers
Band printers have the letters, numbers, and symbols repeated multiple times around on
a band. The band moves at a high speed and strikes the ribbon when struck by hammers.
There are hammers for each column of print on the page. Some band printers combine
dot-matrix pins with the hammers for each print column.
Thermal printers
Thermal printers produce output with heat. The image can be created through one of
two methods:
• Direct thermal printers use coated paper. A row of heating elements is used to
burn dots directly onto the paper. These are monochrome printers and require a
special paper that will accept the image from the heating elements. For example,
thermal paper was used and is still used in some fax machines.
• Thermal wax transfer printers use ink in a wax base. The ink is melted from the
transfer ribbon by a heating element in the print head. Separate cyan, yellow,
magenta, and black transfer ribbons are used to create the image. The cooled
wax becomes a permanent image on the paper. These printers don’t require
special paper.
The thermal print process is similar to the processes for inkjet and laser printers. Paper
is pulled into the printer through a feed assembly either in single sheets or from a roll of
paper. The paper is then exposed to one of the processes described above, and the image
is fused to the paper.
Other printers
Explanation Most corporate and home users use either an inkjet or laser printer. A few people still
use dot-matrix printers for special requirements or because they never upgraded as
newer technologies became available and at lower prices.
There are several other types of printers that you might encounter in your support
career. Most of these are too expensive for the casual user, but as prices continue to
drop on printer technologies, even these more expensive printer types might become
more commonplace.
Most of the printers mentioned in this topic are designed for high-quality production of
graphics. They produce a higher-resolution image even if the DPI statistics listed are as
the same as those of inkjet or laser printers. Printer resolution refers to addressable dots
per inch. Each of these dots can be composed of over 25 dots, thereby enabling a 300
DPI image to look the same as a 4800 dpi inkjet printout.
Solid-ink printers
Solid-ink printers use sticks of wax that are melted to create the ink for printing. There
are usually cyan, magenta, yellow, and black sticks. These are heated to a melting point.
After being combined to form the various colors in the image, the ink is then sprayed
onto the drum. The paper passes over the drum and under a roller, and the image is
transferred onto the paper.
Solid-ink printers are environmentally friendly, because they don’t produce ozone as
laser printers do, and the ink is nontoxic. The process doesn’t use excessive heat, as
laser printers do.
The output from solid-ink printers is very high quality. The ink sticks last for
approximately 3000 pages, compared to an average of 1500 pages for laser printers or
500 to 1000 pages for inkjet printers.
6–14 CompTIA A+ Certification, Exam 220-801
Plotters
Plotters are pen-based output devices that produce line images. (Printers produce raster
images.) Plotters are typically used for precise engineering documents from CAD
applications. A pen in the printer moves side to side on an X-axis as the paper moves up
and down on the Y-axis.
A multicolor plotter uses multiple pens to create an image. Usually, the plotter is a
carousel containing 4 to 12 pens, but in some plotters, you need to change the pen to
each color as you need it.
Plotters create lines with the pens. Other printers can create lines only by spacing the
dots very close together. Curved lines produced with a pen are smoother than those
produced with dots.
Most plotters are used to create engineering documents. Some other industrial uses have
replaced the pens with cutting devices. For example, in the garment industry, rather than
printing from the application, you cut fabric. The sign industry also uses plotters with
cutting devices to cut out signs; an application outputs the sign shape to the material to
be cut.
Printers 6–15
# Objective
Exhibit 6-12: Notification that Windows 7 can’t automatically install the appropriate
driver
Printers 6–17
Some printers come with a utility for monitoring the ink levels in the cartridges, so you
know when ink supplies are getting low and need to be replaced. Exhibit 6-13 shows
such a screen from such a utility. Notice that it includes information about the current
print job and about the ink levels in the printer.
Although you can purchase kits for refilling cartridges, using one usually voids the
printer warranty. If you do refill a cartridge, make sure that you get the ink that’s right
for your printer. Thermal inkjet printers need ink that can withstand high heat. Getting a
water-soluble ink for a solvent-based ink printer or vice versa can result in improper
application of the ink to the page and create a major mess. Because the print head is
contained in most print cartridges, a cartridge should be refilled only two or three times.
Printer interfaces
Today, most inkjet printers are connected locally by USB interfaces, while others support
wired or wireless Ethernet network connections, so that they can be connected directly to
your home or business network. Exhibit 6-14 shows the communications interfaces—an
older parallel port and a newer USB port—on an inkjet printer.
In Windows, be sure to configure the printer so it uses the right connection type:
• If it’s using parallel, be sure that you’ve specified the correct LPT port. The
default of LPT1 is usually fine.
• If it’s using serial, verify that you’ve specified the correct COM port. COM2 is
preferred for printers. COM1 is generally reserved for modems.
Exhibit 6-15 shows Device Manager information for a printer connected to a computer.
6–18 CompTIA A+ Certification, Exam 220-801
Interfaces
Laser printers are used in a wide variety of situations. These printers have the most
widely varied connection types of any printers. Most laser printers have two or more
connection interfaces. These could include:
• USB • IEEE 1394/FireWire
• Parallel • SCSI (older models)
• Serial • Wired or wireless Ethernet network connections
Examples of the communications interfaces on a laser printer are shown in Exhibit 6-16.
Some interfaces also include network connections, infrared ports, and wireless
connections.
• An RJ-45 network connection enables the printer to be connected directly to the
network. The printer hardware itself provides print server functionality and can
be managed using the printer’s onboard controls or through management
software or a browser-based utility.
• Infrared and other wireless technologies, such as Bluetooth and IEEE 801.11x,
enable users to send jobs to the printer without physically connecting the printer
and computer with a cable. Again, the printer acts as a print server and can be
managed locally or remotely.
6–20 CompTIA A+ Certification, Exam 220-801
3 Connect the interface cable to the The interface cable varies based on the printer’s
printer connection type. Most current printers are USB
printers, but some also have parallel or serial
ports, and some older printers have SCSI ports.
4 Plug the power cord into an If possible, this should be on a surge protector
electrical outlet strip.
5 Connect the interface cable to the The port varies based on the printer’s connection
computer type.
9 If your instructor has the printer You can have Windows search for a new driver
driver available, right-click the or you can manually select it from a location on
printer and choose Update your computer or the network.
Driver Software…
Close any notification page from To close the printer’s Properties dialog box.
the printer and click OK Observe that the test page prints successfully. If
it doesn’t, click Troubleshoot and follow the
steps to resolve the problem until you can
successfully print a test page. If necessary,
adjust the print-head alignment.
14 Open Notepad, enter some text, Notepad is on the Start, All Programs,
and print the page Accessories menu.
17 Right-click the printer and choose You use this wizard to upgrade the device
Update Driver Software… driver. You can have Windows search for a new
driver or you can manually select it from a
location on your computer or the network.
# Objective
Maintenance
Explanation Sometimes, simple maintenance is all that’s needed to keep a printer running smoothly.
Check the manufacturer’s documentation for each device you’re supporting. The
documentation lists any requirements for scheduled maintenance tasks, especially on
laser printers. Also check the device’s log and service history to see which maintenance
tasks or repairs other technicians have performed.
Common maintenance tools to have with you when performing routine maintenance
include:
• Cleaning solutions and sprays, including isopropyl alcohol and denatured
alcohol
• Cleaning equipment, including soft cloths, such as those shown in Exhibit 6-17,
and cotton swabs
• Lubricants
• Compressed air
• Toner vacuums and toner rags, or extension magnet brushes
• Screwdrivers (to open compartments)
Safety
When working with any type of printer, remember to take certain safety precautions.
These include following ESD safe practices, keeping dangling jewelry, neckties, and
long hair away from the printer, and handling components so as not to damage them.
Also, if you’re clearing a paper jam, be careful about not damaging the printer, the
cartridges, or yourself. And remember, the main rule for printer maintenance: Always
follow the manufacturer’s recommendations. When maintenance is complete, document
the steps you took in the device’s service log.
Consumables
You should always keep a sufficient supply of consumables—paper, ink cartridges, and
toner cartridges—on hand. If you must order these supplies from another person who’s
in charge of ordering supplies for the company, ensure that your requests are submitted
in a timely fashion and that you follow up on their status.
All consumables should be kept in their original packaging; in a cool, dry location, out
of direct sunlight, and in a room with low humidity. If paper is too moist because of
high humidity, the toner might not adhere properly. Conversely, dry paper can create
static electricity, which can cause the paper to stick together, resulting in paper jams.
Toner cartridges stored out of their packaging in a humid environment can result in
clumped toner.
Laser printers
Laser printers require more maintenance than inkjet printers, and the maintenance is
more involved. However, regular maintenance can prevent service calls for poor print
output and paper jams. Generally, there are two times when you should perform
preventive maintenance on laser printers:
• Scheduled maintenance — Clean, lubricate, and perform adjustments based on
the manufacturer’s recommended schedules.
• Unscheduled service calls — During service calls, check the counters, such as
the one shown in Exhibit 6-18. Check the manufacturer’s recommendations for
maintenance, and clean, lubricate, and adjust components, or replace
components as needed.
Depending on your company’s financial and service contracts with the manufacturer,
you might receive toner and maintenance kits automatically. Some large laser printers
can contact the manufacturer directly to report page counts, which can trigger the
automatic shipment of maintenance kits and replacement parts. Ask about this type of
arrangement before you order any supplies.
When replacing components, take some time to clean out any accumulated toner and
paper dust inside the printer. Doing so prevents the debris from hindering printer
operations, and it keeps a clean printing environment. Manufacturers’ maintenance kits
often include cleaning materials. When removing toner, don’t use a regular vacuum
cleaner or even an antistatic vacuum cleaner. Use only a special toner-certified vacuum,
which has a filter designed to catch superfine toner particles.
Be sure the printer is well ventilated and situated securely on a flat surface, and keep the
printer trays full. Use only recommended supplies. Remember to follow appropriate
safety precautions when working with the laser printer.
After you’ve completed maintenance, print a few test pages to verify functionality. You
don’t want to leave a printer inoperable after you’ve completed your service routine.
Safety issues
There are some environmental and safety issues you should be aware of with laser
printers. The toner can be toxic if inhaled at high levels. Spilled toner is very messy and
easily stains skin, clothing, and various plastic or other materials. You should use latex
or rubber gloves, and perhaps wear a mask over your mouth and nose, when working
with toner. Don’t use compressed air to clear out toner. Doing so can spread the
particles into the air and onto other surfaces. If you get toner on your hands or clothes,
use cold water and soap to remove it. Hot water can set the toner.
Printers contain high-voltage power supplies, so you need to take special care when
working around them. The fusing assembly also becomes very hot, so if you’re working
inside the printer, you need to let it cool down a bit, so that you don’t burn yourself.
Thermal printers
As with inkjet and laser printers, there are some basic steps to keeping a thermal printer
running smoothly.
• Clean the heating element. Make sure the printer is unplugged and the element is
cooled, and then use denatured alcohol and a lint-free cloth to remove any
debris.
• Remove any debris from inside the printer using compressed air or a lint-free
cloth. Be sure to clean the rollers to ensure proper paper feed during regular use.
• Replace paper as directed by the manufacturer’s documentation. Be sure the
paper is fed through the heating element. Test the feed to ensure that the paper
path is free of debris or obstructions.
6–28 CompTIA A+ Certification, Exam 220-801
Impact printers
As with the other printers covered in this unit, keeping an impact printer clean helps it
last a long time. Paper bits, dust, and other debris can easily get into a printer and cause
problems. You can spray compressed air into the printer to help remove such
contaminants. You can use mild household cleaners on the exterior case to keep it clean.
Be sure to replace the paper as necessary, feeding the paper into tractor-feed path and
ensuring that the paper is evenly aligned. Replace the ink ribbon when the printed
output begins to fade, and replace the print head as recommended by the manufacturer
to keep the printed images sharp and to ensure that the print is clear in multipart forms.
2 Follow the manufacturer’s (Check the counters.) This step can include
cleaning and maintenance removing accumulated toner and dust and
instructions cleaning internal components. This step might
also include replacing the ozone filter, which is
important to prevent damage to printer
components and to prevent the release of ozone
into the environment around the printer.
Review questions
1 What’s the print quality of dot-matrix printers compared to?
A Darkroom photographs C Thermal printer output
B Laser printer output D Typewriter output
2 How many pins does the print head of a dot matrix printer typically contain?
[Choose all that apply.]
A 6 D 24
B 9 E 36
C 18
3 A __________-wheel printer is an impact printer that could produce letters using
only the font that was on the wheel installed in the printer.
daisy
4 Which printing technology uses an electrical current sent to a crystal, which causes
it to vibrate and release ink onto the paper?
A Inkjet C Piezoelectric bubble
B Laser D Thermal bubble
5 True or false? The print head for inkjet printers is usually part of the ink cartridge.
True
6 What’s inkjet output quality compared to? [Choose all that apply.]
A Darkroom photographs C Thermal printer output
B Laser printer output D Typewriter output
6–30 CompTIA A+ Certification, Exam 220-801
7 What is the laser printing step in which "areas of the drum that were written to by
the laser attract toner”?
A Exposing C Developing
B Fusing D Transferring
8 Which laser printer component is made up of rollers and a heating lamp?
A Electronic control package C Transfer corona assembly
B Fusing assembly D Toner cartridge
9 Which laser printer component is used to focus the laser beam?
A Corona wire C Mirror
B HVPS D Lens
10 True or false? In order to install a printer, you need the manufacturer’s disc that
came with the printer.
False. Most printers connect via USB today, so when you connect the printer, Windows
automatically detects it and attempts to install the driver for you. However, your printer likely
comes with a CD-ROM containing drivers and additional software that enhance the print quality or
provide additional features.
11 In Windows 7, which utility do you use to install a printer?
Devices and Printers
12 How can you tell which printer is set as default on your computer?
It displays with a checkmark on its icon in Devices and Printers.
13 Which connections can you use to connect to a wired local printer?
USB, Parallel, and Serial.
14 What are the most important steps to keep an inkjet printer running smoothly?
Replace paper and ink cartridges.
15 What is typically the deciding factor in when to perform laser printer maintenance?
Page count
16 True or false? You can use most commercial vacuums to clean up toner in a laser
printer.
False
17 What are “consumables?”
Anything the printer consumes during regular usage, including paper, ink, and toner.
Printers 6–31