Module 4 Annotated Bibliographies

#1 Clark, J.M., & Paivio, A. (1991). Dual coding theory and education. Educational Psychology Review,
3, 149-210.

Clark focuses on Dual Coding Theory by stating that it describes psychological phenomena using the
verbal and nonverbal mental systems. The verbal system uses word representative codes to embody
concrete words. Nonverbal representations are referred to as arbitrary, nonlinguistic matters.
Constructs of the Dual Coding Theory include imagery, concreteness, verbal and nonverbal associative
networks. Imagery value and word concreteness play a key role in processing and understanding verbal
and nonverbal information. Studies have shown that including more descriptive words to describe
valuable information makes it more easily remembered.

Dual coding theory relies on the ability to make associations between verbal and nonverbal modes of
information. The theory predicates that the more associations that can be made between words or
events the more easily recalled they will be. Another aspect of association that was brought to light was
the meaning of the association. This part is based on prior knowledge and the meaning behind the
association.

Learning via Dual Coding Theory focuses on the aspects of elaboration and collaboration. Creating
images of information along with verbal input allows for elaboration, this allows learners to create
mental pictures to associate with the verbal input they are receiving making retrieval more efficient.
Research has shown that presentations that include concrete information and image-invoking language
is more beneficial and easier to recall than abstract concepts that are not image affecting.

#2 Driscoll, M. (2005). Psychology of Learning for Instruction (3rd ed.) (pp. 91-110). Boston, MA: Allyn
and Bacon.

Driscoll begins this discussion of long-term memory by presenting the two processing systems of
episodic and semantic memory. Episodic memory is used to remember specific events, whereas,
semantic memory is more important in education as it denotes all the information in memory that can
be recalled regardless of the learning conditions. To properly discuss semantic memory Driscoll
references several models that describe the representation and storage of information. These models
include Network Models, Feature Comparison Models, Propositional Models, Parallel Distributed
Processing Models, and Dual Code Models.

After discussing how information is represented and stored Driscoll discussed retrieval of learned
information by outlining the differences between recall and recognition. Otherwise referred to as “free
recall”, this is when a learner must retrieve memory stored information without cues or hints. This is
most frequently seen in open-ended questions. Recognition provides the learner with cues and hints
that can increase the efficiency of retrieved information.

Forgetting is another phenomenon taking place during the retrieval of information. The reasons
discussed for forgetting were labelled as failure to encode, failure to retrieve, and interference. Failure
to encode refers to information that was not truly learned in the first place, this refers to the use of poor
study skills and distractions during learning. Failure to retrieve references included issues in encoding
specificity and state-dependent learning. Encoding specificity uses cues to aid in proper encoding, if
enough cues are not used retrieval becomes less efficient. State-dependent learning states that as
information is learned it should be retrieved in the same state as it was learned; referring to emotional,
physical, and mental state. Lastly, interference is a phenomenon that takes place when other learned
information impedes the retrieval of the currently required information.

#3 Mayer, R.E., Sims, V.K. (1994). For whom is a picture worth a thousand words? Extensions of a
dual-coding theory of multimedia learning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 86, 389-401.

In this article Mayer describes Dual Coding Theory as a system of learning that incorporates processing
verbal and visual input for the incorporation of information. Dual Coding Theory, as discussed by Paivio
requires visual and verbal representational connections but Mayer proposed that a third connection is
required called referential connections. The focus for the Dual Coding Theory Extension is on problem-
solving transfer, requiring all three connections.

The theory was coupled with the contiguity effect, looking at how connections are formed based on
whether verbal and visual information is presented synchronously or asynchronously. Mayer
hypothesized that learners with more experience would have a low contiguity effect due to being able
to make references to information already stored in long-term memory.

The experiment described in this article tests the spatial ability of low experience students to determine
the contiguity effect present based on whether animation and verbal narration are presented at the
same time, verbal narration is presented before the animation, animation is presented before the verbal
narration, and no instruction. The results demonstrated that there was a high contiguity effect between
students that had high-spatial ability and presented with synchronous instruction as compared to
students with low-spatial ability.

#4 Paivio, A. (2006, September). Dual coding theory and education. In Draft chapter presented at the
conference on Pathways to Literacy Achievement for High Poverty Children at The University of
Michigan School of Education.

Paivio begins this article discussing the history of Dual Coding Theory as it pertains to the use of imagery
to aid in increasing the efficiency of knowledge processing. During the Renaissance there was a drastic
increase in mnemonics systems that allowed language to model how the world is constructed. The
pinnacle of imagery mnemonics was seen in the 16th century and led to the development of the Orbis
Sensualium Pictus, which was a picture textbook that correlated unknown word with pictures to aid in
learning languages.

Dual Coding Theory was described as a learning system that incorporates the verbal subsystem,
responsible for language, and the nonverbal subsystem, responsible for nonlinguistic objects and events.
The theory specifies that both subsystems are simultaneously used in the learning and recalling of
information such as language. This theory has led to hypotheses being formed that refer to an increased
effect on memory when both verbal and nonverbal subsystems are engaged.

Also discussed was the application of Dual Coding Theory to education in the fields of reading, writing,
remedial literacy, and mathematic skills. Each of these applications focus on the presentation of new
information to students that correlate concrete verbal information with nonverbal images in order to
promote an additive effect on recall and memory.
#5 Pylyshyn, Z.W. (2003). Return of the mental image: Are there really pictures in the brain? Trends in
Cognitive Science, 7, 113-118.

In this article Pylyshyn describes the revival of the older concept of mental imagery. The picture theory
of mental images defines the incorporation of mental images as a picture that defines locations and
values of configurations of points in space. The problem described with this theory was referred to as a
null hypothesis since the results of the theory are said to be tainted by inaccurate perceptions.

Neuroscience has fostered a possible explanation in favor of the picture theory through the following
findings: When visual patterns are shown a continuously deformed mapping of retinal activity occurs in
the visual cortex, and increased activity in retinotopically-organized areas of visual cortex during mental
mapping. The biggest issue discussed is since picture theory does not provide a format for the use and
storage of these pictures. Also described is the spatial aspect of mental pictures, how do the images
effective create space? Or is this done through scanning and analyzing the environment from which the
image is being produced?