Excavation and Foundations

2 FOUNDATIONS
FOUNDATIONS
Fundamentals of Building Construction, Materials & Methods, 6 th Edition

Copyright © 2013 J. Iano. All rights reserved.
2 FOUNDATIONS
Cultural references:
Foundation of society…
or
Foundation to build upon…
Lay the groundwork for…
Shifting sands…

2 FOUNDATIONS
What are the purposes of

foundations?
X-fer a building’s loads to the ground.

Foundation Requirements
Foundations
Must transmit building loads to the

rock or soil on which it rests

Foundations
Dead loads are permanent.

Live loads change over time.

2 FOUNDATIONS
Loads:
1.Dead Loads
2.Live Loads
3.Snow and/or Rain Loads
4.Wind Loads
5.Seismic Loads
6.Soil Loads
7.Structural System Loads
(think of a cathedral)

2 FOUNDATIONS
Different size or type of building’s

demand different foundations.
Why?

FOUNDATION REQUIREMENTS
• Must not fail, resulting in

building collapse
• Must not settle so much as
to damage structure or
impair function
• Must be economically and
technically feasible, and
without adverse affects on
surrounding structures
July 2004 SAI building collapse, Manila,
due to faulty foundation

Foundations
Must control settling

Uniform settlement: May disrupt
building services entrances or
site elements at the building/site
interface
Differential settlement: May
cause damage to finishes,
cladding, and other components
where building becomes
distorted.
2 FOUNDATIONS
EARTH
MATERIALS

Earth Materials
Classifying Earth Materials
• Particle size
• Moisture content
• Presence of organic content

EARTH MATERIALS
Classifying Earth Materials

• Rock:
continuous mass of solid mineral material
– Generally, the strongest, most stable of earth
materials
– Strength varies with mineral content and
physical structure
• Soil:
particulate
– Characteristics and suitability for foundation
support vary with particle size and shape,
mineral content, and sensitivity to moisture
content
Fundamentals of Building Construction, Materials & Methods, 6 Edition
th
EARTH MATERIALS
Soils Classified by Size
• Boulder: too big to lift with one hand

• Cobble: can be lifted in one hand
• Coarse-grained soils
– Gravel: individual particles can be lifted between thumb
and forefinger
– Sand: particles too small to be individually lifted
between fingers
• Fine-grained soils: individual particles are too
small to see with naked eye
– Silt: roughly spherical in shape
– Clay: very small, plate-shaped particles

EARTH MATERIALS
Unsuitable for Foundations
Organic Soils:
• Peat
• Topsoil
• Other soils with organic content
WHY?
Generally weak, unstable, and not suited for
supported building foundations
EARTH MATERIALS
Why do Soils Support Buildings?

• Strength of particle
• Friction between particles
(sheer strength)
What are the effects of water?

What are the effects of soil confinement?
(e.g. sand in a pile vs. sand in a box)
Soil stability is the ability of soils to

retain their load bearing
characteristics in varied conditions
Fundamentals of Building Construction, Materials & Methods, 6 Edition
th

Earth Materials
Unified Soil Classification System
Coarse-grained
sands and
gravels

Earth Materials
Unified Soil Classification System
Fine-grained
silts and clays
Organic soils

Earth Materials
Soil Properties
Coarse-Grained Soils
•Cohesionless, strength depends on
friction and interlocking of adjacent
particles or shear strength
•When unconfined, have little
strength

Earth Materials
Soil Properties
Coarse-Grained Soils
•Properties little affected by moisture
content
•Free-draining: Good for draining
water away from foundations and
substructures or from under slabs on
grade and pavements

Earth Materials
Soil Properties
Fine-Grained Soils
•Smaller particle size makes them
less free draining
•More sensitive to moisture:
Properties and strength vary with
moisture content

Earth Materials
Soil Properties
Clays
•Very small particles
•Electrostatic forces
cause particles to stick
together: cohesive

Earth Materials
Soil Properties
Clays
•Properties vary with moisture content and
mineral composition
•Some are highly expansive when wetted
•Some are virtually impervious to water
•Some clays are subject to consolidation, or
gradual compression over time

Earth Materials
Soil Properties
Liquefaction
•Some saturated sands and silts will
lose all strength and flow like a liquid
when subject to seismic forces

EARTH MATERIALS
Soil Particle Grading

• Well graded soil:
particles of many sizes
• Well sorted soil:
limited range of particle sizes; most void
space, most free draining

Earth Materials
Soils for Foundations
Strength: Generally, the larger the

particle size, the stronger the soil

Earth Materials
Moisture sensitivity: Coarse-grained

soils, less sensitive to moisture
content, are more stable.

Earth Materials
Imported soils: Brought from off site

•General purpose fill for raising grade: well-
graded, coarse grained soil
•Drainage fill around foundations or under
slabs: Well sorted gravel with good
drainage characteristics

Earth Materials
Exploration and Testing
Geotechnical
reports describe
soils and
properties,
derived from:
•Test pit samples
•Boring samples
•Laboratory testing

EARTH MATERIALS
Soils are not generally consistent across sites

or vertically.

2 FOUNDATIONS
EXCAVATION
Generally all buildings require
some excavation.
WHY?
Earthwork and Excavation
Excavation Support
Sloped or benched excavation is less

expensive than sheeted excavation,
but requires a site without nearby
property lines, adjacent structures, or
other limits on excavation.

EXCAVATION
Sheet Piling

Soldier Beams and Lagging

Soldier beams and shotcrete braced by

rakers, followed by waterproofing and cast
in place concrete foundation wall

Steel Sheet Piling

Soil mixing
Columns of soil
strengthened with
portland cement and
water are created prior
to excavation.

Soil mixed slope support, with soldier

beams, walers, and tie backs

Excavation Support
Tiebacks leave the

excavation
unencumbered.
Eventually, completed
building foundation
takes on role of
resisting soil pressures.

EXCAVATION
Slurry Walls

Dewatering
Simple:
pump
water from
pits
(sumps) in
the
excavation

Higher volumes of water: use well

points or barrier wall

Well points,
header pipe, and
dewatering pump

2 FOUNDATIONS
FOUNDATIONS

Foundations
Classifications
Shallow footings
occur close to the
bottom of the
substructure.
Deep footings
extend to deeper,
more competent
soil.

Foundations
Column
Footing

Foundations
Wall (Strip)
Footing

FOUNDATIONS
Eco Friendly
Foundation Walls

FOUNDATIONS
Eco Friendly
Foundation Walls
• Significantly reduces the
amount of concrete in a
foundation, while
maintaining strength.
• Concrete mix eliminates
need for separate damp-
proofing.
• Integrated insulation (R 5
 R 12.5) and
minimization of thermal
bridging.
• Fast installation
• Minimizes onsite soil
contamination
• Reduces jobsite waste,
http://www.superiorwalls.com/flash/interactive_center/interactivePresentation/index.php
eliminates
Copyright formwork.
© 2013 J. Iano. All rights reserved.
Foundations
Slab on grade
Crawlspace
Basement

FOUNDATIONS
Floating foundation
• Balances the weight

of soil removed
with the weight of
building to be
constructed
• The load on the
remaining soil is
little changed.

Foundations
Mat Foundation
Close to
bottom of
substructure
…but often
quite deep.
(Note tiebacks
and rakers.)

Foundations
Deep Foundations
Where the soils

directly below the
building
substructure are
weak or unstable,
deep foundations
transmit building
loads to deeper,
more competent,
soils.
Foundations
Piers (Caissons)
• Drilled into
earth
Right: Steel
reinforcing is
being lowered into
the drilled hole.
Next, concrete will
be poured.

Foundations
Piles
• Driven into
the earth
May be made of
steel, wood,
or precast
concrete
(pictured
here).

Foundations
Pile Cap
Share loads among

clustered piles
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of Building Construction,
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Foundations
Grade Beam
Spans between the pile

caps or piers, to provide
continuous support for
the wall above

Foundations
Reinforcing bars
project from the
tops of completed
drilled piers.
Gravel is being
deposited between
the piers, to form
a base for concrete
grade beams
which will span
between the piers.
Foundations
Minipiles (Pin Piles)
Pressed or
rammed into
place
Used here
for soil
stabilization.

Foundations
Helical Piles
(Screw Piles)
Augered into place

Foundations
Rammed
aggregate piers
•Ground
improvement
•Permits shallow
footings to be
used where
deeper types
would otherwise
be required.
Foundations
Underpinning
Building
super-
structure is
temporarily
supported on
cribbing while
new
foundations
are built.

2 FOUNDATIONS
WATERPROOFING
AND
DRAINAGE
WATERPROOFING AND DRAINAGE
Drainage
• Drainage mat and

free-draining backfill
material allow ground
water to flow away
from the substructure.
• The machine in the
foreground is used to
compact the fill
material as it is placed
in lifts roughly 6
inches deep at a time.

Drainage
• Perforated piping
conducts water away
from the substructure.
• Filter fabric “socks”
cover the piping to
prevent soil particles
from accumulating in
and eventually clogging
the pipes.
• The upturned elbow will
be connected to a
cleanout fitting at grade
that permits future
snaking of the piping to
remove blockages if
needed.

Waterproofing and Drainage
Dampproofing
Moisture-
resistant

Waterproofing
Prevents
passage of
water even
under
hydrostatic
pressure.

Waterproofing
• To control water
at the movement
joints of concrete
pours,
“waterstops” are
utilized.

Waterstop
Stops water
passage through
joints at separate
concrete pours.

Typical Section
• Drainage fill
• Drain mat
• Drain piping
• Waterproofing
membrane

2 FOUNDATIONS
OTHER
ENVIRONMENTAL
CONCERNS

FOUNDATIONS: OTHER ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS
Radon • Gravel: Use a 4-inch layer of clean,

coarse gravel below the foundation
Control/Prevention slab.
NOTE: Alternatives are exist such as
a perforated pipe or a collection mat.
• Plastic Sheeting or Vapor Retarder: on
top of the gravel to prevent the soil
gases from entering the house.
• A Vent Pipe: Run vertically from the
gravel layer through the house’s
conditioned space and roof to safely
vent radon and other soil gases
outside above the house.
• Sealing and Caulking: Seal all
openings, cracks, and crevices in the
concrete foundation floor and walls.
• Junction Box: Install an electrical
junction box in the attic for use with
a vent fan.
OTHER ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS
• By lining the entire perimeter of the

Shallow, Frost building with rigid insulation to a
depth below a very shallow footing
Protected Foundations (12” -18”) this technique allows the
heat of the building to keep soils
under it from freezing and heaving.

2 FOUNDATIONS
Controlling for Seismic Loads

In regions or areas of significant
seismic activity, we use base isolators
to absorb energy and control
movement of the building,
preventing damage.

2 FOUNDATIONS
Economic Design • Foundations extending

below the water table
Constraints
• Building close to an existing
structure
• Increasing loads beyond the

ability of a shallow
foundation to support them


Excavation and Foundations

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2 FOUNDATIONS

Fundamentals of Building Construction, Materials & Methods, 6 th Edition

Lay the groundwork for…

Fundamentals of Building Construction, Materials & Methods, 6 th Edition

What are the purposes of

Fundamentals of Building Construction, Materials & Methods, 6 th Edition

Must transmit building loads to the

Fundamentals of Building Construction, Materials & Methods, 6 th Edition

Dead loads are permanent.

Fundamentals of Building Construction, Materials & Methods, 6 th Edition

Fundamentals of Building Construction, Materials & Methods, 6 th Edition

Different size or type of building’s

Fundamentals of Building Construction, Materials & Methods, 6 th Edition

• Must not fail, resulting in

Fundamentals of Building Construction, Materials & Methods, 6 th Edition

Must control settling

Fundamentals of Building Construction, Materials & Methods, 6 th Edition

Classifying Earth Materials

Fundamentals of Building Construction, Materials & Methods, 6 th Edition

Classifying Earth Materials

Soils Classified by Size

• Boulder: too big to lift with one hand

Fundamentals of Building Construction, Materials & Methods, 6 th Edition

Unsuitable for Foundations

Why do Soils Support Buildings?

What are the effects of water?

Soil stability is the ability of soils to

Copyright © 2013 J. Iano. All rights reserved.

Unified Soil Classification System

Fundamentals of Building Construction, Materials & Methods, 6 th Edition

Unified Soil Classification System

Fundamentals of Building Construction, Materials & Methods, 6 th Edition

Fundamentals of Building Construction, Materials & Methods, 6 th Edition

Fundamentals of Building Construction, Materials & Methods, 6 th Edition

Fundamentals of Building Construction, Materials & Methods, 6 th Edition

Fundamentals of Building Construction, Materials & Methods, 6 th Edition

Fundamentals of Building Construction, Materials & Methods, 6 th Edition

Fundamentals of Building Construction, Materials & Methods, 6 th Edition

Soil Particle Grading

Fundamentals of Building Construction, Materials & Methods, 6 th Edition

Soils for Foundations

Strength: Generally, the larger the

Fundamentals of Building Construction, Materials & Methods, 6 th Edition

Soils for Foundations

Moisture sensitivity: Coarse-grained

Fundamentals of Building Construction, Materials & Methods, 6 th Edition

Soils for Foundations

Imported soils: Brought from off site

Fundamentals of Building Construction, Materials & Methods, 6 th Edition

Exploration and Testing

Fundamentals of Building Construction, Materials & Methods, 6 th Edition

Soils are not generally consistent across sites

Fundamentals of Building Construction, Materials & Methods, 6 th Edition

Sloped or benched excavation is less

Fundamentals of Building Construction, Materials & Methods, 6 th Edition

Fundamentals of Building Construction, Materials & Methods, 6 th Edition

Soldier Beams and Lagging

Fundamentals of Building Construction, Materials & Methods, 6 th Edition

Soldier beams and shotcrete braced by

Fundamentals of Building Construction, Materials & Methods, 6 th Edition

Steel Sheet Piling

Fundamentals of Building Construction, Materials & Methods, 6 th Edition

Fundamentals of Building Construction, Materials & Methods, 6 th Edition

Soil mixed slope support, with soldier