Prof. Dr.-Ing. Habil. Holm Altenbach, - Mechanics of Composite Structural Elements-Springer-Verlag Berli

H. Altenbach . J. Altenbach . W.
Kissing
Mechanics of Composite Structural Elements

Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg GmbH
H. Altenbach . 1. Altenbach . W. Kissing
Mechanics of Composite
Structural Elements
With 123 Figures and 23 Tables
, Springer
Prof. Dr.-Ing. habil. Holm Altenbach
Professur Technische Mechanik
Martin-Luther-Universität
Halle- Wittenberg
FB Ingenieurwissenschaften
06099 Halle (Saale), Germany
Prof. Dr.-Ing . habil. Dr. h.c. Johannes Altenbach

F örderstedter Str. 28
39112 Magdeburg, Germ any
Prof. Dr.-Ing. habil. Wolfgang Kissing

Professur Technische Mechanik/Festigkeitslehre
Hochschule Wismar
FB Maschinenbau/Verfahrens- und Umwelttechnik
Philipp-Müller-Straße
23966 Wismar, Germany
ISBN 978-3-642-07411-0 ISBN 978-3-662-08589-9 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-3-662-08589-9
DOI 10. 1007/978-3-662-08589-9
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Preface
Laminate and sandwich structures are typical lightweight elements with rapidly ex-
panding application in various industrial fields. In the past, these structures were
used primarily in aircraft and aerospace industries. Now, they have also found ap-
plication in civil and mechanical engineering, in the automotive industry, in ship-
building, the sport goods industries, etc. The advantages that these materials have
over traditional materials like metals and their alloys are the relatively high specific
strength properties (the ratio strength to density, etc). In addition, the laminate and
sandwich structures provide good vibration and noise protection, thermal insulation,
etc. There are also disadvantage s - for example, composite laminates are brittle, and
the joining of such element s is not as easy as with classical materials. The recycling
of these materials is also problematic, and a viable solution is yet to be developed .
Since the application of laminates and sandwiches has been used mostly in new
technologies , governmental and independent research organizations, as well as big
companies, have spent a lot of money for research . This includes the development
of new materials by material scientists , new design concepts by mechanical and
civil engineers as well as new testing procedures and standards . The growing de-
mands of the industry for specially educated research and practicing engineers and
material scientists have resulted in changes in curricula of the diploma and master
courses. More and more universities have included special courses on laminates and
sandwiches, and training programs have been arranged for postgraduate studies.
The concept of this textbook was born 10 years ago. At that time, the first edition
of "Einftihrung in die Mechanik der Laminat- und Sandwichtragwerke", prepared
by H. Altenbach, 1. Altenbach and R. Rikards, was written for German students
only. The purpose of that book consisted the following objectives :
• to provide a basic understanding of composite materials like laminates and sand-
wiches ,
• to perform and engineering analysis of structural element s like beams and plates
made from laminates and sandwiche s,
• to introduce the finite element method for the numerical treatment of composite
structures and
• to discuss the limitation s of analysis and modelling concepts .
These four items are also included in this textbook. It must be noted that between
1997 and 2000, there was a common education project sponsored by the European
Community (coordinator T. Sadowski) with the participation of colleagues from
VI Preface
U.K., Belgium, Poland and Germany. One of the main results was a new created
course on laminates and sandwiches , and finally an English textbook "Structural
Analysis of Laminate and Sandwich Beams and Plates" written by H. Altenbach, J.
Altenbach and W. Kissing.
The present textbook follows the main ideas of its previous versions, but has
been significantly expanded . It can be characterized by the following items:
• The textbook is written in the style of classical courses of strength of materials (or
mechanics of materials) and theory of beams, plates and shells. In this sense the
course (textbook) can be recommended for master students with bachelor degree
and diploma students which have finished the second year in the university. In
addition, postgraduates of various levels can find a simple introduction to the
analysis and modelling of laminate and sandwich structures.
• In contrast to the traditional courses referred to above, two extensions have been
included. Firstly, consideration is given to the linear elastic material behavior of
both isotropic and anisotropic structural elements . Secondly, the case of inhomo-
geneous material properties in the thickness direction was also included.
• Composite structures are mostly thin, in which case a dimension reduction of the
governing equations is allowed in many applications. Due to this fact, the one-
dimensional equations for beams and the two-dimensional equations for plates
and shells are introduced. The presented analytical solutions can be related to the
in-plane, out-of-plane and coupled behavior.
• Sandwiches are introduced as a special case of general laminates. This results in
significant simplifications because sandwiches with thin or thicker faces can be
modelled and analyzed in the frame of laminate theories of different order and so
a special sandwich theory is not necessary.
• All analysis concepts are introduced for the global structural behavior. Local ef-
fects and their analysis must be based on three-dimensional field equations which
can usually be solved with the help of numerical methods. It must be noted that
the thermomechanical properties of composites on polymer matrix at high tem-
peratures can be essentially different from those at normal temperatures . In engi-
neering applications generally three levels of temperature are considered
normal or room temperature (10°-30° C)
- elevated temperatures (30°-200° C)
- high temperatures (> 200° C)
High temperatures yield an irreversible variation of the mechanical properties,
and thus are not included in modelling and analysis . All thermal and moisture ef-
fects are considered in such a way that the mechanical properties can be assumed
unchanged.
• Finite element analysis is only briefly presented . A basic course in finite elements
is necessary for the understanding of this part of the book. It should be noted
that the finite element method is general accepted for the numerical analysis of
laminate and sandwich structures . This was the reason to include this item in the
contents of this book.
Preface VII
The textbook is divided into 11 chapters and several appendices summarizing the
material properties (for matrix and fiber constituents, etc) and some mathematical
formulas :
• In the first part (Chaps. 1-3) an introduction into laminates and sandwiches as
structural materials, the anisotropic elasticity, variational methods and the basic
micromechanical models are presented.
• The second part (Chaps. 4-6) can be related to the modelling from single laminae
to laminates including sandwiches, the improved theories and simplest failure
concepts.
• The third part (Chaps. 7-9) discusses structural elements (beams, plates and
shells) and their analysis if they are made from laminates and sandwiches . The
modelling of laminated and sandwich plates and shells is restricted to rectangular
plates and circular cylindrical shells. The individual fiber reinforced laminae of
laminated structured elements are considered to be homogeneous and orthotropic,
but the laminate is heterogeneous through the thickness and generally anisotropic.
An equivalent single layer theory using the classical lamination theory, and the
first order shear deformation theory are considered . Multilayered theories or lam-
inate theories of higher order are not discussed in detail.
• The fourth part (Chap. 10) includes the modelling and analysis of thin-walled
folded plate structures or generalized beams. This topic is not normally consid-
ered in standard textbooks on structural analysis of laminates and sandwiches, but
it was included here because it demonstrates the possible application of Vlasov's
theory of thin-walled beams and semi-membrane shells on laminated structural
elements .
• Finally, the fifth part (Chap. 11) presents a short introduction into the finite el-
ement procedures and developed finite classical and generalized beam elements
and finite plate clements in the frame of classical and first order shear deformation
theory. Selected examples demonstrate the possibilities of finite element analysis.
This textbook is written for use not only in engineering curricula of aerospace, civil
and mechanical engineering, but also in material science and applied mechanics. In
addition, the book may be useful for practicing engineers, lectors and researchers in
the mechanics of structures composed of composite materials.
The strongest feature of the book is its use as a textbook. No prior knowledge of
composite materials and structures is required for the understanding of its content.
It intends to give an in-depth view of the problems considered and therefore the
number of topics considered is limited. A large number of solved problems are
included to assess the knowledge of the presented topics. The list of references at
the end of the book focuses on three groups of suggested reading:
• Firstly, a selection of textbooks and monographs of composite materials and
structures are listed, which constitute the necessary items for further reading.
They are selected to reinforce the presented topics and to provide information
on topics not discussed. We hope that our colleagues agree that the number of
VIII Preface
recommended books for a textbook must be limited and we have given priority to
newer books available in university libraries.
• Some books on elasticity, continuum mechanics, plates and shells and FEM are
recommended for further reading, and a deeper understanding of the mathemati-
cal, mechanical and numerical topics.
• A list of review articles shall enable the reader to become informed about the
numerous books and proceedings in composite mechanics.
The technical realization of this textbook was possible only with the support of
various friends and colleagues. Firstly, we would like to express our special thanks
to K. Naumenko and O. Dyogtev for drawing most of the figures. Secondly, Mrs . B.
Renner and T. Kumar performed many corrections of the English text. At the same
time Mrs. Renner checked the problems and solutions. We received access to the
necessary literature by Mrs. N. Altenbach. Finally, the processing of the text was
done by Mrs . S. Runkel. We would also like to thank Springer Publishing for their
service.
Any comments or remarks are welcome and we kindly ask them to be sent to
holm.altenbach@iw.uni-halle.de.
June 2003
Halle Holm Altenbach
Magdeburg Johanne s Altenbach
Wismar Wolfgang Kissing
Contents
1. Classification of Composite Materials 1

1.1 Definition and Characteristics 2
1.2 Significance and Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3 Modelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . ..... . . . . . . . . 8
1.4 Material Characteristics of the Constituents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.5 Advantages and Limitations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 13
1.6 Problems.. . . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . ..... . . . . . ..... . . ... . . . . .. . . . . 14
2. Linear Anisotropic Materials 15

2.1 Generalized Hooke's Law . .. . .. .. .. .. . . ... . . . .. .. .. 16
2.1.1 Stresses, Strains, Stiffness, and Compliances . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.1.2 Transformation Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 23
2.1.3 Symmetry Relations of Stiffness and Compliance Matrices . 27
2.1.4 Two-dimensional Material Equations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.1.5 Curvilinear anisotropy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 45
2.1.6 Problems . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . ..... .. . .. .... . . . ... . . ... . 48
2.2 Fundamental Equations and Variational Solution Procedures 52
2.2.1 Boundary and Initial-Boundary Value Equations . . . . . . . . .. 53
2.2.2 Principle of Virtual Work and Energy Formulations. . . . . . . . 57
2.2.3 Variational Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
2.2.4 Problems . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . ... .... . 68
3. Effective Material Moduli for Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 77

3.1 Elementary Mixture Rules for Fibre-Reinforced Laminae . . . . . . . .. 78
3.1.1 Effective Density 79
3.1.2 Effective Longitudinal Modulus of Elasticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
3.1.3 Effective Transverse Modulus of Elasticity. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 80
3.1.4 Effective Poisson's Ratio 81
3.1.5 Effective In-plane Shear Modulus 82
3.1.6 Discussion on the Elementary Mixture Rules . . . . . . . . . . . .. 83
3.2 Improved Formulas for Effective Moduli of Composites . . . . . . . . .. 84
3.3 Problems . . . .. .. . . . . . . . . . .... ... . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .... . . . 86
X Contents
4. Elastic Behavior of Laminate and Sandwich Composites 91

4.1 Elastic Behavior of Laminae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 91
4.1.1 On-axis Stiffness and Compliances of UD-Laminae 92
4.1.2 Off-axis Stiffness and Compliances of UD-Laminae . . . . . . . 97
4.1.3 Stress Resultants and Stress Analysis 106
4.1.4 Problems 113
4.2 Elastic Behavior of Laminates 119
4.2.1 General Laminates 120
4.2.2 Stress-Strain Relations and Stress Resultants 122
4.2.3 Laminates with Special Laminae Stacking Sequences 129
4.2.4 Stress Analysis 140
4.2.5 Thermal and Hygroscopic Effects 143
4.2.6 Problems 148
4.3 Elastic Behavior of Sandwiches 153
4.3.1 General Assumptions 154
4.3.2 Stress Resultants and Stress Analysis ISS
4.3.3 Sandwich Materials with Thick Cover Sheets 157
4.4 Problems 158
5. Classical and Improved Theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 161

5.1 General Remarks 161
5.2 Classical Lamin ate Theory 165
5.3 Shear Deformation Theory for Laminates and Sandwiches 171
5.4 Layerwise Theories 176
5.5 Problems 177
6. Failure Mechanisms and Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183

6.1 Fracture Modes of Laminae 184
6.2 Failure Criteria 188
6.3 Problems 200
7. Modelling and Analysis of Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 205

7.1 Introduction 205
7.2 Classical Beam Theory 207
7.3 Shear Deformation Theory 220
7.4 Sandwich Beams 226
7.4.1 Stresses and Strains for symmetrical cross-sections 227
7.4.2 Stresses and strains for non-symmetrical cross-sections 231
7.4.3 Governing Sandwich beam equations 232
7.5 Hygrothermo-Elastic Effects on Beams 236
7.6 Analytical Solutions 237
7.7 Problems 239
Contents XI
8. Modelling and Analysis of Plates 251

8.2 Classical Laminate Theory 252
8.4 Sandwich Plates 273
8.5 Hygrothermo-Elastic Effects on Plates 275
8.6. 1 Classical Laminate Theory 278
8.6.2 Shear Deformation Laminate Theory 291
8.7 Problems 298
9. Modelling and Analysis of Circular Cylindrical Shells 315

9.2 Classical Shell Theory 317
9.2.1 General Case 317
9.2.2 Specially Orthotropic Circular Cylindrical Shells Sub-
jected by Axial Symmetric Loads 320
9.2.3 Membrane and Semi-membrane theories 324
9.4 Sandwich Shells 333
9.5 Problems 334
10. Modelling and Analysis of Thin-walled Folded Structures 339

10.2 Generalized Beam Models 343
10.2.1 Basic Assumptions 344
10.2.2 Potential Energy of the Folded Structure 346
10.2.3 Reduction of the Two-dimensional Problem 347
10.2.4 Simplified Structural Models 352
10.2.5 An Efficient Structure Model for the Analysis of General
Prismatic beam Shaped Thin-walled Plate Structures 358
10.2.6 Free Eigen-vibration Analysis, Structure model A 359
10.3 Solution Procedures 361
10.3.1 Analytical Solutions 362
10.3.2 Transfer Matrix Method 363
10.4 Problems 369
11. Finite Element Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377

11.1.1 FEM Procedure 378
11.1.2 Problems 38 1
11.2 Finite Beam Elements 383
11.2.1 Laminate Truss Elements 383
11.2.2 Laminate Beam Elements 385
11.2.3 Problems 391
XII Contents
11.3 Finite Plate Elements 393

11.3.1 Classical Laminate Theory 397
11.3.2 Shear Deformation Theory 399
11.4 Generalized Finite Beam Elements 404
11.4.1 Foundations 405
11.4.2 Element Definitions 405
11.4.3 Element Equations 407
11.4.4 System Equations and Solution 411
11.4.5 Equations for the Free Vibration Analysis 412
1l .5 Numeric al Results 413
11.5.1 Laminate Shell Elements in the Program System COS-
MOSIM 413
11.5.2 Examples for the use of Laminated Shell Elements 417
11.5.3 Examples of the use of Generalized beam Elements 431
A. Matrix Operations 435

A.I Definitions 435
A.2 Special Matrices 436
A.3 Matrix Algebr a and Analysis 437
B. Stress and strain transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 441
C. Differential Operators for Rectangular Plates (Classical Plate Theory) 443
D. Differential Operators for Rectangular Plates (Shear Deformation

Theory) 445
E. Differential Operators for Circular Cylindrical shells (Classical Shell

Theory) 447
F. Differential Operators for Circular Cylindrical Shells (Shear Defor-

mation Theory) 449
G. Solution Forms of the Differential Equation Willi - kiw" + k~w = 0451
H. Material's properties 453
I. References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
I. I Selected Textbooks and Monographs on Composite Mechanics 459
1.2 Supplementary Literature for Further Reading 462
1.3 Selected Review Articles 463
Index 465
List of Figures
1.1 Examples of composite materials with different forms of constituents

and distributions of the reinforcements 4
1.2 Classification of composites . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3 Sandwich materials with solid and hollow cores. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.1 Extensional strain e and shear strain 'Y of a body with the length 10
and the cross -section area A o ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 17
2.2 Tensile bar with stiffness C, = EiA i arranged in parallel and in series . 18
2.3 Stress and strain components on the po sitive faces of an infinitesimal
cube in a set of axis el, ez. e3 20
2.4 Examples of distorsions and rigid body rotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.5 Rotation of a reference system with the basic vectors e, into a system
with the basic vectors e; ........................................ 24
2.6 Rotation about the e3-direction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 27
2.7 Symmetry plane (Xl - X2) of a monoclinic material. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.8 Orthotropic material behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.9 Plane stress state . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 40
2.10 Cylindrical orthotropic material symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 46
2.11 Infinitesimal cube with lengths dX I, dX2, dX3 : stress and volume
force components in xl -direction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
2.12 Strains of the infinitesimal cube shown for the (Xl - x2)-plane . . . . . . . 54
3.1 Experimental testing of the mechanical properties of an UD-layer . . . . . 78

3.2 Mechanical model to calculate the effective Young's modulus EL 79
3.3 Mechanical model to calculate the effective transverse modulus ET 81
3.4 Mechanical model to calculate the major Poisson's ration VLT . . . . . . . . 82
3.5 Mechanical model to calculate the effective in-plane shear modulus G LT 83
3.6 Fibre arrangements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 89
4.1 Unidirectional lamina with principal material axi s Land T (on-axis) .. 93

4 .2 On-axis stres s-strain equ ations for UD-lamina (qualitative) .. . . . . . . . . 94
4.3 UD-lamina with the local material principal axis (1,2) == (L, T) and
the global reference system (Xl , X2) 98
4.4 Off-axi s loaded UD-lamina with one stress component in each case . . 101
4.5 In-plane force resultants per unit length 106
XIV List of Figures
4.6 Resultant moment vector and transverse shear resultants 108

4.7 In-plane membrane stresses (TiM , bending stresses (TiB and total
stresses a, across h (qualitative) 111
4.8 Variation of E1 (8) / E; against the fibre orientation for two composites 116
4.9 Variation of G12 (8) / E; against the fibre orientation for two composites 116
4.10 Laminate made of n single layers, coordinate locations 121
4.11 Angle-ply laminates 121
4.12 Regular symmetric angle-ply laminate 122
4.13 Coupling of strain states 128
4.14 Symmetric laminate with identical layers k and k' opposite to the mid-
dle surface 130
4.15 Symmetric cross-ply laminate 132
4.16 Qualitatively variation of the in-plane membrane stresses (TiM, the
bending stresses (TiB and the total stress a, through the thickness of
the laminate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
4.17 Sandwich beam 159
5.1 Derivation of partial stiffness A(X3) and B(X3) for the shaded part of
the cross-section 167
5.2 Distribution of the shear stresses (TS(X3)/Q1 and (T4(X3)/Q2 across
the laminate thickness 181
6.1 Fracture modes of a single layer in the case of elementary load states . . 185
6.2 Basic strength parameters 186
6.3 In-plane shear 187
6.4 Failure envelope for UD-Iamina under biaxial normal loading (max.
stress criterion) 190
6.5 Off-axis unidirectional loading 190
6.6 Failure envelope for UD-Iamina under biaxial normal loading (max.
strain criterion) 192
7.1 Rod/column/beam 206

7.2 Stress resultants N, Q and M of the infinite beam element 209
7.3 Qualitative distribution of the stresses and strains through the beam
thickness h assuming Q(l) _ Q(6) > Q(3) _ Q(4) > Q(2) _ Q(S) 211
11- 11 11- 11 11- 11 ' "
7.4 Beam element with flexural normal stresses and the interlaminar stress 214
7.5 Laminate beam loaded in the plane of lamination 217
7.6 Laminated box-beam with identical top and bottom panels I and ver-
tical walls II 218
7.7 I-profile with uniform thickness t 219
7.8 Kinematics of a bent Timoshenko- and Bernoulli-beam 221
7.9 Symmetrical sandwich beam 227
7.10 Sandwich beam element 229
7.11 Definition of the neutral axis of an unsymmetrical sandwich 231
7.12 Symmetrical cantilever beam with thin faces 235
List of Figures XV
7.13 Reinforced concrete beam loaded by pure bending 240

7.14 Simply supported cross-ply laminated beam [0/90/0] 241
8.1 Rectangular plate 251

8.2 Stress resultants applied to a plate element 253
8.3 Positive definition of 1/Ji 268
8.4 Plate strip 279
8.5 Rectangular plate, all edges are simply supported, specially orthotropic 284
8.6 Rectangular specially orthotropic rectangular plate with two opposite
edges simply supported 288
8.7 Disc element (rdrdB)h 306
8.8 Plate element (rdrdB)h 308
8.9 Rectangular uniformly loaded plate, cross-ply symmetrically lami-
nated, clamped at the longitudinal edges X2 = ±b and arbitrary
boundary conditions at the edges Xl = ±a 311
9.1 Circular cylindrical shell 316

9.2 Positive directions for stress resultants 318
9.3 Long circular cylindrical shell: Bending boundary regions (A-B) and
(C-D) , membrane region (B-C) 323
9.4 Long fluid container, L > LB 336
9.5 Tension, bending and torsion of a cantilever circular cylindrical shell .. 337
10.1 Thin-walled prismatic folded plate structures with open or closed

cross-sections 343
10.2 Thin-walled folded structure geometry and co-ordinate systems 344
10.3 Loads and resultant forces and moments in the ith strip 346
10.4 Generalized coordinate functions of an one-cellular rectangular cross-
section 349
10.5 Overview to the derivation of usual simplified models for thin-walled
folded plate structures 353
10.6 Discretization of the one-dimensional structure 365
11.1 Laminate truss element 383

11.2 Shape functions of the two-node truss element 384
11.3 Two-node beam element 386
11.4 Three-node beam element 386
11.5 Shape functions of the three-node element 387
11.6 Four-node beam element 388
11.7 Shape functions of the four-node element 389
11.8 Natural triangle coordinates 394
11.9 Natural triangle coordinates of special points 395
11.10 Six-node plate element 398
11.11 Six-node finite plate element with nodal degrees of freedom 401
11.12 Three-node generalized beam element 405
XVI List of Figures
11.13 Description of a general cross-section 406

11.14 Main profile node degrees of freedom 407
11.15 Secondary profile node degrees of freedom 407
11.16 Generalized co-ordinate functions for axial parallel arranged strips 408
11.17 Supplements for slanting arranged strips 409
11.18 Laminate shell element SHELL3L in COSMOS/M 414
11.19 Real constants for laminate shell elements in COSMOS/M 416
11.20 Cantilever beam: cross-section and stacking structure 417
11.21 FE-model of cantilever beam in COSMOS/M 419
11.22 Cantilever beam deformed shape 419
11.23 Displacements of the comer point at the free edge 420
11.24 Maximal stresses at the bottom of layer No. I 420
11.25 Laminate pipe: cross-section and stacking sequence 421
11.26 FE-model of Laminate Pipe in COSMOS/M 422
11.27 Twisting angle of the free edge 423
11.28 Sandwich plate 423
11.29 FE-model of Sandwich Plate in COSMOS/M 425
11.30 Stresses in x-direction for the bottom of the lower cover sheet 426
11.31 Stresses in z-direction for the bottom of the lower cover sheet 426
11.32 Von Mises stress for the bottom of the lower cover sheet 427
11.33 Mode shapes for the lowest four eigenfrequencies 427
11.34 Rectangular laminate plate 428
11.35 FE-model of the laminate plate in COSMOS/M 429
11.36 Buckling modes for symmetric laminates 430
11.37 Results of the Buckling Analysis 430
11.38 Cantilever beams, geometry and loading 432
11.39 Stacking structure of the laminates 433
11.40 Cross-sections with main profile nodes and secondary profile nodes 433
11.41 Relative changes of the vertical deflections 434
11.42 Influence of the fibre angle on the first four eigen-frequencies of the
cantilever box-beam 434
B.l Rotation about the el-direction 442

List of Tables
2.1 Transformation of the tensor coordinates CTij and £ij to the vector co-
ordinates CTp and £ p • • . . . . • • . . • . • • . • . . • • • . • . • • • • . . • • . • . . . • • . • • • . 22
2.2 Transformation of the tensor coordinates C ijkl to the matrix coordi-
nates Cpq . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 22
2.3 Three-dimensional compliance matrices for different material sym-
metries 32
2.4 Three-dimensional stiffness matrices for different material symmetries 33
2.5 Relationships between Sij, C ij and the engineering constants for or-
thotropic, transversely-isotropic and isotropic material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.6 Compliance matrices for various material models, plane stress state . .. 42
2.7 Stiffness matrices for various material models, plane stress state . . . . .. 43
2.8 Stiffness and compliance parameters for stress and strain equations .. . 44
4.1 Transformation rules of the coordinates, displacements, strains and

stresses of a lamina , 99
4.2 Transformation of the reduced stiffness matrix Q:j and compliance
matrix S:j in the reference system (x~, x~) to the reduced stiffness
matrix Q ij and compliance matrix Sij in the (Xl, X2)-system 100
4.3 Stiffness matrices oflaminae 110
4.4 Stiffness matrices for symmetric and unsymmetric laminates 137
7.1 Differential relations for laminate beams based on the classical beam
theory 210
7.2 Stress formulas for symmetric laminated beams, classical theory 215
8.1 Plate equation, boundary conditions and stress resultants of symmet-

ric laminates 259
8.2 Plate stiffness for single layer 260
8.3 Plate stiffness for symmetric laminates 261
8.4 In-plane equations, boundary conditions and stress resultants for sym-
metric laminates 263
8.5 In-plane stiffnes s for symmetric laminates 264
XVIII List of Tables
B.l Material propertie s of conventional materials at room temperature

(bulk form) 454
B.2 Material properties of fibre materials 455
B.3 Material properties of matrix and core materials 456
B.4 Material properties of selected unidirectional composites 457
B.5 Typical properties of unidirectional composites as functions of the fi-
bre volume fraction 458
1. Classification of Composite Materials
Fibre reinforced polymer composite systems have become increasing important in

a variety of engineering fields. The rapid growth in the use of composite materials
in structures has required the development of structure mechanics for modelling
the mechanical behavior and the analysis of structural elements made of composite
material as laminate or sandwich beams, plates and shells. The main topics of this
textbook are
• a short introduction into the linear mechanics of deformable solids with an-
isotropic material behavior,
• the mechanical behavior of compos ite materials as unidirectional reinforced sin-
gle layers or laminated composite materials, the analysis of effective moduli ,
some basic mechanisms and criteria of failure,
• the modelling of the mechanical behavior of laminates and sandwiches , general
assumptions of various theories, classical laminate theory (CLT), effect of stack-
ing of the layers of laminates and the coupling of stretching, bending and twisting,
first order shear deformation theory (FOSDT), an overview on refined equivalent
single layer plate theories and on multilayered plate modelling,
• modelling and analysis of laminate and sandwich beams, plates and shells, prob-
lems of bending, vibration and buckling and
• modelling and analysis of fibre reinforced long thin-walled folded-plated struc-
tural elements.
The textbook concentrates on a simple unified approach to the basic behav ior of
composite materials and the structural analysis of beams, plates and circular cylin-
drical shells made of composite material being a laminate or a sandwich . The in-
troduction into the modelling and analysis of thin-walled folded structural elements
is limited to laminated elements and the CLT. The problems of manufacturing and
recycling of composites will be not discussed , but to use 'all benefits of the new
young material composite, an engineer has to be more than a material user as for
classical materials as steel or alloys. Structural engineering qualification must in-
clude knowledge of material design, manufacturing methods, quality control and
recycling.
In Chap. I some basic questions are discussed , e.g. what are composites and how
they can be classified, what are the main characteristics and significance, micro-
and macro-modelling, why composite s are used, what are the advantages and the
2 I. Classification of Composite Materials
limitations. The Appendix H contains some values of the material characteristics of

the constituents of composites.
1.1 Definition and Characteristics
Material science classifies structural materials into three categories

• metals,
• ceramics and
• polymers .
It is difficult to give an exact assessment of the advantages and disadvantages of
these three basic material classes, because each category covers whole groups of
materials within which the range of properties is often as broad as the differences
between the three material classes . But at the simplistic level some obvious charac-
teristic properties can be identified:
• Mostly metals are of medium to high density. They have good thermal stability
and can be made corrosion-resistant by alloying . Metals have useful mechanical
characteristics and it is moderately easy to shape and join. For this reason metals
became the preferred structural engineering material, they posed less problems to
the designer than either ceramic or polymer materials.
• Ceramic materials have great thermal stability and are resistant to corrosion, abra-
sion and other forms of attack. They are very rigid but mostly brittle and can only
be shaped with difficulty.
• Polymer materials (plastics) are of low density, have good chemical resistance
but lack thermal stability. They have poor mechanical properties, but are eas-
ily fabricated and joined. Their resistance to environmental degradation, e.g. the
photomechanical effects of sunlight, is moderate.
A material is called homogeneous if its properties are the same at every point and
therefore independent of the location. Homogeneity is associated with the scale of
modelling or the so-called characteristic volume and the definition describes the
average material behavior on a macroscopic level. On a microscopic level all ma-
terials are more or less homogeneous but depending on the scale, materials can be
described as homogeneous, quasi-homogeneous or inhomogeneous. A material is
inhomogeneous or heterogeneous if its properties depend on location . But in the av-
erage sense of these definitions a material can be regarded as homogeneous, quasi-
homogeneous or heterogeneous if the scale decreases .
A material is isotropic if its properties are independent of the orientation, they do
not vary with direction. Otherwise the material is anisotropic. A general anisotropic
material has no planes or axes of material symmetry, but in Sect. 2.1.3 some special
kinds of material symmetries like orthotropy, transverse isotropy, etc., are discussed
in detail.
1.1 Definition and Characteri stics 3
Furthermore, a material can depend on several constituents or phases, single

phase materials are called monolithic. The above three mentioned classes of conven-
tional materials are on the macroscopic level more or less monolithic, homogeneous
and isotropic.
The group of materials which can be defined as composite materials is extremely
large. Its boundaries depend on definition. In the most general definition we can con-
sider a composite as any material that is a combination of two or more materials,
commonly referred to as constituents, and have material properties derived from the
individual constituents . These properties may have the combined characteristics of
the constituents or they are substantially different. Sometimes the material prop-
erties of a composite material may exceed those of the constituents . This general
definition of composites includes natural materials like wood, traditional structural
materials like concrete, as well as modem synthetic composites such as fibre or par-
ticle reinforced plastics which are now an important group of engineering materials
where low weight in combination with high strength and stiffness are required in
structural design.
In the more restrictive sense of this textbook a structural composite consists of
an assembly of two materials of different nature. In general, one material is dis-
continuous and is called the reinforcement, the other material is mostly less stiff
and weaker. It is continuous and is called the matrix. The properties of a composite
material depends on
• The properties of the constituents,
• The geometry of the reinforcements, their distribution, orientation and concentra-
tion usually measured by the volume fraction or fiber volume ratio,
• The nature and quality of the matrix-reinforcement interface.
In a less restricted sense, a structural composite can consist of two or more
phases on the macroscopic level. The mechanical performance and properties of
composite materials are superior to those of their components or constituent materi-
als taken separately. The concentration of the reinforcement phase is a determining
parameter of the properties of the new material, their distribution determines the
homogeneit y or the heterogeneity on the macroscopic scale. The most important as-
pect of composite materials in which the reinforcement are fibers is the anisotropy
caused by the fiber orientation . It is necessary to give special attention to this funda-
mental characteristic of fibre reinforced composites and the possibility to influence
the anisotropy by material design for a desired quality.
Summarizing the aspects defining a composite as a mixture of two or more dis-
tinct constituents or phases it must be considered that all constituents have to be
present in reasonable proportions that the constituent phases have quite different
properties from the properties of the composite material and that man-made com-
posites are produced by combining the constituents by various means. Figure 1.1
demonstrates typical examples of composite materials. Composites can be classi-
fied by their form and the distribution of their constituents (Fig. 1.2). The reinforce-
ment constituent can be described as fibrous or particulate. The fibres are continuous
(long fibres) or discontinuous (short fibres). Long fibres are arranged usually in uni-
4 1. Classification of Composite Materials
h
~~&
~
::;;;;;;;;;;;;;;:::~::;
.:::::::::::::::: . .. .: .:
. . . ::
::: . . .: ::::
. . . . ..,' ...:"
.. .. .... ...
. .. ..
.....
..... .... ..
.....
:: :::: :: ::'
Fig. 1.1. Examples of composite materials with different forms of constituents and distribu-
tions of the reinforcements. a Laminate with uni- or bidirectional layers, b irregular reinforce-
ment with long fibres, c reinforcement with particles, d reinforcement with plate strapped
particles, e random arrangement of continuous fibres, f irregular reinforcement with short
fibres, 9 spatial reinforcement, h reinforcement with surface tissues as mats, woven fabrics,
etc.
or bidirectional, but also irregular reinforcements by long fibres are possible. The
arrangement and the orientation of long or short fibres determines the mechani-
cal properties of composites and the behavior ranges between a general anisotropy
to a quasi-isotropy. Particulate reinforcements have different shapes. They may be
spherical, platelet or of any regular or irregular geometry . Their arrangement may be
random or regular with preferred orientations. In the majority of practical applica-
Composite
fibre reinforced particle reinforced
random preferred
orientation orientation
I I
contino us fibre reinforced discontinous fibre reinforced
(long fibres) (short fibres)
unidirectional bidirectional spatial random preferred

reinforced reinforced reinforced orientation orientation
Fig. 1.2. Classification of composites

1.1 Definition and Characteristics 5
tions particulate reinforced composites are considered to be randomly oriented and

the mechanical properties are homogeneous and isotropic. The preferred orientation
in the case of continuous fibre composites is unidirectional for each layer or lamina.
Fibre reinforced composites are very important and in consequence this textbook
will essentially deal with modelling and analysis of structural elements composed
of this type of composite material. However, the level of modelling and analysis
used in this textbook do not really differentiate between unidirectional continuous
fibres, oriented short-fibres or woven fibre composite layers, as long as material
characteristics that define the layer response are used. Composite materials can also
be classified by the nature of their constituents . According to the nature of the matrix
material we classify organic, mineral or metallic matrix composites .
• Organic matrix composites are polymer resins with fillers. The fibres can be min-
eral (glass, etc.), organic (Kevlar, etc.) or metallic (aluminium, etc.).
• Mineral matrix composites are ceramics with metallic fibres or with metallic or
mineral particles .
• Metallic matrix composites are metals with mineral or metallic fibres.
Structural composite elements such as fibre reinforced polymer resins are of par-
ticular interest in this textbook. They can be used only in a low temperature range
up to 200 0 to 300 0 C. The two basic classes of resins are thermosets and thermo-
plastics. Thermosetting resins are the most common type of matrix system for com-
posite materials. Typical thermoset matrices include Epoxy , Polyester , Polyamide
(Thermoplastics) and Vinyl Ester, among popular thermoplastics are Polyethylene,
Polystyren e and Polyether-ether-ketone (PEEK) material s. Ceramic based compos-
ites can also be used in a high temperature range up to 1000 0 C and metallic matrix
composites in a medium temperature range.
In the following a composite material is constituted by a matrix and a fibre re-
inforcement. The matrix is a polyester or epoxy resin with fillers. By the addition
of fillers, the characteristics of resins will be improved and the production costs
reduced. But from the mechanical modelling, a resin-filler system stays as a ho-
mogeneou s material and a composite material is a two phase system made up of a
matrix and a reinforcement.
The most advanced composites are polymer matrix composites. They are char-
acterized by relatively low costs, simple manufacturing and high strength . Their
main drawbacks are the low working temperature, high coefficients of thermal and
moisture expansion and, in certain directions, low elastic properties . Most widely
used manufacturing composites are thermosetting resins as unsaturated polyester
resins or epoxy resins. The polyester resins are used as they have low production
cost. The second place in composite production is held by epoxy resins. Although
epoxy is costlier than polyester, approximately five time higher in price, it is very
popular in various application fields. More than two thirds of polymer matrices used
in aerospace industries are epoxy based. Polymer matrix composites are usually re-
inforced by fibres to improve such mechanical characteristics as stiffness, strength,
etc. Fibres can be made of different materials (glass, carbon, ararnid, etc.) . Glass fi-
bres are widely used because their advantages include high strength, low costs, high
chemical resistance, etc., but their elastic modulus is very low and also their fatigue
strength. Graphite or carbon fibres have a high modulus and a high strength and
are very common in aircraft components. Aramid fibres are usually known by the
name of Kevlar, which is a trade name. Summarizing some functional requirements
of fibres and matrice s in a fibre reinforced polymer matrix composite
• fibres should have a high modulus of elasticity and a high ultimate strength,
• fibres should be stable and retain their strength during handling and fabrication,
• the variation of the mechanical characteristics of the individual fibres should be
low, their diameters uniform and their arrangem ent in the matrix regular,
• matrices have to bind together the fibres and protect their surfaces from damage ,
• matrices have to transfer stress to the fibres by adhesion and/or friction and
• matrices have to be chemically compatible with fibres over the whole working
period .
The fibre length, their orientation, their shape and their material are main factors
which contribute to the mechanical performance of a composite. Their volume frac-
tion usually lies between 0.3 and 0.7. Although matrices by themselves generall y
have low mechanical propertie s as compared to fibres, they influence many charac-
teristics of the compo site such as the transverse modulus and strength, shear modu-
lus and strength, thermal resistance and expan sion, etc.
An overview of the material characteristics is given in Sect. 104. One of the
most important factors which determin es the mechanical behavior of a composite
material is the proportion of the matrix and the fibres expressed by their volume or
their weight fraction . These fractions can be established for a two phase composite
in the following way. The volume V of the compo site is made from a matrix volume
V m and a fibre volume Vf (V = Vf + Vm). Then
Vf Vm
"t = \1' Vm = V ( 1.1.1)
with
Vf +V m = 1, Vm = I - vf
are the fibre and the matrix volume fractions . In a similar way the weight or mass
fractions of fibres and matrice s can be defined. The mass M of the composite is
made from M f and M m (M = M f + M m ) and
Mf Mm
mf = 10' mm = M (1.1.2)
with
mf + mm = 1, m m = 1 - mf
are the mass fractions of fibres and matrices. With the relation between volume,
mass and density p = M/ V , we can link the mass and the volume fractions
1.2 Significance and Objectives 7
M Mf+Mm pfVf+PmVm
P= V = V V (1.1.3)
= Pfvf + pmVm = Pfvf + pm(1- vf)
Starting from the total volume of the composite V = Vf + Vm we obtain
M M u;
- = -f + -
P Pf pm
and
1
P = mf mm (1.1.4)
-+-
Pf pm
with
pm
mm = -V m
P
The inverse relation determines
"t = ..f!..-mfl Vm = L mm (1.1.5)
Pf pm
The density P is determined by (1.1.3) or (1.1.4). The equations can be easily ex-
tended to multi-phase composites.
Mass fractions are easier to measure in material manufacturing, but volume frac-
tions appear in the theoretical equations for effective moduli (Sect. 3.1). Therefore,
it is helpful to have simple expressions for shifting from one fraction to the other.
The quality of a composite material decreases with an increase in porosity. The
volume of porosity should be less than 5 % for a medium quality and less than 1
% for a high quality composite . If the density is measured experimentally, pexp is
calculated with 0.1.4), Plkeo" the volume fraction of porosity is given by
Plk eor - pe xp
vpor = (1.1.6)
Plkeor
1.2 Significance and Objectives
Development and applications of composite materials and structural elements com-

posed of composite materials have been very rapid in the last decades . The mo-
tivations for this development are the significant progress in material science and
technology of the composite constituents, the requirements for high performance
materials is not only in aircraft and aerospace structures, but also in the develop-
ment of very powerful experimental equipments and numerical methods and the
availability of efficient computers. With the development of composite materials
a new material design is possible that allows an optimal material composition in
connection with the structural design. A useful and correct application of compos-
ite materials requires a close interaction of different engineering disciplines such
as structural design and analysis, material science, mechanics of materials, process

engineering, etc. Summarizing the main topics of composite material research and
technology are
• investigation of all characteristics of the constituent and the composite materials,
• material design and optimization for the given working conditions,
• development of analytical modelling and solution methods for determining mate-
rial and structural behavior,
• development of experimental methods for material characteristics, stress and de-
formation states, failure,
• modelling and analysis of creep, damage and life prediction,
• development of new and efficient fabrication and recycling procedures among
others .
The most significant driving force in the composite research and application was
weight saving in comparison to structures of conventional materials such as steel,
alloys, etc. However, to have only material density, stiffness and strength in mind
when thinking of composites is a very narrow view of the possibilities of such ma-
terials as fibre-reinforced plastics because they often may score over conventional
materials as metals not only owing to their mechanical properties . Fibre reinforced
plastics are extremely corrosion-resistant and have interesting electromagnetic prop-
erties. In consequence they are used for chemical plants and for structures which
require non-magnetic materials. Further carbon fibre reinforced epoxy is used in
medical applications because it is transparent to X-rays .
With applications out of aerospace or aircraft, cost competitiveness with con-
ventional materials became important. More recently requirements such as quality
assurance, reproducibility, predictability of the structure behavior over its life time,
recycling, etc. became significant.
Applications of polymer matrix composites range from the aerospace industry to
the industry of sports goods . The military aircraft industry has mainly led the field
in the use of polymer composites when compared to commercial airlines which
has used composites, because of safety concerns more restrictively and frequently
limited to secondary structural elements . Automotive applications, sporting goods,
medical devices and many other commercial applications are examples for the appli-
cation of polymer matrix composites. Also applications in civil engineering are now
on the way but it will take some time to achieve wide application of composites in
civil engineering as there are a lot of prescribed conditions to guarantee the reliabil-
ity of structures . But it is clear that over the last decades considerable advances have
been made in the use of composite materials in construction and building industries
and this trend will continue .
1.3 Modelling
Composite materials consist of two or more constituents and the modelling, analy-
sis and design of structures composed of composites are different from conventional
1.3 Modelling 9
materials such as steel. There are three levels of modelling. At the micro-mechanical
level the average properties of a single reinforced layer (a lamina or a ply) have to
be determined from the individual properties of the constituents, the fibres and ma-
trix. The average characteristics include the elastic moduli, the thermal and mois-
ture expansion coefficients, etc. The micro-mechanics of a lamina does not consider
the internal structure of the constituent elements, but recognizes the heterogene-
ity of the ply. The micro-mechanics is based on some simplifying approximations.
These concern the fibre geometry and packing arrangement, so that the constituent
characteristics together with the volume fractions of the constituents yield the av-
erage characteristics of the lamina. Note that the average properties are derived by
considering the lamina to be homogeneous. In the frame of this textbook only the
micro-mechanics of unidirectional reinforced laminates are considered (Sect. 3).
The calculated values of the average properties of a lamina provide the basis
to predict the macrostructural properties. At the macro-mechanical level, only the
averaged properties of a lamina are considered and the microstructure of the lamina
is ignored. The properties along and perpendicular to the fibre direction, these are
the principal directions of a lamina, are recognized and the so-called on-axis stress-
strain relations for a unidirectional lamina can be developed. Loads may be applied
not only on-axis but also off-axis and the relationships for stiffness and flexibility,
for thermal and moisture expansion coefficients and the strength of an angle ply can
be determined. Failure theories of a lamina are based on strength properties. This
topic is called the macro-mechan ics of a single layer or a lamina (Sect. 4.1).
A laminate is a stack of laminae. Each layer of fibre reinforcement can have
various orientation and in principle each layer can be made of different materi-
als. Knowing the macro-mechanics of a lamina, one develops the macro-mechanics
of the laminate. Average stiffness, flexibility, strength, etc. can be determined for
the whole laminate (Sect. 4.2). The structure and orientation of the laminae in pre-
scribed sequences to a laminate lead to significant advantages of composite materi-
als when compared to a conventional monolithic material. In general, the mechani-
cal response of laminates is anisotropic .
One very important group of laminated composites are sandwich composites.
They consist of two thin faces (the skins or sheets) sandwiching a core (Fig. 1.3).
The faces are made of high strength materials having good properties under tension
such as metals or fibre reinforced laminate s while the core is made of lightweight
materials such as foam, resins with special fillers, called syntactic foam, having
good properties under compression. Sandwich composites combine lightnes s and
flexural stiffness. The macro-mechanics of sandwich composites is considered in
Sect. 4.3.
When the micro- and macro-mechanical analysis for laminae and laminates are
carried out, the global behavior of laminated composite materials is known . The last
step is the modelling on the structure level and to analyze the global behavior of a
structure made of composite material. By adapting the classical tools of structural
analysis on anisotropic elastic structure elements the analysis of simple structures
as beams or plates may be achieved by analytical methods, but for more general
lO 1. Classification of Composite Material s
foam core balsa wood core
foam core with fillers balsa wood core with holes
folded plates core honeycomb core
Fig. 1.3. Sandwich materials with solid and hollow cores
boundary conditions and/or loading and for complex structures, numerical methods
are used.
The compo site structural elements in the restricted view of this textbook are
laminated or sandwich compo sites. The motivation for sandwich composites are
two-fold:
• If a beam is bent, the maximum stresses occur at the top and the bottom surface.
So it makes sense using high strength materials only for the sheets and using low
and lightweight materials in the middle.
• The resistance to bending of a rectangular cross-sectional beam is proportional to
the cube of the thickness. Increasing the thickness by adding a core in the middle
increa ses the resistance. The shear stresses have a maximum in the middle of a
1.4 Material Characteristics of the Constituent s 11
sandwich beam requiring the core to support the shear. This advantage of weight
and bending stiffness makes sandwich composites more attractive for some ap-
plications than other composite or conventional materials .
The most commonly used face materials are aluminium alloys or fibre reinforced
laminates and most commonly used core materials are balsa wood, foam and hon-
eycombs (Fig. 1.3). In order to guarantee the advantages of sandwich composites , it
is necessary to ensure that there is perfect bonding between the core and the sheets.
For laminated composites , assumpt ions are necessary to enable the mathemati-
cal modelling . These are an elastic behavior of fibres and matrices, a perfect bonding
between fibres and matrices, a regular fibre arrangement in regular or repeating ar-
rays, etc.
Summarizing the different size scales of mechanical modelling structure ele-
ments composed of fibre reinforced composites it must be noted that, independent
of the different possibilities to formulate beam , plate or shell theories (Chaps. 7-9),
three modelling levels must be considered :
• The microscopic level, where the average mechanical characteristics of a lamina
have to be estimated from the known characteristics of the fibres and the matrix
material taking into account the fibre volume fracture and the fibre packing ar-
rangement. The micro-mechanical modelling leads to a correlation between con-
stituent properties and average composite properties . In general, simple mixture
rules are used in engineering applicat ions (Chap. 3). If possible, the average ma-
terial characteristics of a lamina should be verified experimentally. On the micro-
mechanical level a lamina is considered as a quasi-homogeneous orthotropic ma-
terial.
• The macroscopic level, where the effective (average) material characteristics of a
laminate have to be estimated from the average characteristics of a set of laminae
taking into account their stacking sequence. The macro-mechanical modelling
leads to a correlation between the known average laminae properties and effec-
tive laminate propertie s. On the macro-mechanical level a laminate is consid-
ered generally as an equivalent single layer element with a quasi-homogeneous,
anisotropic material behavior (Chap. 4).
• The structural level, where the mechanical response of structural members like
beams, plates, shells etc. have to be analyzed taking into account possibilities to
formulate structural theories of different order (Chap. 5).
1.4 Material Characteristics of the Constituents
The optimal design and the analysis of structural elements requires a detailed knowl-
edge of the material properties. They depend on the nature of the constituent mate-
rials but also on manufacturing .
For conventional structure materials such as metals or concrete, is available
much research and construction experience over many decades, the codes for struc-
tures composed of conventional materials have been revised continuously and so
design engineers pay less attention to material problems because there is complete
documentation of the material characteristics .
It is quite an another situation for structures made of composites. The list of
composite materials is numerous but available standards and specifications are very
rare. The properties of each material used for both reinforcements and matrices of
composites are very much diversified. The experiences of nearly all design engineers
in civil or mechanical engineering with composite materials, are insufficient. So it
should be borne in mind that structural design based on composite materials requires
detailed knowledge about the material properties of the singular constituents of the
composite for optimization of the material in the frame of structural applications
and also detailed codes for modelling and analysis are necessary.
The following statements are concentrated on fibre reinforced composites with
polymer resins. Material tests of the constituents of composites are in many cases a
complicated task and so the material data in the literature are limited. In engineering
applications the average data for a lamina are often tested to avoid this problem and
in order to use correct material characteristics in structural analysis. But in the area
of material design and selection, it is also important to know the properties of all
constituents.
The main properties for the estimation of the material behavior are
• density p,
• Young's modulus E,
• ultimate strength (Tu and
• thermal expansion coefficient a.
The material can be made in bulk form or in the form of fibres. To estimate proper-
ties of a material in the form of fibres, the fibre diameter d can be important.
Table B.l gives the specific performances of selected material made in bulk
form. Traditional materials, such as steel, aluminium alloys, or glass have compa-
rable specific moduli E I p but in contrast the specific ultimate stress (Tu I P of glass
is significantly higher than that of steel and of aluminium alloys. Table B.2 presents
the mechanical characteristics of selected materials made in the form of fibres. It
should be borne in mind that the ultimate strength measured for materials made
in bulk form is remarkably smaller than the theoretical strengths. This is attributed
to defects or micro-crack s in the material. Making materials in the form of fibres
with a very small diameter of several microns decreases the number of defects and
the values of ultimate strength increases. Table B.3 gives material properties for
some selected matrix materials and core materials of sandwich composites. Table
B.4 demonstrates some properties of unidirectional fibre reinforced composite ma-
terials : E L is the longitudinal modulus in fibre direction, ET the transverse modulus,
GLT the in-plane shear modulus, V LT and VTL are the major and the minor Poisson's
ratio, (TLu, (TTu, (TLTu the ultimate stresses or strengths, «i. and aT the longitudinal
and the transverse thermal expansion coefficients.
Summarizing the reported mechanical properties, which are only a small se-
lection , a large variety of fibres and matrices are available to design a composite
material with high modulus and low density or other desired qualities. The impact
1.5 Advantages and Limitations 13
of the costs of the composite material can be low for applications in the aerospace
industry or high for applications such as in automotive industry. The intended per-
formance of a composite material and the cost factors play an important role and
structural design with composite materials has to be compared with the possibilities
of conventional materials.
1.5 Advantages and Limitations

The main advantage of polymer matrix composites in comparison with conventional
materials, such as metals, is their low density. Therefore two parameters are com-
monly used to demonstrate the mechanical advantages of composites:
1. The specific modulus E/ P is the Young's modulus per unit mass or the ratio
between Young's modulus and density.
2. The specific strength CTu/ p is the tensile strength per unit mass or the ratio
between strength and density
The benefit of the low density becomes apparent when the specific modulus and the
specific strength are considered . The two ratios are high and the higher the specific
parameters the more weight reduction of structural elements is possible in relation
to special loading conditions. Therefore, even if the stiffness and/or the strength
performance of a composite material is comparable to that of a conventional alloy,
the advantages of high specific stiffness and/or specific strength make composites
more attractive. Composite materials are also known to perform better under cyclic
loads than metallic materials because of their fatigue resistance .
The reduction of mass yields reduced space requirements and lower material
and energy costs. The mass reduction is especially important in moving structures.
Beware that in some textbooks the specific values are defined as E/pg and CTu/pg,
where g is the acceleration due to the gravity. Furthermore it should be noted that
a single performance indicator is insufficient for the material estimation and that
comparison of the specific modulus and the specific strength of unidirectional com-
posites to metals gives a false impression. Though the use of fibres leads to large
gains in the properties in fibre direction, the properties in the two perpendicular di-
rections are greatly reduced. Additionally, the strength and stiffness properties of
fibre-reinforced materials are poor in another important aspect. Their strength de-
pends critically upon the strength of the fibre, matrix interface and the strength of the
matrix material, if shear stresses are being applied. This leads to poor shear proper-
ties and this lack of good shear properties is as serious as the lack of good transverse
properties. For complex structure loadings, unidirectional composite structural ele-
ments are not acceptable and so-called angle-ply composite elements are necessary,
i.e. the structural components made of fibre-reinforced composites are usually lam-
inated by using a number of layers. This number of fibre-reinforced layers can vary
from just a few to several hundred. While generally the majority of the layers in the
laminate have their fibres in direction of the main loadings, the other layers have
their fibres oriented specifically to counter the poor transverse and shear properties.
Additional advantages in the material performances of composites are low ther-

mal expansion, high material damping, generally high corrosion resistance and elec-
trical insulation. Composite materials can be reinforced in any direction and the
structural elements can be optimized by material design or material tailoring .
There are also limitations and drawbacks in the use of composite materials :
1. The mechanical characterization of composite materials is much more complex
than that of monolithic conventional material such as metal. Usually composite
material response is anisotropic. Therefore, the material testing is more compli-
cated, cost and time consuming. The evaluation and testing of some composite
material properties, such as compression or shearing strengths, are still in dis-
CUSSIon.
2. The complexity of material and structural response makes structural modelling
and analysis experimentally and computationally more expensive and compli-
cated in comparison to metals or other conventional structural materials. There
is also limited experience in the design, calculating and joining composite struc-
tural elements.
Additional disadvantages are the high cost of fabrication, but improvements in pro-
duction technology will lower the cost more and more, further the complicated re-
pair technology of composite structures, a lot of recycling problems, etc.
Summarizing, it can be said that the application of composite materials in struc-
ture design beyond the military and commercial aircraft and aerospace industry and
some special fields of automotive, sporting goods and medical devices is still in the
early stages. But the advancing of technology and experience yields an increasing
use of composite structure elements in civil and mechanical engineering and pro-
vides the stimulus to include composite processing, modelling, design and analysis
in engineering education.
1.6 Problems
1. What is a composite and how are composites classified?

2. What are the constituents of composites?
3. What are the fibre and the matrix factors which contribute to the mechanical
performance of composites?
4. What are polymer matrix, metal matrix and ceramic matrix composites, what
are their main applications?
5. Define isotropic, anisotropic, homogeneous, nonhomogeneous.
6. Define lamina, laminate, sandwich . What is micro-mechanical and macro-
mechanical modelling and analysis?
7. Compare the specific modulus , specific strength and coefficient of thermal ex-
pansion of glasfibre, epoxy resin and steel.
2. Linear Anisotropic Materials
The classical theory of linear elastic deformable solids is based on the following
restrictions to simplify the modelling and analysis:
• The body is an ideal linear elastic body.
• All strains are small.
• The material behavior is homogeneous .
• The deformable solid is isotropic .
These assumptions of classical theory of elasticity guarantee a satisfying quality
of modelling and analysis of structure elements made of conventional monolithic
materials. Structural analysis of elements composed of composite materials is based
on the theory of anisotropic elasticity, the elastic properties of composite solids
depend on the direction and the deformable solid is anisotropic. In addition, now the
material is not homogeneous at all. It must be assumed that the material is piecewise
homogeneous or quasi-homogeneous.
The governing equations of elastic bodies are nearly the same for isotropic and
anisotropic material response . There are equilibrium equations , which describe the
static or dynamic equilibrium of forces acting on an elastic body. The kinematic
equations describe the strain-displacement relations and the compatibility equations
guarantee a unique solution to the equations relating strains and displacements. All
these equations are independent of the elastic properties of the material. Only the
material relations, also called constitutive equations, which describe the relations
between stresses and strains are very different for an isotropic and an anisotropic
body. This difference in formulating constitutive equations has a great influence
on the model equations in the frame of the isotropic and the anisotropic theory of
elasticity.
The governing equations, as defined above, including so-called initial-boundary
conditions for forces/stresses and/or displacements, yield the basic model equations
for linear elastic solids such as differential equations or variational and energy for-
mulations, respectively. All equations for structural elements which are given in this
textbook, are founded on these general equations for the theory of elasticity of linear
elastic anisotropic solids.
The objective of this chapter is to review the generalized Hooke 's law, the con-
stitutive equations for anisotropic elastic bodies, and to introduce general relations
for stiffness and strains including transformation rules and symmetry relations . The
constitution of a unidirectional composite material and simplified approaches for
16 2. LinearAnisotropic Materials
so-called effective moduli result in an engineering formulation of constitutive equa-

tions for fibre reinforced composites and will be considered in Chap. 3.
The theory of anisotropic elasticity presented in Sect. 2.1 begins with the most
general form of the linear constitutive equations, and passes from all specific cases
of elastic symmetries to the classical Hooke's law for an isotropic body. The only
assumptions are
• all elastic properties are the same in tension and compression,
• the stress tensor is symmetric,
• an elastic potential exists and is an invariant with respect to linear orthogonal
coordinate transformation.
In addition to the general three-dimensional stress-strain relationships, the plane
stress and plane strain cases are derived and considered for an anisotropic body and
for all the derived specific cases of elastic symmetries. The type of anisotropy con-
sidered in Sects . 2.1.1-2.1.4 can be called as rectilinear anisotropy, i.e. the homo-
geneous anisotropic body is characterized by the equivalence of parallel direction s
passing through different points of the body. Another kind of anisotropy, which can
be interesting to some applications, e.g. to modelling circular plates or cylindrical
tubes, is considered in a comprehensive formulation in Sect. 2.1.5. If one chooses
a system of curvilinear coordinates in such a manner that the coordinate directions
coincide with equivalent directions of the elastic properties at different points of the
body, the elastic behavior is called curvilinear.
The chapter ends with the derivation of the fundamental equations of anisotropic
elasticity and the formulation of variational solution methods . In Sect. 2.2 the dif-
ferential equations for boundary and initial boundary problems are considered. The
classical and generalized variational principles are formulated and approximate an-
alytical solution methods based on variational principles are discussed.
2.1 Generalized Hooke's Law
The level of engineering modelling neglects the real on the microscopic scale dis-
continuous structure of the material and considers on a macroscopic or phenomeno-
logical scale the material model s as continuou s and in general homogeneous func-
tions of a point. In the case of fibre reinforced composites, the heterogeneity of the
material is a consequence of the two constituents, the fibres and the matrix, but gen-
erally there exists a representative volume element of the material on a characteristic
scale at which the properties of the material can be averaged to a good approxima-
tion. The composite material can be considered as macroscopic homogeneous and
the problem of designing structural elements composed of composite materials can
be solved in an analogous manner as for conventional materials with the help of the
average material properties or the so-called effective moduli. Chapter 3 explains the
calculation of effective moduli in detail.
2.1 Generalized Hooke's Law 17
Ao
/ L' A
I• •
Lli
..... Llv
- /
/
T
L;~//
Ao
•
10 1 = 10 + Lli
10 ')'
...
"
/ / ,, , /
• I.
T
F
Fig. 2.1. Extensional strain f and shear strain')' of a body with the length 10 and the cross-
section area Ao
Unlike metals or polymeric materials without reinforcements or reinforced by

stochastically distributed and orientated particles or short fibres, the material behav-
ior of an off-axis forced unidirectional lamina is anisotropic . In comparison to con-
ventional isotropic materials, the experimental identification of the material param-
eters is much more complicated in the case of anisotropic materials. But anisotropic
material behavior also has the advantage of material tailoring to suit the main load-
ing cases.
2.1.1 Stresses, Strains, Stiffness, and Complia nces
In preparation for the formulation of the generalized Hooke's law, a one-dimen-

sional problem will be considered. The deformations of an elastic body can be char-
acterized by displacements or by strains:
• Dilatational or extensional strains e: The body changes only its volume but not its
shape.
• Shear strains ')': The body changes only its shape but not its volume .
Figure 2.1 demonstrates extensio nal and shear strains for a simple prismatic body
loaded by forces F and T, normal and tangential to the cross-section, respec tively.
Assuming a uniform distribution of the forces F and T on the cross-section, the
elementary one-dimensional definitions for stresses and strains are given by (2.1.1)
18 2. Linear Anisotropic Materials
Ii
C1 Ai --
t
- CII
r- ;c'
/
-
/
c,, ~
-
Fig. 2.2. Tensile bar with stiffness C, = EiAi arranged in parallel and in series
F
0' = - normal stress 0' ,
Ao
1-1 0 6. 1
£ = = extensional strain e,
10 10
(2.l.l)
T
T =- shear stress T,
Ao
6.v
l' ~ tan l' shear strain l'
10
The material or consti tutive equations couple stresses and strains. In linear elasticity
the one-to-one transformation of stresses and strains yield Hooke 's law (2.1.2)
0' = E£, E = ~, E is the elasticity or Young's modulus,

£
(2.1.2)
T = G1', G - ::. , G is the shear modulus
l'
For a homogeneous material E and G are constants . For the extensiona lly strained
prismatic body (Fig. 2.1) the phenomenon of contraction in a direction normal to
the direction of the tensi le loading has to be considered. The ratio of the contraction
to the elongation in the loaded direction is called Poisson's ratio v (Eqs. 2.1.3)
£q
£q = -V£, V = -- (2.1.3)
£
For an isotropic bar with an extensional strain £ > 0 it follows that the contraction
£q < O. Hooke's law can be written in the inverse form
(2.1.4)
5 = E- 1 is the inverse modulus of elasticity or the flexibility/compliance modulus.
For homogeneous material,S is an elastic constant.
Consider a tensile loaded prismatic bar composed of different materials (Fig.
2.2). Since 0' = F/A and 0' = Ee then O'A = F = EAe and e = (EA)-lF . EA is
the tensile stiffness and (EA) -1 the tensile flexibility or compliance . The different
materials of the prismatic bar in Fig. 2.2 can be arranged in parallel or in series. In
the first case we have
n n
F=Lh A= LA i, E=Ei (2.1.5)
i=l i=l
Fi are the loading forces on Ai and the strains e, are equal for the total cross-section.
With
n n
LFi = F = LEiAiE (2.1.6)
i=l i=l
follow the coupling equations for the stiffness EiAi for a parallel arrangement
n
EA = LEiAi, (EA)-l = n 1 (2.1.7)
i=l
LEiA i
i=l
This equal strain treatment is often described as a Voigt model.
In the other case, we have £::,,1 = L:7=1 £::"I i and F = h the elongation £::,,1 of
the bar is obtained by addition of the 61i of the different parts of the bar with the
lengths Ii and the tensile force is equal for all cross-sectional areas . With
£::,,1 = IE = I(EA)-l F, £::"I i = liEi = li(EiAi)-l F
and
(2.1.8)
follow the coupling equations for the stiffness EiA i arranged in series
n
L li(E iA i)-l
EA = -:n::----- (EA) -1 = .:...-i=....::.l_--:--_ _ (2.1.9)
L li(EiAi)-l
i=l
This equal stress treatment is described generally as a Reuss model. The coupling
equations illustrate a first clear insight into a simple calculation of effective stiffness
and compliance parameters for two composite structures.
The three-dimensional state of stress or strain in a continuous solid is completely
determined by knowing the stress or strain tensor. It is usual to represent the tensor
components acting on the faces of an infinitesimal cube with sides parallel to the ref-
erence axes (Fig. 2.3). The sign convention is defined in Fig. 2.3. Positive stresses or
strains act on the positive faces of the cube in the positive direction of the axis of the
reference system and vice versa. Using the tensorial notation for the stress tensor (/ij
and the strain tensor Eij for the stresses and the strains we have normal stresses or
extensional strains respectively for i = j and shear stresses or shear strains for i t= j .
Eij with i t= j are the tensor shear coordinates and 2Eij = "fij' i t= j the engineering
shear strains. The first subscript of (/ij and Eij indicates the plane Xi = canst on
which the load is acting and the second subscript denotes the direction of the load -
ing. Care must be taken in distinguishing in literature the strain tensor Eit from the
Fig. 2.3. Stress and strain components on the positive faces of an infinitesimal cube in a set
of axis el, e2, e3
tensor eij which is the tensor of the relative displacements, eij = (Jui/"iJ Xj ' An appli-
cation of shear stresses (Jij and (Jj i produces in the ij-plane of the infinite simal cube
(Fig. 2.3) angular rotations of the i- and j-directions by eij and ej i ' These relative
displacements represent a combination of strain (distorsion) and rigid body rotation
with the limiting cases eij = ej i , i.e. no rotation, and eij = - ej i , i.e. no distorsion
(Fig. 2.4 ). ei j is positive when it involves rotat ing the positive j-direction towards the
positive i-direction and vice versa. Writing the tens or eij as the sum of symmetric
and antisymmetric tensors
eij = ( eij + ej d + ( eij - eji ) = fij + Wij . (2.1.10)
whe re f ij is the symmetric strain tensor and W ij is the anti symmetric rotation ten-
sor. For normal strains, i.e. i = j, there is eij = f ij, however for i :/= j we have
'Yij = 2 fij = eij + ej i with the engineering shear strain s 'Yij and the tensorial shear
strains f ij ' Careful note should be taken of the facto r of two related engineering and
a b c
j I
Eij = 1'ij = 0
Fig. 2.4. Examples of distorsions and rigid body rotation. a Pure shear, b pure rotation,
c simple shear
tensorial shear strains, /ij is often more convenient for practical use but tensor oper-
ations such as rotations of the axis, Sect. 2.1.2, must be carried out using the tensor
notation £ij'
The stress and the strain tensors are symmetric tensors of rank two. They can be
represented by the matrices
0"11 0"12 0"13 ] [£11 £12 £13]

(T = 0"12 O"n 0"23 I e = £12 £22 £23 (2.1.11)
[
0"13 0"23 0"33 £13 £23 £33
The symmetry of the tensors (2.1.11) reduces the number of unknown components
for defining these tensors to six components. For this reason, an engineering matrix
notation can be used by replacing the matrix table with nine values by a column
matrix or a vector with six components. The column matrices (stress and strain
vector) are written in Eqs. (2.1.12) in a transposed form
[0"11 0"22 0"33 0"23 :::::: T23 0"13:::::: T13 0"12:::::: T12f I
(2.1.12)
[£11 £22 £33 2£23 :::::: /23 2£13 :::::: /13 2£12 :::::: '12f
The stress and strain states are related by a material law which is deduced from
experimental observations . For a linear elastic anisotropic material, the generalized
Hooke's law relates the stress and the strain tensor
O"ij = CijkI£kI (2.1.13)
C ij kI are the material coefficients and define the fourth rank elasticity tensor which
in general case contains 81 coordinates . Due to the assumed symmetry of O"ij = O"ji
and £ij = £ji the symmetry relations follow the material tensor
Cun = Cjikil CijkI = Cijlk (2.1.14)
and reduce the number of coordinates to 36. Introducing a contracted single-
subscript notation for the stress and strain components and a double-subscript nota-
tion for the elastic constants, the generalized relation for stresses and strains can be
written in vector-matrix form
(2.1.15)
At this stage we have 36 independent material coefficients, but a further reduction
in the number of independent values is possible because we have assumed the exis-
tence of an elastic potential function.
The elastic strain energy is defined as the energy expended by the action of
external forces in deforming an elastic body: essentially all the work performed
during elastic deformations is stored as elastic energy. The strain energy per unit
volume, i.e. the strain energy density function, is defined as follows
1
W = '2.O"ij£ij (2.1 .16)
or in a contracted notation
22 2. Linear Anisotropic Material s
Table 2.1. Tran sformati on of the tensor coordinates O'ij and Cij to the vector coordinates O'p
and cp
O'ii
0'11 0'1 c11 cl
0'22 0'2 c22 c2
0'33 0'3 c33 c3
0'23 = T23 0'4 2c23 = ')'23 c4
0'3 1 = T3l 0'5 2c3l = ')'31 c5
0'12 = T12 0'6 2C1 2 = ')'12 c6
Table 2.2. Tran sformation of the tensor coordinates C ijk1 to the matrix coordinates C pq
Ciik1 Cpq
ij : II , 22, 33 p: I, 2, 3
23, 3 1, 12 4, 5, 6
kl : 11, 22 , 33 q: I, 2, 3
23, 31 , 12 4, 5, 6
1 1
W ( Ei) = '2(TiEi = '2CijEj Ei (2 .1.17)
With
dW
-=(Ti,
d Ei
and
d2W d2W
d EidEj d EjdEi
follow the symmetry relations

C ij = C ji ; i, j = 1,2, ... , 6 (2.1.18)
and the number of the independent material coefficients is reduced to 21. The gen-
eralized relations for stresses and strains of an anisotropic elastic body written again
in a contracted vector-matrix form have a symmetric matrix for Cij
(Tl C11 C 12 C 13 C1 4 C 15 C 16 El
(T2 C22 C 23 C 24 C 25 C 26 E2
(T3 C 3 3 C 34 C 35 C 36 E3
(T4 = C44 C45 C 46 E4
(2.1.19)
(T5 S Y M C 55 C 56 E5
(T6 C 66 E6
The tran sform ation rules for the contraction of the subscripts of (Tij , Eij and C ijk1 of
(2.1.13) are given in Tables 2.1 and 2.2.
The elasti city equation (2.1.19) can be written in the inverse form as follow s
£1 5 11 512 5 13 5 14 5 15 5 16
£2 522 5 23 5 24 525 5 26
£3 5 33 5 34 535 5 36
(2.1.20)
£4 5 44 5 45 546
£5 S Y M 5 55556
£6 566
with
I i= k
[Cij][5jk] = [Oik] = { 0 i f k i, j, k = I, . .. ,6
In a condensed symbolic or subscript form , Eqs. (2.1.19) and (2.1.20) are (summa-
tion on double subscripts)
a, = Cij£j, f.i = 5ijCTr i.] = 1'00 .,6
(2.1.21)
= Ce,
(J' e= 5(J'
C == [Cij] is the stiffness matrix and S == [5ij] the compliance or flexibility matrix .
Cij and 5 ij are only for homogeneous anisotropic materials constant material pa-
rameter s. Their values depend on the reference coordinate system. A change of the
reference system yields a change of the parameter values .
Summarizing the stiffness and the compliance relation s, it can be seen that for
a linear elastic anisotropic material 21 material parameters have to be measured
experimentally in the general case. But in nearly all engineering applications there
are material symmetries and the number of material parameters can be reduced.
Section 2.1.2 describe s some transformation rules for C and S following from the
change of the reference system and Sect. 2.1.3 symmetry relations of anisotropic
material s. Furthermore the way that the material parameters C ij and 5 ij are related
to the known engineerin g elastic constants Ei , Gij and Vij is considered.
2.1.2 Transformation Rules
If we have a reference system which is characterized by the basic unit vectors

el ,e2,e3 and another reference system with the basic vectors e~, e~, e~ and both
systems are linked by a rotation of the coordinate axis (Fig. 2.5) , the transformation
rules are
e; = Rijej, e, = Rjiej, . .
- (' ) R - ( ') I,] = 1,2,3 (2.1.22)
R ij = cos ei,ej , j i = cos ei,e j r
These relationships describe a general linear orthogonal coordinate transformation

and can be expres sed in vector-matrix form
e' = Re, e = R- 1e' = RTe' (2.1.23)
R is the transformation or rotation matrix. In the case of an ortho gonal set of axes
such as given in Fig. 2.5 the matrix R is symmetric and unitary. Thi s means the
determinant of this matrix is unity (Det R = IRijl = 1 and the inverse matrix R- 1
24 2. Linear Aniso tropic Materials
,
x3
! X2'
X
3.,I
~,
3
e
el ej
e2
- X2
Xl
" Xl '
Fi g. 2.5. Rotation of a reference system with the basic vectors e, into a system with the basic
vectors e;
is identical to the transposed matrix (R- 1 = R T ) . In the special case of a rotation

cp about the direction e3, the rotation matrix R and the inverse matrix R- 1 are
(2.1.24)
and the transformation rules are
[ :~] [ ~5a a~~] [:~] ,[:~] [ a~ 7~]

e3
=
1 a
[:~]
e3 e3
=
1 e3
with c = cos cp, 5 = sin cp. For rotations t/J or e about the directio ns e2 or el the
2 1
rotatio ns matrices [Rij] and [Rij] are
[lq [H~l [It [iX = [

ac O105]
-5 a c
[lq [~ ~s n, [IIit [IIir a1 0C

[ 05
a]
- 5
C
e e
with C = co s t/J or cos and 5 = sin t/J or sin for rotation s about e2 or el , respec-
tively.
The transformation rule (2.1 .22) can be interpreted as a rule for vectors or first-
rank tensors. The genera lization to second-rank tensors yields e.g. for the stress
tensor
(2.1.25)
For the following reflections the transformation rules for the contracted notation are
necessary. The nine tensor coordinates (Tij are shifted to six vector coordinates (Tp.
The transformations
~ = T;q(Tq, (Tp = (T;q)-l (T~, p,q = 1, .. . ,6 (2.1.26)
are not tensor transformation rules. The transformation matrices T pq and (T pq)- l
follow by comparison of Eqs. (2.1.25) and (2.1.26). In the same manner we can find
the transformation rules for the strains
f~ = T~qfq, fp = (T~q) -1 f~, p, q = 1, . .. ,6 (2.1.27)
The elements of the transformation matrices [Tpq]and [Tpq]are defined in Appendix

B. Summarizing, the transformation rules for stresses and strains in a condensed
vector-matrix notation as follows
(T' = TeT(T, e' = TEe, (T = (T eT)-l lT, e = (T E)-l e' (2.1.28)
The comparison of
(Tij = Rki RZjCTkZ I .
Wit
h (Tp = (T pqeT )-1 (Tq
I
and
fij = RkiRzjf.~z with e p = (T~q)-lf~
yields an important result on the linkage of inverse and transposed stress and strain
transformation matrices
(2.1.29)
The transformation relations for the stiffness and the compliance matrices C and
S can be obtained from the known rules for stresses and strains. With (T = Ce and
(T' = C'e', it follows that
(T eT)-l(T1 = (T = Ce = C(TE)-l e',
(T' = TeTC(T£)-le' = C'e',
(2.1.30)
TeT(T = (T' = C'e' = C'TEe,
(T = (TeT)-lC'TEe = Cs,
respectively.
Considering (2.1.29) the transformation relations for the stiffness matrix are
(2.1.31)
or in index notation
qj = TikTJ/C kZ, Cij = TikTJzCkZ (2.1.32)
The same procedure yields the relations for the compliance matrix. With
e = S(T, e' = S'lT (2.1.33)
it follows
(TE)-le l = e = Sa = S(TiT )-lUI,

el = TES(TiT)- lu l = SIUI ,
(2.1.34)
TEe = el = SIUI = SITiTu,
e = (T E)-lSITiTu = Sa,
i.e.
e' = TES(TiT)-lul, e = (T E)- lSITiTu (2.1.35)
The comp arison leads to the transformation equations for Sand SI
SI = TES(TiT)-l, S = (T E)- lSITiT (2.1.36)
or taking into account (2. 1.29)
SI = TES(TE)T, S = (T iT)TSITiT, (2.1.37)
respectively, in subscript notation
S;j = TikTj1Skl, Sij = TikTfzS~1 (2.1.38)
In the special case of a rotation ep about the e3-direction (Fig. 2.6) the coordinates
of the transformation matrices T iT and T Eare given by the (2.1.39) and (2.1.40)
e2 S2 2es
00 0
s2 e2 00 0 -2es
o 0 10 0 0 (2.1.39)
o 0 0 e -s 0
o OOse 0
-es es 0 0 0 e2 - s2
e2 s2 00 0 es
s2 e2 00 0 -es
[~q] 0
0
0
o
o
o
10 0
0e- s
0s e
0
0 [~r [~r (2.1.40)
0
- 2es 2es 0 a a e2 - s2
By all rules following from a rotation of the reference system the stresses, strains,
stiffness and compliance parameters in the rotated system are known. They are sum-
marized in symbolic notation (2.1.41)
a' = TiTa, e' = TEe,
a = (re) To' , e = (T iT) Tel,
(2.1.41)
C' = T iTC(TiT) T, SI = reS(re)T,
C = (re) Tere, S = (T iT) TSITiT
For special cases of a rotation about a direction e, the general transformation ma-
i i
trices T iT and TEare substituted by TiT or TE. The case of a rotation about the el-
direction yield s the coordinates of the transformation matrices T iT and TEwhich are
given in App. B.
Xl
2
---
/
/
/ Xl
, 1
XI ~
Fig. 2.6. Rotation about the e3-direction
2.1.3 Symmetry Relations of Stiffness and Compliance Matrices
In the most general case of the three-dimensi onal generalized Hooke's law the stiff-
ness and the compliance matrices have 36 non-zero material parameters Cij or Sij
but they are each determined by 21 independent constants . Such an anisotropic ma-
terial is called a triclinic material, it has no geometric symmetry properties. The
experimental tests to determine 21 independent material parameters would be diffi-
cult to realize in engineering applications . So it is very important that the majority
of anisotropic materials has a structure that exhibits one or more geometric sym-
metries and the number of independent material parameters needed to describe the
material behavior can be reduced.
In the general case of 21 independent parameters, there is a coupling of each
loading component with all strain states and the model equations for structure el-
ements would be very complicated. The reduction of the number of independent
material parameters results therefore in a simplifying of the modelling and analysis
of structure elements composed of composite materials and impact the engineering
applications . The most important material symmetries are:
• Monoclin ic or monotropi c material behavior
A monoclinic material has one symmetry plane (Fig. 2.7). It is assumed that the
symmetry plane is the (Xl - xz) plane . The structure of the stiffness or compli-
ance matrix must be in that way that a change of a reference system carried out
by a symmetry about this plane does not modify the matrices, i.e. that the ma-
terial properties are identical along any two rays symmetric with respect to the
(Xl - xz) plane. The exploitation of the transformation rules leads to a stiffness
matrix with the following structure in the case of monoclinic material behavior
X2
x1 ' - - -.......,.'--- - /1
xl
b)
Fig. 2.7. Symmetry plane (Xl - X2) of a monoclinic material. All points of a body which
are symmetric to this plane have identical values of C ij and Sij ' Mirror transformation
(Xl = X~ ,X2 = X~,X3 = - x~ )
C ll C 12 C 13 0 a C16
C 12 Cn C 23 a 0 C 26
[C ij]
MC
=
C13 C23 C 33 a o C 36
(2.1.42)
a a a C 44 C4S 0
0 0 a C 4S C SS a
C 16 C 26 C36 a 0 C66
The compliance matrix has the same structure. The number of non-zero elements
Ci j or Sij reduces to twenty, the number of independent elements to thirteen .
The loading-deformat ion coup lings are reduced. Consider for example the stress
com ponent (7"6 = =
Tl2 . There is a coupli ng with the extensional strains £1, £2 , £3
and the shear strain £6 /12 but the shear stress (7"4 or (7"5 prod uces only shear
strains.
If an aniso tropic material has the plane of elastic symmetry Xl - x3 then it can
be shown that
0 CIS a
C ll C l 2 C 13
C l2 Cn C 23 a
C2S a
C13 C23 C 33 0 C 3S a
(2.1.43)
a a a C44 0 C 46
CIS C2S C 3S a C ss a
o a 0 C 46 a C 66
and for the plane of elastic symmetry X2 - x 3

a b
X2
Fig. 2.8. Orthotropic material behavior. a Symmetry planes (X l - X2) and (X2 - X3) . b ad-
ditional symmetry plane (Xl - X3)
Cll C12 C13 C14 0 0

C12 Cn C 23 C24 0 0
MC C 13 C2 3 C 33 C 34 0 0
(2.1.44)
[C ij ] =
C14 C 24 C 34 C 44 0 0
0 0 0 0 CSS CS6
0 0 0 0 CS6 C 66
The monoclinic compliance matrices [Sij ]M C have for both cases the same struc-
ture as the stiffness matrices [Cij]MC.
• Orthotropic material behavior
An orthotropic material behavior is characterized by three symmetry planes that
are mutually orthogonal (Fig. 2.8). It should be noted that the existence of two or-
thogonal symmetry planes results in the existence of a third. The stiffness matrix
of an orthotropic material has the following structure
Cll C12 C 13 0 0 0
C12 C22 C 23 0 0 0
0 C13 C23 C 33 0 0 0
[C ij ] = (2.1.45)
0 0 0 C 44 0 0
0 0 0 o Css 0
0 0 0 0 0 C 66
The compliance matrix has the same structure. An orthotropic material has 12
non-zero and 9 independent material parameters. The stress -strain coupling is the
same as for isotropic material behavior. Normal stresses give rise to only exten-
sional strains and shear stresses only shear strains . Orthotropic material behavior
is typical for unidirectional laminae with on-axi s loading.
• Transversely isotropic material behavior

A material behavior is said to be transversely isotropic if it is invariant with
respect to an arbitrary rotation about a given axis. This material behavior is of
special importance in the modelling of fibre-reinforced composite materials with
coordinate axis in the fibre direction and an assumed isotropic behavior in cross-
sections orthogonal to the fibre direction. This type of material behavior lies be-
tween isotropic and orthotropic. If Xl is the fibre direction, x2 and x3 are both
rectangular to the fibre direction and assuming identical material properties in
these directions is understandable .
The structure of the stiffness matrix of a transversely isotropic material is given
in (2.1.46)
C11 C12 C12 0 0 0
C 12 C22 C23 0 0 0
C12 C23 C22 0 0 0
[CijJTI = (2.1.46)
0 0 0 !(C22 - C23) 0 0
0 0 0 0 C55 0
0 0 0 0 0 C55
The compliance matrix has the same structure
511 5 12 5 12 0 0 0
5 12 522 523 0 0 0
TI 512 5 23 522 0 0 0
[5 ijJ =
0 0 o 2(522 - 5 23) 0 0
(2.1.47)
0 0 0 0 5 55 0
0 0 0 0 0 5 55
Now the number of non-zero elements reduces again to twelve but the indepen-
dent parameters are only five. If e.g. not (X2 - X3) but (Xl - X2) is the assumed
plane of isotropy, the matrices Cij and 5 ij have the same structure, but we obtain
the relations
1
C11 = C22, C 13 = C23, C44 = C55 , C66 = 2(C 11 - C12),
(2.1.48)
5 11 = 5 22,512 = 5 23,544 = 555,566 = 2(5 11 - 512)
and also 5 independent material coefficients.
• Isotropic material behavior
A material behavior is said to be isotropic if its properties are independent of the
choice of the reference system . There exist no preferred directions, i.e. the mate-
rial has an infinite number of planes and axes of material symmetry. Most con-
ventional materials satisfy this behavior approximately on a macroscopic scale.
The number of independent elasticity constants is reduced to two and this leads
to the following stiffness matrix in the case of isotropic material behavior
Cu C12 C12 0 0 0
C12 Cu C12 0 0 0
C12 C12 Cu 0 0 0 (2.1.49)
o 0 0 C* 0 0
OOOOCO
o 0 0 0 0 C
with C = iCC11 - C12) ' The compliance matrix has the same structure but with
diagonal terms 2C5 11 - 512) instead of iCCu - CI 2 ) '
Tables 2.3 and 2.4 summarize the stiffness and compliance matrices for all material
models described above .
The coordinates Cij and 5 ij of the stiffness and compliance matrix are mathe-
matical symbols relating stresses and strains. For practising engineers, a clear un-
derstanding of each material parameter is necessary and requires a more mechanical
meaning by expressing the mathematical symbols in terms of engineering constants
such as moduli E i, Gij and Poisson's ratios Vij' The relationships between mathem at-
ical and engineering constants are obtained by basic mechanical tests and imaginary
mathematical experiments. The basic mechanical tests are the tension, compression
and torsion test to measure the elongation, the contraction and the torsion of a spec-
imen. In general, these tests are carried out by imposing a known stress and measur-
ing the strains or vice versa.
It follows that the compliance constants are directl y related to the engineering
constants, simpler than those of the stiffness constants. The engineering constants
are Young's moduli E 1, E 2, E3' the shear moduli G23, G13, G12 and Poisson's ratios
Vij , i, j = 1,2,3 (i i= j) . For orthotropic materials one can introduce the contracted
engineering notation
VI = E 1£1, V2 = E2£2, V3 = E 3 £3,
(2.1.50)
v4 = E 4£4, v5 = E 5£5, v6 = E6 £6
with G23 == E 4, G13 == E5, G12 == E 6·
The generalized Hooke's law in the form (2.1.19) and (2.1.20) leads, for exam-
ple, to the relations
£1 = 5u v l + 512 v2 + 513 v3, £4 = 5 44v4,
£2 = 5 12vl + 522 v2 + 523 v3, £5 = 5 55v5, (2.1.51)
£3 = 513 v l + 523 v2 + 533 v3, £6 = 5 66v6
For uniaxial tension in xi -direction, VI f=. 0, v i = 0, i = 2, .. . ,6. This reduces
(2.1.51) to
£1 = 511 v l , £2 = 5 12v l , £3 = 513 v l , £4 = £ 5 = £ 6 = 0, (2.1.52)
and the physical tensile tests provides the elastic constants E 1, V12, V13
VI 1
El = - = - , (2.1.53)
£1 5u
Table 2.3. Three-dimensional compli ance matrices for different material symmetries
Material model Compli ance matrix [5 ij]
5 11 5 12 5 13 5 14 5 15 5 16
522 5 23 524 5 25 526
Anisotropy:
533 5 34 5 35 5 36
21 independent
5 44 5 45 546
material parameter s y
S M 5 55 5 56
5 66
Symmet ry plane x3 = 0
Monoclinic: 5 14 = 5 15 = 5 24 = 525 = 5 34 = 5 35 = 5 46 = 5 56 = 0
Symmetry plane x 2 = 0
13 independent
5 14 = 5 16 = 524 = 526 = 5 34 = 5 36 = 5 45 = 5 56 = 0
material parameters
Symmetry plane xl = 0
5 15 = 51 6 = 525 = 526 = 5 35 = 5 36 = 5 46 = 5 45 = 0
Orthotropic: 3 planes of symmetry = 0, X2 = 0, X3 = 0

xl
9 independent 5 14 =
5 15 =
5 16 =
524 = = = 5 34
525 526
material parameters = 5 35 =
5 36 =
5 45 5 46= = =
5 56 0
Plane of isotropy x3 =0
5 11 = 522 ,523 = 5 13,544 = 5 55,566 = 2(511 - 512 )
Transversely isotropic: Plane of isotropy x 2 = 0
5 independent 5 11 = 5 33,512 = 523,5 44 = 5 66,5 55 = 2 ( 5 33 - 5 13 )
material parameters Plane of isotropy Xl = 0
522 = 5 33, 5 13 = 5 12, 5 55 = 5 66,5 44 = 2(5 22 - 5 23)
all other 5 ij like orthotropic
Isotropy: 5 11 = 522 = 5 33,5 12 = 5 13 = 5 23,

2 independent 5 44 = 5 55 = 5 66 = 2(5 11 - 5n)
material parameters all other 5 ij = 0
Analogous relation s resulting from uniaxial tension in X2- and x3-directions and all
5 ij are related to the nine measured engineering constants (3 Young's moduli and 6
Pois son's ratios) by uniaxial tension tests in three directions xl , x2 and x3.
From the symmetry of the compliance matrix one can conclude
V12 V2 1 V23 V32 V31 V13
- - -, - -, - -
E1 E2 E2 E3 E3 E1
or
Vij _ E,
i.] = 1,2,3 (i 1= j) (2.1.54)
Vji E,'
Table 2.4. Three-dimensional stiffness matrices for different material symmetries
Material model Elasticity matrix [Cij]
C ll C 12 C 13 C l4 C IS C l 6
Anisotropy: C 22 C 23 C 24 C 2S C26
2 1 independent C 33 C34 C3S C 36
material parameters C 44 C4S C 46
S Y M C SS C S6
C 66
Symmetry plane x 3 =0
Monoclinic : Cl4 = CIS = C24 = C2S = C34 = C 3S = C 46 = CS6 = 0
Symmetry plane X2 = 0
13 independent
material parameters Cl4 = C l 6 = C24 = C26 = C34 = C 36 = C 4S = C S6 = 0
Symmetry plane Xl = 0
C IS = C l 6 = C2S = C26 = C 3S = C 36 = C 4S = CS6 = 0
Orthotropic:
3 planes of symmetry x l = 0, x2 = 0, x 3 = 0
9 independent
material parameter s Cl4 =
CIS =
Cl6 =
C24 ·= C 2S C 26 = = C 34
= C 3S =
C 36 C 4s= C 46 = CS6 0 = =
Plane of isotropy x 3 =0
1
C ll = C22,C23 = C 13,C44 = CSS,C66 = Z (C ll - C1 2)
Transversely isotropic: Plane of isotropy x2 = 0

1
5 independent C ll = C33,Cl 2 = C 23 ,C44 = C66,CSS = Z (C 33 - C 13)
material parameters Plane of isotropy x l = 0
1
C 22 = C 33, C 12 = C 13 , Css = C66, C44 = Z (C 22 - C 23)
all other C ij like orthotropic
Isotropy: C ll = C22 = C 33, C12 = C 13 = C23,

1
2 independent C44 = CSS = C 66 = Z(Cll - C 12 )
material parameters all other Cij = 0
Remember that the first and the second subscript in Poisson's ratios denote stress
and strain directions, respectively. Equations (2.1.54) demonstrate that the nine en-
gineering constants are not independent parameters and that in addition to the three
tension tests, three independent shear tests are necessary to find the equations
£4 = S44 ~4, £5 = S55 ~5 , £6 = S66~6,
which yield the relations

1 1 1 1 1 1
5 44 = -C23 = -E , 5 55 = -C = -E , 5 66 = -C = - (2. 1.55)
4 13 5 12 E6
Now all 5 i j in (2.1.20) can be substituted by the engineering constants
1 V12
- - - -V13
- 0 0 a
E1 E1 E1
1 V23
£1 E2 E2
0 a a 0'1
£2 1 0'2
- 0 0 0
£3 E3 0'3
1 (2.1.56)
£4
E4
0 a 0'4
£5 0'5
£6
1 0'6
S Y M 0
Es
1
E6
As seen above, the relations between compliances 5 ij and engineering constants are
very simple. This, however, is not the case for the relations between the stiffness
and engineering constants. First we need to invert the compliance matrix S and
to express the stiffness C ij as a function of the comp liances as follows. The shear
relations are uncoupled , and we obtain
1 1 1
C 44 = - 5 = C 23 , C 55 = -5 = C 13, C 66 = -5 = C 12 (2. 1.57)
44 55 66
So only a symmetric [3x3]-matrix must be inverted. The general formula is
5 11 5 12 5 13
Det[5ij] = 5 12 5 22 5 23 r (2.1.58)
5 13 523 5 33
where Ui j are the submatrices of S to the element 5 ij , and leading the relations
5 22533 - 5~3 C _ 5 13 5 23 - 5 125 33

C11 = Det [5ij ] , 12 - Det[5 ij] r
5 33511 - 5I3 C 512 5 13 - 523 511

(2. 1.59)
C22 = Det [5 i j ] , 23 = Det[5ij] ,
5 11522 - 5 I2 C 5 12523 - 5 13522
C33 = Det [5ij] ' 13 = Det [5ij ]
Substituting the relations between 5ij and engineerin g constants given above in
(2.1.56), we obtain
2.1 Generalized Hooke' s Law 35
(2.1.61)
It should be noted that in the case of transversely isotropi c material with the ( X2 -
x3)-plane of isotropy
E2
E2 = E3 , V12 = V13, G12 = G13, G23 = 2(1 + V23 ) (2. 1.62)
and with the ( Xl - x2)-pl ane of isotropy

El
E l = E2, V13 = V23, G13 = G23, G12 = 2(1 + vd (2.1.63)
The Young's modulus and the Poisson's ratio in the plane of isotropy often will
be designated as E T and vTT . E T characterizes elongations or contraction s of a
transversely isotropic body in the direction of the applied load in any direction of the
plane of isotropy and vTT characterizes contractions or elongations of the body in
the direction perpendicular to the applied load, but parallel to the plane of isotrop y.
The shear modulus GTT characterizes the material response under shear loading in
the plane of isotropy and takes the form
ET
GTT = 2(1 + VTT)'
i.e. any two of the engineering constants ET, vTT and GTT can be used to fully de-
scribe the elastic properties in the plane of isotropy . A third independent primary
constant should be EL . This Young's modulu s characterizes the tension respecti vely
compre ssion response for the direction perpendicular to the plane of isotropy. The
fourth primary constant should be the shear modulu s G LT in the planes perpendic-
ular to the plane of isotropy. As a fifth primary constant can be chosen vLT or vTL,
which characterize the response in the plane of isotropy under a load in L-direction
or the response in the L-direction under a load in the plane of isotropy. The stress-
strain relation s for an transversely isotropic body, if (X2 - X3) is the plane of isotropy
and with the reciprocity relations
can be used in the followi ng matrix form

1 VTL VTL
- - ---
Er
a a a
EL Er
1 vrr
£1 a a a (T1
Er Er
£2 1 (T2
£3 Er
a a a (T3
= 1 (2.1.64)
£4 a a (T4
£5 Grr (T5
1
£6 s y M a (T6
GLT
1
G LT
with the engineering constants
Er
El = EL,E 2 = E3 = Er, E 4 = G23 = Grt = 2(1 +vrr)'
VLr VTL
E5 = G13 = E6 = G12 = GLr, V12 = V13 = VLr, V23 = vrr. EZ = E:;:
With the (Xl - x2)-p lane of isotropy the engineering constants are
El = E2 = E r ,E3 = EL,E 4 = G23 = E5 = G13 = GTL,
Er
E6 = G12 = Grt = 2(1 + vrr)' v13 = V23 = vrL, v12 = vrt
Notice that in literature the notations of Poisson's ratios VLT and VTL can be corre -
spond to the opposite meaning.
For an isotropic material behavior in all directions, the number of independent
engineering constants reduces to two
El = E2 = E3 = E, v12 = V23 = V13 = v,
(2.1.65)
E
G12 = G13 = G23 = G = .."....,.-,.--------,-
2(1 + v)
With (2.1.62) and (2.1.65) follow from the compliance and the stiffness matrices the
special cases of transversely isotropic with (X2 - X3) plane of isotropy and comp lete
isotropic:
• Transversely isotropy on the (X2 - x3) -plane
5 - ~ 512 = 5 13 = _ V12, 5 _ _ 1__ 2(1 + V23)

11-
E1
,
E1 44-
G23 - E
2
'
1 1
522 = 5 33 = E2 ' 555 = 5 66 = -G '
12
C - C _ (1 - V12 V21) E 2
22 - 33 - Ll* '
E2
C44 = G23 = 2(1 + V23)' C55 = C66 = G12
with Ll* = (1 + V23) (1 - v23 - 2V21vu).
• Complete isotropy
1 v
5 11 = 5 22 = 5 33 = E' 5 12 = 513 = 523 = - E'
1 2(1 + v) (1 - v)E
5 44 = 5 55 = 5 66 = G = E ' C11 = C22 = C33 = Ll** '
vE E
C12 = C13 = C23 = - ,
Ll**
C44 = C55 = C66 = G = -::-:-- ----,-
2( 1 + v)
assuming Ll** = (1 + v )(l - 2v).
With this, all three-dimensional material laws for various material symmetries inter-
esting in engineering applications of composites are known. The relations between
5 i j , Cij and engineering constants are summarized in Table 2.5.
Consider that the elastic properties of an isotropic material are determi ned by
two independent parameters. The elastic constants Young's modulus E and Pois-
son's ratio v are generally used because they are determined easily in physical tests.
But also the so-called Lame coefficients A and fI, the shear modulus G or the bulk
modulus K can be used if it is suitable. There are simple relations between the pa-
rameters, e.g. as a function of E, v
A_ Ev E E
- (1+v)(1 - 2v)' fI = 2(1 + v) = G, K = 3(1 - 2v )'
(2.1.66)
A E = fI(3A + 2f1) 2
A+fI '
K = A+ 3f1
Summarizi ng the constitutive equatio ns for isotropic, transverse ly isotropic and
orthotropic materials, which are most important in the engineering applications of
composite structural mechanics one can find that the common features of the re-
lationship s between stresses and strains for these material symmetries are that the
Table 2.5. Relationships between 5ij , C ij and the engineering constants for orthotropic ,
transversely-isotropic and isotropic material
Orthotropic material
511 = Ell , 5 12 = 5 21 = -v12El1, 5 44 = Gil = E 41
522 = Ei 1, 5 13 = 531 = -v13El1, 5 55 = G131 = ES1
5 33 = E 31, 523 = 532 = -V23 Ei 1, 5 66 = Gli = E;;l
i.] = 1,2,3
1
C 55 = -5 = G31 = E5
55
C - 513 523 - 5 12 5 33 - (V 12+ V32V13 )E2 - (V21+ V31 V23)E 1 _

12 - det[5 ] - ,1 - ,1 - C21
ij
C - 5 12523- 513522 - (V13 + V12V23)E 3 _ (V31 + V21V32)E1_

13 - det[5 ] - ,1 - ,1 - C31
ij
C - 5 12513- 5235 11 - ( V23 + V21 V13 ) E3 _ (V32+ V12V31)E2_

23 - det[5 ] - ,1 - ,1 - C32
ij
Tran sversely-isotropic material

(X2 - x3 )-planc of isotropy
E2
E 1, E2 = E3, E5 = E6, V12 = Vl3, E4 = .,....,...----'=----,--
2(1 + V23)
(Xl - x2)-planc of isotropy
E1
E1 = E2, E 3' E4 = E 5, V13 = V23, E6 = 2(1 + V12)
(Xl -x3)-planeofisotropy
E3
E1 = E3, E2' E4 = E 6, v12 = V23, E5 = ------''------
2(1 + V13)
Isotropic materi al
E1 = E2 = E3 = E, v12 = V21 = v13 = v3 1 = v 23 = v 32 = V,
E
E4 = E5 = E6 = G = -2(-I-+- v-)
norma l stresses are not couplet with shear strains and shear stresses are not coupled
with the normal strain s. Each shear stress is only related to the corresponding shear
strain . The se features are not retained in the more general case of an monoclinic or
a general anisotropic material.
In the case of monoclinic material s we have 13 mutually independent stiffness
or compliances. Therefore we have in comparison with orthotropic materials to in-
troduce four additional engineering constants and keeping in mind, that the mono-
clinic case must compri se the orthotropic case, we should not change the engineer-
ing constants of orthotropic material behavior. Assuming that ( X l - X2) is the plane
of elastic symmetry, the additional constants are related to the compliance matrix
components 5 16,5 26,536 and 5 46 .
The first three pair normal strains £1 , £2 , £3 to the shear stress (T6 and vice versa
the shear strain £6 to the normal stresses (T1, (T2, (T3 . The fourth one couple the shear
strain £4 to the shear stress (Ts and vice versa the shear strain £5 to the shear stress (T4.
In a compact notation the strain -stres s relations for an anisotropic material having
one plane of elastic symmetry ( Xl - X2 ) are
1 V21 V31 t/ 61
- --- a a
£1 £2 £3 £6
v 12 1 v32 t/ 62
£1
a a
£1 £2 £3 £6
£2 Vl3 V23 1 a t/ 63
-- --
£3 £1 £2 £3 £6
= (2. 1.67)
f/S4
£4
a a a a
£5 £5
1
£6 a a a
£5
t/16 t/2 6 t/ 36
a
E1 £2 £3
with the following reciprocal relations
t/ 61 t/ 16 t/ 62 t/2 6 t/ 63 t/ 36 f/ S4 f/ 4S
(2. 1.68)
E;;=P;' E;;-~' E;;= E;' ~=E:;
and the compliance components
t/ 61 t/ 62 t/63 f/ S4
51 6 = - , 526 = - , 5 36 = - , 5 45 = - (2.1 .69)
£6 £6 £6 £5
and t/6 3 are exten sion-shear coupling coefficients indicating normal strain s
t/61, t/ 62
induced by shear stress (T6 and t/1 6 , t/2 6 and t/ 36 the shear-extension coupling coef-
ficients characterizing shear strain £6 caused by norm al stresses. f/ 4S and flS4 are
shear-shear couplin g coefficients.
The stiffness matrix for the monoclinic materi al can be found as the inverse of
the compliance matrix, but the expressions are unreasonable to present in an explic it
form . However, the inverse of a matri x can be easily calculated using standard nu-
merical procedures. Also for a generally anisotropic material the compliance can be
formulated with help of eight additional coupling con stants but the stiffness matrix
should be calculated numerically.
a b
/
,
XI
Fig. 2.9. Plane stress state. a (Xl - xz) -planc, 0"3 = 0"4 = 0"5 = 0, b (xz - x3)-plane,
0"1= 0"5 = 0"6 = 0, C (Xl - x3) -planc, o"z = 0"4 = 0"6 = 0
2.1.4 Two-dimensional Material Equations
In most structural applications the structural elements are simplified models by

reducing the three-dimensional state of stress and strain approximately to a two-
dimensional plane stress or plane strain state. A thin lamina for instance can be
con sidered to be unde r a condition of plan e stress with all stress components in
the out -of-plane direction being appro ximately zero. The different condition s for
a plane stress state in the planes (Xl - X2), (X2 - X3) and (Xl - X3) are demon-
strated in Fig. 2.9. In the following, the plane stress state Fig. 2.9a) is considered .
The generalized Hooke 's law (2. 1.20) is reduced to
£1 5 11 5 12 5 13 514 5 15 5 16 0"1
£2 5 22 5 23 5 24 5 25 5 26 0"2
£3 5 33 5 34 535 5 36 0
£4 = S 5 44 5 45546 0
(2. 1.70)
£5 Y 5 55 5 56 0
£6 M 566 0"6
that mean s 0"3 = 0"4 = 0"5 = 0, and we have three in-plane constitutiv e equations
£1 = 5 11 0"1 + 5 12 0"2 + 5 16 0"6
£2 = 5 120"1 +5220"2 +5 260"6 , (2.1.71)
£6 = 5 160"1 + 5260"2 + 5 660"6
and an additional equation for strain £3 in x3-direction
£3 = 5 13 0"1 +523 0"2 + 536 0"6 (2.1.72)
If the plane stress assumptions are used to simplify the generali zed stiffness equa-
tions (2.1.19), the result is
0"1 C ll Cl2 C 13 C 14 C15 C 16 £1

0"2 C22 C23 C24 C25 C26 £2
a =
C33 C34 C35 C36
=
£3
(2.1.73)
a S C 44 C 45 C46 £4
a y C 55 C56 £5
0"6 M C 66 f6
or again three in-plane equations
0"1 = Cllfl + Cl2 f2 + C 13 f 3 + C16f6,
0"2 = C l2£l + C22 f2 + C23 f3 + C 26 f6, (2.1.74)
0"6 = C16 fl + C26 f2 + C 36£3 + C 66 f6
Taking into account the condition
0"3 = C 13fl + C23£2 + C33 f3 + C36f6 = a
the strain £3 can be eliminated and substituted in Eq. (2.1.74) and we obtain
1
f3 = --C (C13£l + C23 f2 + C36 f6) (2.1.75)
33
Substituting for f3 using Eqs. (2.1.75) and (2.1.74) leads to
O"i = ( Cij - C~~3) fj' i, j = 1,2,6, (2.1.76)
respectively
O"i=Qijfj, i,j=1,2,6 (2.1.77)
The Qij are the reduced stiffness. For the three cases in Fig. 2.9 we obtain
C13C3
a, = Qijfj, Qij = Cij - -CJ, i, j = 1,2,6, (Xl - X2) - plane of symmetry,
33
ClC
1 l
a, = Qijfj, Qij = Cij - -CJ, i, j = 2,3,4, (X2 - X3) - plane of symmetry,
11
C 2C2
1
O"i = Qijfj, Qij = Cij - -CJ, i, j = 1,3,5, (Xl - X3) - plane of symmetry
22
The number of unknown independent parameters of each of the matrices Sij' C ij or
Qij is six. It is very important to note that the elements in the plane stress compliance
matrix are simply a subset of the elements from the three-dimensional compliance
matrix and their numerical values are identical. On the other hand, the elements
of the reduced stiffness matrix involve a combination of elements from the three-
dimensional stiffness matrix and the numerical values of the Qij differ from their
counterparts Cij, i.e. they are actually less than the numerical values for Cij- In
order to keep consistency with the generalized Hooke's law, Eq. (2.1.75) should be
used when calculating the transverse normal strain £3 and the general case leads to
consistent relations for the transverse shear strains £4 and £5 .
If (Xl - X2) is a plane of elastic symmetry, then we can consider plane stress
assumptions for monoclinic material. In this case, or for orthotropic and isotropic
Table 2.6. Compliance matrices for various material models, plane stress state
Material model £ = Sa
Anisotropy: Compliances 5 ij
6 independentmaterial parameters [ '£2

1] =
£6
[511 5" 5"]
5 22526
566 [~:]
Orthotropy: 5 16 = 5 26 = 0
1 1
4 independent material parameters 5 11 = - , 522 = E
E1 2
-v12 - V21
5 12 = - - = - -
E1 E2
1
Reference system: on-axis 5 66 = -
G12
Isotropy: 5 16 = 5 26 = 0
1 v
2 independent material parameters 511 = 522 = E' 5 12 = - - ,
E
2 (1 + v ) 1
Reference system: as you like 5 66 = 2(5 11 - 5 12) = =
E G
material behavior there exists in gen eral only a non-zero value for the transverse
normal strain £3, but the tran sverse shear strain s £4 and £5 are identical zero.
For an orthotropic material behavior under plane stress and on-axi s orientation
of the reference system there are four indep endent parameters and for isotropic be-
havior there are only two. The mathematical notations 5 ij, C ij or Q ij can be shifted
to the engineering notation. Table s 2.6 and 2.7 summa rize the compliance and stiff-
ness matrices for the plane stress state.
Considerin g a plane strain state in the ( Xl - X2) plan e we have the three non-
zero strain s £ 1, £2 and £6 but the four nonzero stress components 0'1, 0'2, 0'3, 0'6,
Analogous to the plane stress state, here the stress 0'3 norm al to the (Xl - X2) plane
is not an independent value and can be eliminated
£3 = 5 130'1 +5230'2 +5330'3 +5360'6 = 0,

1
0'3 = - -5 (5 130' 1 + 5 230'2 + 5 360'6)
33
Therefore in the case of plan e strain, the Cij , i, j = 1,2,6 can be taken directly from
the three-dimensional elasticity law and inste ad of 5 ij reduced compliance s V ij have
to be used
Table 2.7. Stiffness matrices for various material models, plane stress state
Material model u= Qe
Anisotropy: Reduced stiffness Qij
6 independent material parameters [ U,

u2 ] =
u6
[Qn Q" Q" ]
Q22 Q26
Q66 [:: ]
1
Orthotropy: Q16 = Q26 = 0, Q66 = - = G12
5 66
4 independent material parameters Qll = 5 22 = El
L1 1- V12V21
Q22 = 5 11 = E2
L1 1 - V12V21
Reference system: on-axis Q12 = _ 512 = V12 E2
L1 1 - V12V21
L1 = 5 11 522 - Sr2
Isotropy: Q16 = Q26 = 0

E
2 independent material parameters Qll = Q22 = - - 2
I-v
vE E
Reference system: as you like Q12= 12'
- v Q66 = 2(1 +v) =G
a, = CijE-j, i, j = 1,2,6,
5i35j3
Vij = 5ij - -5-- ' i,j = 1,2,6
33
Table 2.8 summarizes for the three-dimensional states and the plane stress and strain
states the number of non-zero and of independent material parameters.
In the two-dimensional equation s of anisotropic elasticity, either reduced stiff-
ness or reduced compliances are introduced into the material laws. These equations
are most important in the theory of composite single or multilayered elements, e.g.
of laminae or laminates . The additional transformations rules which are necessary
in laminae and laminate theories are discussed in more detail in Chap . 3. Tables 2.6
and 2.7 above shows the relationship between stress and strain through the compli-
ance [5ijJ or the reduced stiffness [Qij] matrix for the plane stress state and how the
5 ij and Qij are related to the engineering constants . For a unidirectional lamina the
engineering constants are:
Table 2.8. Stiffness and compliance parameters for stress and strain equations a = Ce,
e = Sa, C = 5- 1 , plane stress state a = Qe, e = Sa, Q = 5- 1 , plane strain state
- a = Ce, e = Vu, C = V-I, Q ij and V;j are the reduced stiffness and compliances
Material model Number of non-zero Number of independent

parameters parameters
Three-dimensional C ij ; 5ij Cir 5ij
stress- or i,j = 1, . .. ,6 i.] = 1, .. . ,6
strain state
Anisotropic 36 21
Monotropic 20 13
Orthotropic 12 9
Transversely isotropic 12 5
Isotropic 12 2
Plane stress state Qij;5 ij Qij; 5ij
(Xl - x2)-plane i.] = 1,2,6 i.] = 1,2,6
Anisotropic 9 6
Orthotropic 5 4
Isotropic 5 2
Plane strain state CirVij C ij; V;j
(Xl - x2)-plane i,j=I,2,6 i.] = 1,2,6
Anisotropic 9 6
Orthotropic 5 4
Isotropic 5 2
£1 longitudinal Young's modulus in the principal direction 1 (fibre direction)

£2 transverse Young's modulus in direction 2 (orthogonal to the fibre direc-
tion)
V12 major Poisson's ratio as the ratio of the negative normal strain in direction
2 to the normal strain in direction 1 only when normal load is applied in
direction 1
G12 in-plane shear modulus for (Xl - X2) plane
The four independent engineering elastic constants are experimentally measured as
follows:
• Pure tensile load in direction 1: 0"1 f:- 0,0"2 = 0,0"6 = 0
With £1 = 5110"1,£2 = 5120"1,£6 = 0 are
£1 = -0"1 = -1 , V12
£2
= -- =
512
--
£1 5 11 £1 511
• Pure tensile load in direction 2: 0"1 = 0,0"2 f:- 0,0"6 = 0
With £1 = 5120"2, £2 = 5220"2, £6 = 0 are
£2 = -0"2 = -1 , V21
£1
= -- =
512
--
£2 522 £2 522
V21 is usually called the minor Poisson's ratio and we have the reciprocal rela-
tionship V12/E 1 = v2I/E2 .
• Pure shear stress in the (Xl - X2) plane: 0"1 = 0"2 = 0,0"6 :F 0
With £1 = £2 = 0, £6 = 5660"6 is
0"6 1
G12 = - =-
£6 566
With the help of Tables 2.6 and 2.7, the relating equations of stresses and strains
are given through any of the following combinat ions of four constants : (Q11, Q12,
Q22, Q66) , (511,512,522,566)' (El , E2, v12, G12) .
In Chap. 3 the evaluation of the four engineering elastic constants is given ap-
proximately by averaging the fibre-matrix material behavior. There are different ap-
proaches for determining effective elastic moduli, e.g. in a simple way with ele-
mentary mixture rules, with semi-empirical models or an approach based on the
elementary theory.
2.1.5 Curvilinear anisotropy
The type of anisotropy considered above was characterized by the equivalence of

parallel directions passing through different points of the homogeneous anisotropic
body and we can speak of a rectilinear anisotropy . Another kind of anisotropy is the
case, if one chooses a system of curvilinear coordinates in such a manner that the
coordinate directions coincide with equivalent directions of elastic properties at dif-
ferent points of an anisotropic body. The elements of the body, which are gene rated
by three pairs of coordinate surfaces possess identical elastic properties and we can
speak of a curvilinear anisotropy.
In the frame of this textbook we limit the considerations to cylindrical an-
isotropy, which is also the most common case of this type of anisotropy. The gener-
alized Hooke's law equations (2.1.21) are now considered in cylindrical coordinates
Xl = r, x2 = 8, X3 = z and we have the stress and strain vectors in the contracted
single subscript notation
[0"1 0"2 0"3 0"4 0"5 0"6] T = [O"r O"(J O"Z O"(Jz O"rz O"r(J] T ,
(2.1.78)
[£1 £2 £3 £4 £5 £6] T = [£r £(J £z £(Jz £rz £r(J ] T
In the specific cases of material symmetries the general constitutive equation
in cylindrical coordinates can be simplified analogous to the case of rectilinear
anisotropy.
In the specific case of an orthotropic cylindrical response there are three orthog-
onal planes of elastic symmetries. One plane is perpendicular to the axis z, another
one is tangential to the surface (8 - z) and the third one is a radial plane (Fig. 2.10).
Another case of material symmetry in possible practical situation is a transversely
isotropic cylinder or cylindrical tube with the plane of isotropy (r - 8). In this case
we obtain, as analog to (2.1.64)
Z
I
z-plane
z
r - z-plane
r
x
}
6 - z-plane
Fig. 2.10. Cylindrical orthotropic material symmetry
1 Vrr VLr
------ 0 o 0
Er Er EL
1 VLT
EL
0 o o
Er
1
0 o o
= EL (2.1.79)
1
o o
GLT
1
s y M o
GLr
1
Gri
where the index T is associ ated with the coordinate directions rand e and the index
L with the coordinate direction z and the reciprocal relations are
VLr VTL
-=-
EL Er
The stres s-strain equations for the orthotropic case of cylindrical anisotropy are ob-
tained using engineering constants
1 vO Vzr
- - -r - - 0 0 0
Er Eo Er
1 vzo
10 1 0 0 0 0"1
Eo Er
10 2 1 0"2
10 3 Er
a a a 0"3
1 (2.1.80)
10 4 0"4
a a
lOS GO z 0"5
1
10 6 S Y M
G rz
a 0"6
1
GrO
The indices r, 8 and z of the engineering constants are associated with the indices
1, 2 and 3 and the strain-stress equations may also be written in a different way by
using the numerical subscripts. Further notice the reciprocal relations
Eivji = EjVij, i,j = r,8,z
and the G oz' G rz and G rO may be written in the more general form E 4, Es, E6 .
There are two practical situations for a monoclinic material behavior. The first
case can be one plane of elastic symmetry (r - 8) which is rectilinear to the z-axis.
The case is interesting when considering composite discs or circular plates. The
stress-strain equations follow from (2.1.67) after substituting the subscripts 1,2 and
3 by the engineering constants to r,8 and z and the shear moduli E4, Es and E6 by
Go z' G rz and Gro. The second case can be one plane of elastic symmetry (8 - z)
as a cylindrical surface with the axis r perpendicular to this surface. This situation
is of practical interest when considering e.g. filament wound cylindrical shells and
we get the strain-stress relations which couple all three normal strains to the shear
strain 104 and both shear strains 105,106 to both shear stresses 0"5,0"6
o
a
a
(2.1.81)
o a
s Y M
1 1165
Es E6
1
E6
The subscripts 1,2,3 of the Young's moduli and the Poisson's ratios will be shifted
to r, 8, z and the moduli E 4, Es, E6 to Goz, G rz, Gro . There are as above reciprocal
relations for Vij' YJij and 11ij
YJ41 = YJ14 YJ42 = YJ24 YJ43 = YJ34 1165 = 1156 Vij = Vji . . = 1 2 3 (2 1 82)
E4 1 E' E4 2 E' 4 E 3 E' 6 E 5 E' Ei Ej ,I, J " . .
2.1.6 Problems
1. Calcul ate for the tensile bar consisting of three parts (Fig. 2.2) the elong ation
,11, the strain e and the stress (T as functions of A ,l and F:
a) The stiffness are arra nged in parallel : E1 = E3 = 70 GPa, E2 = 3 GPa,
A l = A3 = O,lA, A 2 = O, 8A .
Solution:
Assumpti ons
3
fi = e, ,11i = ,11, i = 1,2,3, A = E A i,
i=1
From (T = Ee follows
(Tl = E1s = 70GPa e, (T2 = E2f = 3GPa e, (T3 = E3f = 70GPa e
With F = (TA = EA f and F, = EiA if follows
3
F = E(EiA i) f = 16,4 GPa f A , E = 16,4 GPa,
i=1
F ,11
e = EA =T
yields
,11 = ~ = _l_Fl(GP )-1
EA 16, 4 A a
and the solutions are
1 Fl -1
,11 = -6- A (GPa) = ,11(F,l, A),
1 ,4
,11 1 F - 1
e= T = 16,4 A (GPa) = f(F, A ),
1 EiF -1
o; = Ei f = 16,4 A (GP a) = (Ti(F,A) , = 1,2,3
i
b) The stiffness are arranged in series : E1 = E3 = 70 GPa, E2 = 3 GPa,
11 = 13 = 0,11,12 = 0,81.
Solution:
Assumptions
3 ,11i
,11 = E,11i, Fi = F, e, = - , i = 1,2, 3
i=1 l,
3 3
From ,11 =L ,11i =L lif i and F = EA f follow s
i= 1 i=1
,11 = f,
L...J
(i) £A =
E·
(0,1
70 +
0,8
3 +
0,1) Fl(GP )-1
70 A a ,
1= 1 1
1 Fl Fl_1
,11 = el = E A = 0,2695 A (GPa) , E = 3,71 GPa
The functions ,11, e and (T are
Fl -1
,11 = 0,2695 A (GPa) = ,11 (F,l, A),
s = 0,2695 AF (GP a)-1 = f (F, A ),
F
(T = Ee = A = (T(F, A)
2. The relationship between the load F and the elongation .11 of a tensile bar (Fig.
2.1) is
F = EAa .11 = K.11

la
E is the Young's modulus of the material, A a the cross-sectional area of the
bar and la is the length. The factor K = EA a/la is the stiffness per length and
characterizes the mechanical performance of the tensile bar. In the case of two
different bars with Young's moduli E1, E2, densities P1,P2, the cross-sectional
areas AI, A 2 and the lengths It,1 2 the ratios of the stiffness K1 and K2 per
length and the mass of the bars are
K1 E1A1 12 m1 l 1A 1P1
-=---,
K2 E2A2 11 m: 12A2P2
Verify that for 11= 12 and m1 = m2 the ratio KdK2 only depends on the ratio
of the specific Young's moduli EdPI and E2/ P2 .
Solution:
Introducing the densities pI!P2 into the stiffness ratio KIf K2 yields
K1 _ EI!P1 m1 2 ) 2
K2 - E2/P2 m2 T;
(1
and with m1 = m2,12 = 11
K1 Edp1
K2 E2/P2
Conclusion: A material with the highest value of E/ P has the highest tension
stiffness.
3. For a simply supported beam with a single transverse load in the middle of the
beam we have the following equation
F= 48~:f= Kf
F is the load and f is the deflection in the middle of the beam, I is the length
of the beam between the supports and I the moment of inertia of the cross-
section. The coefficient K = 48EI/1 3 characterizes the stiffness performances
of the beam. Calculate K for beams with a circle or a square cross-sectional
area (radius r or square length a) and two different materials E1, PI and E2,P2
but of equal length I, moments of inertia and masses . Verify that for m 1 = m2
the ratio of the stiffness coefficients KdK 2 only depends on the ratios Ed PI
and E2/p~,
Solution:
Moments of inertia and masses of the two beams are
a) circle cross-sectional : 1= rrr 4/4, m = r2rrlp,
b) square cross-sectional : I = a4 112, m = a 2 1p

In case a) we have
K = 48EI = 48E nr4 = 48El p2 m 2
13 13 4 413 nz2 '
K1 = EI!pi (m 1)2(1 2)5
K2 Ez/ p~ m2 11
With 11 = 12 , ml = m 2 we obtain
K1 EI! pi
K2 = E21p~
In case b) we have
K _ 48EI _ 48E a4 _ 4E m 2
- [ 3 - """"1312 - [3 p2 z2 '
1
K = EI!pi (m 1)2(~) 5
K2 E21p~ m2 11
With /1 = /2, ml = m: we obtain
K1 EI!pi
K2 = Ez/p~
Conclusion: The best material for an optimal bending stiffness of the beam is
that with the highest value of E I p2.
3 3
4. Formulate explicitly the transformation matrices (TU)-1 and (T£)- 1 for a ro-
tation about the e3-direction (Fig. 2.6).
Solution :
3 3
With Eqs. (2.1.29), (2.1.39) and (2.1.40) follows (TU)-1 (T£)T and
3 3
(T£ )-1 = (Tu) T
c2 s2 o0 0 -2cs
s2 c2 o0 0 2sc
3 0 0 1 0 0 0
(TO')-1 =
0 0 oc s 0
0 0 o- s c 0
cs -cs 0 0 0 c2 - s2
c2 S2 0 0 0 -cs
S2 c2 0 0 0 sc
3 0 0 1 0 0 0
(T£)- 1 =
0 0 0 c s 0
0 0 o- s c 0
2cs - 2cs 0 0 0 c2 - s2
5. Consider the coordinate transformation that corresponds with reflection in the

plane Xl - X2: X~ = Xl, X; = X2, X~ = -x3. Define for this case the coordinate
transformation matrix [Rij] and the stress and strain transformation matrices
(T e
[Tpq] and [Tpq] .
Solution:
a) With R ij = cos( e;,ej) (2.1.22) follows
Ru = I,R 12 = O,R 13 = O,R21 = O,R 22 = I,R 23 = 0,
R31 = O,R 32 = O,R 33 =-1
and the transformation matrix takes the form
10 a]
[Rij] = a 1 a
[ a 0-1
b) With the help of the transformation matrix Append. B we can see that both
(T
matrices are diagonal with the following nonzero elements for Tpq
RI1 = I,R~2 = I,R§3 = 1,
R 22R33 + R 23R32 = -I, R uR33 + R13R31 = -I, R uR22 + R 12R21 = 1
e
and for Tpq
RI1 = I,R~2 = I,R§3 = 1,
R 22R33 + R 23R22 = -I, R uR33 + R13R31 = -I, RUR22 + R 12R21 = 1
The transformation matrices take the form
100 a aa
a1 a a aa
(T
[Tpq] =
aa1 a aa e
= [Tpq]
a a a -1 a a
a a a a -10
aaa a a 1
6. The engineering material constants for an orthotropic material are given by
E1 = 173GPa, E2 = 33, IGPa, E3 = 5,17GPa,
E4 = 3, 24GPa, E5 = 8, 27GPa, E6 = 9, 38GPa,
V12 = 0,036, V13 = 0,25, V23 = 0,171
Calculate the stiffness matrix C and the compliance matrix S.
Solution:
With Table 2.5 we find the 5ij and the Cij
5 u = Ell = 5,780 1O- 3GPa-1 ,

5 12 = 521 = -V12El1 = -0,208 1O-3GPa- 1,
522 = E21 = 30,2111O- 3GPa- 1,
5 13 = 5 = -V13 El 1 = -1,445 1O- 3GPa -1,
31
533 = E3"l = 193,424 1O- 3GPa-1,
523 = 532 = -V23E2"1 = -5,166 10- 3GPa- 1 ,

544 = Ei1 = 308,642 10- 3GPa- 1 ,
5 55 = ES1 = 120,919 1O- 3GPa- 1,
5 66 = E(;l = 106,610 1O- 3GPa-1,
L1 = 1 - V12V21 - V23V32 - V3 1Vl3 - 2V21Vl3V32,
V21 = v 12( E z! E 1 ) = 0,0069, V31 = vl3 ( E 3 / E d = 0,0075,

V32 = V23 ( E3 / E 2 ) = 0,027, L1 = 0,993, t; = EdL1,i = 1,2,3
Cl l = (1 - V23V32 ) E 1 = 173, 415GPa,

C22 = (1 - V31V13 ) E 2 = 33, 271GPa,
C 3 3 = (1 - V12V2dE3 = 5,205GPa,
C12 = (V12 + Vl3V32 ) E 2 = 1,425GPa,
C 13 = (V1 3 + V12V23 ) E3 = 1,334GPa,
C 23 = (V23 + V21V 13 ) E3 = 0,899GPa,
C44 = E4 , Css = Es, C66 = E6

With the values for Cij and 5 ij the stiffness matrix C and the compliance matrix
S can be written
173,415 1,425 1,334 a a a
1,425 33,271 0,899 a a a
C=
1,334 0,899 5,205 a a a GPa,
a a a 3,24 a a
a a a a 8,27 a
a a a a a 9,38
5,780 -0,208 -1,445 a a a

-0,208 30,211 -5,166 a a a
s= -1,445-5,166 193,424 a a a
a a a 308,642 a a
a a a a 120,919 a
a a a a a 106,610
2.2 Fundamental Equations and Variational Solution Procedures
Below we discuss at first the fundamental equations of the anisotropic elasticity for
rectilinear coordinate s. The system of equations can be divided into two subsys-
tems: the first one is material independent that means we have the same equations
as in the isotropi c case. To this subsystem belong the equilibrium equation s (static
or dynamic) and the kinematic equations (the strain-displacement equations and the
2.2 Fundamenta l Equations and Variational Solution Procedures 53
compatibility conditions). To this subsystem one has to add the constitutive equa-
tions. In addition, we must introduce the boundary and, may be, the initial conditions
to close the initial-boundary problem . At second, considering that closed solutions
are impossible in most of the practical cases approximative solution techniques are
briefly discussed. The main attention will be focussed on variational formulations.
2.2.1 Boundary and Initial-Boundary Value Equations
The fundamental equations of anisotropic elasticity can be formulated and solved

by a displacement, a stress or a mixed approach. In all cases the starting point are
the following equations:
• The static or dynamic equilibrium equations formula ted for an infinitesimal cube
of the anisotropic solid which is subjected to body forces and surface forces char-
acterized by force density per unit surface. In Fig. 2.11 the stress and the vol-
ume force components are shown in the xl-direction. Assuming the symmetry of
the stress tensor, three static equations link six unknown stress components. In
the case of dynamic problems the inertia forces are expressed through displace-
ments, therefore the equations of motion contain both, six unknown stress and
three unknown displacement components
Us + d O's
/ ~
' 0'1
! X3 0'6 , 0'6 + d U6
d X3 ~ Pl ~
Xl /
/
/
/
-
~
Fig. 2.11. Infinitesimal cube with lengths dxj , dX2 1 dX3 : stress and volume force components
in xl-direction
alTl alT6 alTS _a

aXl + aXz + aX3 + PI - ,
alT6 alTZ alT4 _ a
aXl + aXz + aX3 + PZ - , static equations (2.2.1)
alTS alT4 alT3 _ a

+ a
aXl Xz X3 + a + P3 - ,
alTl alT6 alTs aZUl

-aXl
+ -aXz
+ -aX3
+ PI = P at Z '
alT6 alTz alT4 azuz
-a + -a + -a + v: = p at Z ' dynamic equations (2.2.2)
Xl Xz X3
alTs alT4 alT3
- + - + - + P3 = p--
aZU3
aXl axz aX3 at Z
The inertial terms in (2.2.2) are dynamic body forces per unit volume. The density
p for unidirectional laminae can be calculated e.g. using the rule of mixtures
(Sect. 3.1.1) .
• The kinematic equations that are six strain-displacement relations and six compat-
ibility conditions for strains. For linear small deformation theory, the six stress-
displacement equations couple six unknown strains and three unknown displace-
ments. Figure 2.12 shows the strains of an infinitesimal cube in the (Xl - xz)-
plane and we find the relation s
aUl auz auz aUl aU l auz
£1 == -a'
Xl
£z == -a' IX = -a' f3 = -a =} 2£12 == [12 == -a + -a == £6
Xz Xl Xz Xz Xl
and analogous relations for the (xz - X3)- and ( Xl - x3)-planes yield
• r······························:
b
f> ; : :··········..•..".. 7
cg ~c'
..; i
! c
.d X
•o
•
l!.\~" 'd;" "" " '" '8".1 B'

•
0
0
0
'"( iI
/__---a:'_...
~
.i .
i
i B'
all2
- d XI
A' B a XI
A ali I A
+ -aXI d XI
L-_________-
-
XI
1I1
~ _
XI
Fig. 2.12. Strains of the infinitesimal cube shown for the (Xl - x2)-plane . a extensional
strains, b shear strains
(2.2.3)
dU3 dU2 dU3 dUl dU2 dUI
E4 = :;--
aX2
+ :;--,
aX3
ES = :;--
aXI
+ :;--,
a X3
E6 = :;--
aXI
+ :;--
aX2
In order that the displacement field of the body corresponding to a given deforma-
tion state is unique, the components of the strain tensor must satisfy the following
six compatibility conditions
~ 2~,
2
d £1 + d2E2 _ d (d£4 d ES dE6) =
dX~ dxi - dX I dX2 ' dX3 dX I + dX2 - dX3 dXI dX2
2~
2£2 2£3 2
d + d _ d £4 d (dES d £6 dE4) _
dX~ dX~ - dX2dX3' dXl dX2 + dX3 - dXI - dX2dX3'
2£3 2£} 2£s 2£2
d d d d (d£6 d£4 d£S) d
dxi + dX~ = dXI dX3 ' dX2 dX3 + dXl - d;2 = 2 dX3dXI
For the two-dimensional case, the compatibility conditions reduce to a single
equation
2£2 2
d2EI + d _ 2 d £6 = a
dX~ dxi dX} dX2
• The material or constitutive equations which are described in Sect. 2.1 are
£i = SijCTj, a, = Cij£j (2.2.4)
The generalized Hooke's law yields six equations relating in each case six un-
known stress and strain components. The elements of the stiffness matrix C and
the compliance matrix S are substituted paying attention to the symmetry condi-
tions of the material.
Summarizing allequations, we have 15 independent equations for 15 unknown com-
ponents of stresses, strains and displacements. In the displacement approach, the
stresses and strains are eliminated and a system of three simultaneous partial differ-
ential equations for the displacement components are left.
In the static case we have a boundary-value problem, and we have to include
boundary conditions . In the dynamic case the system of partial differential equations
defines an initial-boundary-value problem and we have additional initial conditions.
A clear symbolic formulation of the fundamental equations in displacements is
given in vector-matrix notation. With the transposed vectors iTT, £T and u T
(TT =h (T2 (T3 (T4 (Ts (T6], £T = lei £2 £3 £4 £5 £6], u
T
= [UI U2 U3] (2 .2.5)
the transformation and the differential matrices T and D (n is the surface normal
unit vector)
nl 0 0 dl 0 0
o n2 0 o d2 0 n, = ca s(n, Xi)
y= o 0 n3 D=
o 0 d3 d (2.2.6)
o n3 n: o d3 d2 di = -
dXi
n3 0 nl d3 0 dl i = 1,2,3
n: nl 0 d2 dl 0
and the stiffness matrix C we get
D T (T + P = 0 E V static equilibrium equations,
D T (T + P = Pd2u
dt 2 E V d ynarmc
. equiilib . .
I num equations,
(2.2.7)
t "(T = q E A q surface equilibrium equation s,
e = Du E V kinematic equations,
(T = Cs constitutiv e equations
V is the volume and A q the surface of the body with surface force s q.
Eliminating the stresses and the strains leads to the differential equations for the
displacements
Boundary-value problem - elastostatics
D TCDu = -p E V equilibrium forthe volume element V ,
(2.2.8)
u = U E Au prescribed displacements u on A u,
y TCDu = q E A q prescribed surface forces q on A q
Initial boundary-valu e problem - elastodynami cs

D TCDu - pu = - p E V equilibrium equation,
(2.2.9)
u = U E Au , y TCDu = q E A q bounda ry conditi ons,
u(x,O) = u (x,O), u (x,O) = u (x,O) initial cond itions
In the general case of material anisotropic behavior the three-dimensional equa-
tions are very complicated and analytical solutions are only possible for some spe-
cial problems. Thi s is independent of the approa ch to displacem ents or stresses .
Some elementary examples are formulated in Sect. 2.2.4. The equations for beam s
and plates are simplified with additi onal kinematic and/or static hypotheses and the
structure element equations are dedu ced separately in Chap s. 7 and 8. The simplified
structural equations for circul ar cylindrical shells and thin-w alled folded structures
are given in Chaps. 9 and 10.
Summarizing the fund ament al equations of elasticity we have introduced
stresses and displacements as static and kinemati c field variables. A static field is
said to be statically admi ssible if the stresses satisfy equilibrium equations (2.2.1)
and are in equilibrium with the surface traction q on the body surface A q , where
these traction are given. A kinematic field is referred to as kinematically admissible
if displac ements and strains are limited by the strain-displacement equations (2.2.3)
and the displacement satisfies kinematic bounda ry conditions on the body surface
Au , where the displacements are prescribed. Admissible field variables are consid-
ered in principl es of virtual work and energy formulations, Sect. 2.2.2. The mutual
correspondence between static and kinematic field variables is established through

the constitutive equations (2.2.4).
2.2.2 Principle of Virtual Work and Energy Formulations
The analytical description of the model equations of anisotropic elasticity may be

as above by a system of partial differential equations but also by integral state-
ments which are equivalent to the governing equations of Sect. 2.2.1 and based on
energy or variational formulations. The utility of variational formulations is in gen-
eral twofold. They yield convenient methods for the derivation of the governing
equations of problems in applied elasticity and provide the mathematical basis for
consistent approximate theories and solution procedures . There are three variational
principles which are used mostly in structural mechanics . There are the principles
of virtual work, the principle of complementary virtual work, Reissner 's variational
theorem and the related energy principles.
Restricting ourselves to static problems, extremal principles formulated for the
total elastic potential energy of the problem or the complementary potential energy
are very useful in the theory of elasticity and in structure modelling and analysis.
The fundamental equations and boundary conditions given beforehand can be de-
rived with the extremal principles and approximate solutions are obtained by direct
variational methods. Both extremal principles follow from the principle of virtual
work.
If an elastic body is in equilibrium , the virtual work bW of all actual forces in
moving through a virtual displacement bu is zero
(2.2.10)
bW is the total virtual work, bWa the external virtual work of body or volume and
surface forces and bWi the internal virtual work of internal stresses, for the forces
associated with the stress field of a body move the body points through virtual dis-
placements bu corresponding to the virtual strain field be.
A displacement is called virtual, if it is infinitesimal, and satisfies the geometric
constraints (compatibility with the displacement-strain equations and the boundary
conditions) and all forces are fixed at their actual values. These displacements are
called virtual because they are only imagined to take place i.e. hypothetical. The
symbol b is called a variational operator and in the mathematical view a virtual dis-
placement is a variation of the displacement function . To use variational operations
in structural mechanics only the following operations of the b-operator are needed
s J Js
fdx = fdx
For a deformable body, the external and the internal work are given in Eqs.
(2.2.11) and (2.2.12), respectively,
bWa = J
V
Pkbuk d V + J
Aq
qkbukd A , (2.2.11)
sw, = - f
V
O"kOek d V (2.2.12)
Pk are the components of the actual body force vector p per unit volume and qk
the components of the actual surface force vector q (surface traction per unit area).
A q denotes the portion of the boundary on which surface forces are specified. O"k
and Ek are the components of the stress and the strain vector. The negative sign in
(2.2.12) indicates that the inner forces oppose the inner virtual displacements, e.g. if
the virtual displacement OU1 = 0e1d X1 is subjected an inner force (0"1 d X2d x3) the
inner work is (-0"1 d X2d x 3)0e1d X1 ' The vectors p, q and u have three components
but the vectors (T and e have six components. The double subscript k in PkOUk and
qkouk means the summarizing on 1 to 3 but in O"kOek on 1 to 6.
The general formulation of the principle of virtual work for a deformable body
or
f PkOUk d V + f qkoukd A - f O"kOekd V = a (2.2.13)

V Aq V
is indepe ndent of the constitutive equations. For the three-dimensio nal boundary
problem of a deformable body the principle can be formulated as follow:
The sum of virtual work done by the internal and external f orces in ar-
bitra ry virtual displa cements satisfy ing the prescribed geometrical con-
straints and the strain-displacement relations is zero, i.e. the arbitrary field
variables OUk are kinematically adm issible.
An important case is restricted to linear elastic anisotropic bodies and is known as
the principle of minimum total potentia l energy. The external virtual work oWa is
stored as virtual strain energy oWf = - OWi, i.e. there exists a strain energy density
functio n
11 0
W f( E) = "2O"k Ek = "2 Ck/EkE/
Assumi ng conservative elasto-static problems, the principle of virtual work takes
the form
e = e(u ) (2.2.14)
with the total potential energy function II (u ) of the elastic body. IIa(u) and IIi(e)
are the potential functions of the external and the internal forces, respectively,
IIi = II (Ek) = ~ f
V
Ck/EkE/ d V,
IIa = IIa(Uk) = - f V
PkUk d V - f
Aq
qkU kd A
(2.2.15)
The principle of minimum total potential energy may be stated for linear elastic
bodies with the constraints a = Ce(u) as follows:
Of all the admissible displacement functions satisfying strain-stress rela-
tions and the prescribed boundary conditions, those that satisfy the equi-
librium equations make the total potential energy an absolute minimum.
The Euler-Lagrange equations of the variational problem yield the equilibrium and
mechanical boundary conditions of the problem . The minimum total potential en-
ergy is widely used in solutions to problems of structural mechanics.
The principle of virtual work can be formulated in a complementary statement.
Then virtual forces are introduced and the displacements are fixed. In analogy to
(2.2.13) we have the principle of complementary virtual work as
JW; +Jwt == JW* = 0
with the complimentary external and internal virtual works
JW; = !
Au
ukJqkdA, Jwt = - !
V
£k&rkd V (2.2.16)
Au denotes the portion of the boundary surface on which displacements are speci-
fied.
With the complementary stress energy density function
Wj(u) = ~SkZ(Tk(TZ' JWj(u) = SkzCTz&rk = £k&rk

and assuming conservative elasto-static problems, the principle of complementary
work can be formulated as principle of minimum total complementary energy
JIT* = JIT; + JIT;
or
(2.2.17)
The principle of minimum total complementary energy may be stated for linear
elastic bodies with constraints e = Sa as follows:
Ofall admissible stress systems satisfying equilibrium equations and stress
boundary conditions, those which are kinematically admissible make the
total complementary energy an absolute minimum.
The Euler-Lagrange equations of the variational statement yield now the compati-
bility equations and the geometrical boundary conditions.
The both well-known principles of structure mechanics, the principle of vir-
tual displacements (displacement method) and the theorem of Castigliano (principle
of virtual forces, force method) correspond to the principle of minimum potential
energy and complementary energy. The principle of minimum potential energy is

much more used in solution procedures, because it is usually far easier to formulate
assumptions about functions to represent admissible displacements as to formulate
admissible stress functions that ensure stresses satisfying mechanical boundary con-
ditions and equilibrium equations. It should be kept in mind that from the two prin-
ciples considered above no approximate theory can be obtained in its entirety. One
must either satisfy the strain-displacement relations and the displacement bound-
ary conditions exactly and get approximate equilibrium conditions or vice versa.
Both principles yield the risk to formulate approximate theories or solution proce-
dures which may be mathematically inconsistent. Reissner's variational statement
yields as Euler-Lagrange equations both, the equilibrium equations and the strain-
displacement relations, and has the advantage that its use would yield approximate
theories and solution procedures which satisfy both requirements to the same de-
gree and would be consistent. Reissner's variational theorem can be formulated as
follows:
Of all sets of stress and displacement functions of an elastic body e = Ca
which satisfy the boundary conditions, those which also satisfy the equi-
librium equations and the stress-displacements relations correspond to a
minimum ofthe functional 'fR defined as
'fR(u,er) = !
V
[erkck - Wj(erk)]dV - !
v
PkUkdV - !
Aq
qkuk d A (2.2.18)
Wj(erk) is the strain energy density function in terms of stresses only.
It should be noted that all stress and strain components must be varied while Pk
and qk are prescribed functions and therefore fixed. The variation of the functional
'fR (u, er) yields
sr« = !v [erk6e k + £kOcrk - aa:: Ocrk] dV - !v PkbukdV
-!
Aq
qkbuk d A,
(2.2.19)
where ck is determined by (2.2.3). b'fR(u,er) can be rearranged and we obtain fi-

nally
b'fR = ! {[e - a;r] berT - [D Ta+ p] buT} dV - ! qbuTdA (2.2 .20)

v ~
Since so and bu are arbitrary variations b'fR = 0 is satisfied only if

aer"
_IJ +Pi= 0 (2.2.21)
dXj
Summarizing we have considered two dual energy principles with Uk or crk as admis-
sible functions which have to be varied and one generalized variational principle,
where both, uk and crb have to be varied. The considerations are limited to lin-
ear problems of elasto-statics, i.e. the generalized Hooke's law describes the stress-
strain relations.
Expanding the considerations on dynamic problems without dissipative forces
following from external or inner damping effects the total virtual work has in the
sense of the d' Alambert principle an additional term which represents the inertial
forces
sw =-! v
piikbukdV - !
v
crkbekd V + !
v
PkbukdV + !
Aq
qkbukdA (2.2.22)
Equation (2.2.22) represents an extension of the principle of virtual work from stat-
ics to dynamics. p is the density of the elastic body.
For conservative systems of elasto-dynamics , the Hamilton principle replaces
the extremal principle of the total potential energy
! !
12 12
s (T - TI)dt == s L(Uk)dt = 0, T= ~! PUkUkdV (2.2.23)

h I] v
TI(u) is the potential energy given beforehand and T(u) is the so-called kinetic
energy. L = T - TI is the Lagrangean function.
In the contracted vector-matrix notation we can summarize:
Conservative elasto-static problems
TI(u) =~! v
T
cre dV - !v
puTdV - !
Aq
T
qu dA,
bTI =!v
crbeTdV - !
V
pbuTdV - !
Aq
qbuTdA =0
(2.2.24)
Conservative elasto-dynamic problems
L(u) = T(u) - TI(u), T(u) = ~ !

V
puTudV,
(2.2.25)
!
12
s L(u)dt =0
I]
All variations are related to the displacement vector u. For the stress and the strain
vector we have to take into consideration that (T = cree) = cr[e(u)] and for the time
integrations
(2.2.26)
For non-conservative systems of elastodynamics, the virtual work bW includes an

approximate damping term
-! V
fluTbudV
with fl as a damping parameter and Eq. (2.2.22) is substituted by
sw = - !(PU
V
T + fluT)budV - !
V
b(uTe)dV - !
V
pbudV
-!
Aq
qbudA
(2.2.27)
A generalized Hamilton's principle in conjunction with the Reissner's varia-

tional statement can be presented as
12
bX(u,u) = b ![T(U) - tpR(u,u)]dt = 0,

11
where T(u) is the kinetic energy as above, tpR(U,U) the Reissner's functional
(2.2.18).
2.2.3 Variational Methods
The variational principles can be used to obtain, in a mathematical way, the govern-
ing differential equations and associated boundary conditions as the Euler-Lagrange
equations of the variational statement. Now we consider the use of the variational
principles in the solution of the model equations. We seek in the sense of the clas-
sical variational methods, approximate solutions by direct methods, i.e. the approx-
imate solution is obtained directly by applying the same variational statement that
are used to derive the fundamental equations.
Approximate methods are used when exact solutions to a problem cannot be de-
rived. Among the approximation methods, Ritz method is a very convenient method
based on a variational approach. The variational methods of approximation de-
scribed in this textbook are limited to Rayleigh-Ritz method for elasto-statics and
elasto-dynamics problems of anisotropic elasticity theory and to some extent on
weighted-residual methods.
The Rayleigh-Ritz method is based on variational statements, e.g. the principle
of minimum total potential energy, which is equivalent to the fundamental differ-
ential equations as well as to the so-called natural or static boundary conditions
including force boundary conditions. This variational formulation is known as the
weak form of the model equations. The method was proposed as the direct method
by Rayleigh and a generalization was given by Ritz.
The starting point for elasto-static problems is the total elastic potential energy
functional
II = ~! eTCedV -
V
!
V
pTudV - !
Aq
qTudA
= ~ !(Du)TCDUdV -
V
!
V
pTudV - !
Aq
qTitdA
(2.2.28)
The variations are related to the displacements U and the strains e which have to be
substituted with help of the differential matrix D, (2.2.6), by the displacements. The
approximate solution is sought in the form of a finite linear combination. Looking
first at a scalar displacement approach, the approximation of the scalar displacement
function U(XI, x2, X2) is given by the Ritz approximation
N
U(XI, X2, X3) = L aiqJi(xI, X2, X3)
i=l
or
N
U(XI, X2, X3) = L aiqJi(xI, x2, X3) + qJO(XI, X2, X3) (2.2.29)
i=l
The qJi are known functions chosen a priori, named approximation functions or
coordinate functions. The a, denote undetermined parameters named generalized
coordinates . The approximation U has to make (2.2.28) extremal
(2.2.30)
This approximation is characterized by a relative extremum. From (2.2.30) comes
tt in form of a function of the parametersa, and e5fI(ai) = 0 yields N stationary
conditions
afI(ai) _ 0
oa, -, i=I,2, . . . ,N (2.2.31)
tt may be written as a quadratic form in a, and from Eqs. (2.2.31) follows a system
of N linear equations allowing the N unknown parameters a i to be determined. In
order to ensure a solution of the system of linear equations and a convergence of the
approximate solution to the true solution as the number N of the a, is increased, the
qJi values have to fulfill the following requirements :
• qJa satisfies specified inhomogeneous geometric boundary conditions, the so-

called essential conditions of the variational statement and qJi, i = 1,2, .. . , N
satisfy the homogeneous form of the geometric boundary conditions .
• qJi are continuous as required in the variational formulation, e.g. they should have
a non-zero contribution to Tl,
• qJi are linear independent and complete.
The completeness property is essential for the convergence of the Ritz approxima-
tion. Polynomial and trigonometric functions are selected examples of complete
systems of functions.
Generalizing the considerations to three-dimensional problems and using vec-

tor-matrix notation it follows
ii(Xl, X2, X3) ==

[
iiI
~2
] = ar
[aftl'l]
tl'2 (2.2.32)
U3 a§tl'3
or
ii(Xl, X2, X3) = GTa (2.2.33)
with
GT=[~1;2~]T
tl'3
[=!;~:~],
oT oT tI'§
o 0
a=[:a3~]
G is the matrix of the approximation functions, tl'i and 0 are N-dimensional vectors
and a, are N-dimensional subvectors of the vector a of the unknown coordinates.
The application of the Ritz method using the minimum principle of elastic potential
energy II has the following steps:
1. Choose the approximation function ii = G T a.
2. Substitute ii into II
tr(ii) =
v
~ !(Dii) TCDiidV - !
v
pTiidV - !
Aq
qTiidA
(2.2.34)
1
= -aTKa -aTf
2
with
K = !(DG)TC(DG)dV =
v
! v
BTCBdV,
f = !
v
GTpdV + !
Aq
GTqdA
3. Formulate the stationary conditions of tr(a)

dtr(a)
- -- = 0
da
i.e. with
a
da (aTKa) = 2Ka,
follows
Ka =f (2.2.35)
K is called the stiffness matrix, a the vector of unknowns and f the force vector.
These notations are used in a generalized sense .
4. Solve the system of linear equations Ka = f. The vector a of unknown coeffi-

cients is known.
5. Calculate the approximation solution u = aTrp and the e = Du,O' = Ce/ ...
For an increasing number N , the previously computed coefficients of a remain un-
changed provided the previously chosen coordinate functions are not changed . Since
the strains are calculated from approximate displacements, strains and stresses are
less accurate than displacements.
The Ritz approximation of elasto-dynamic problems is carried out in an analo-
gous manner and can be summarized as follows . For conservative problems we start
with the variational statement (2.2.23). The displacement vector u is now a function
of X and t and the a-vector a function of t. The stationary condition yields
~ {~aT (t)Ka(t) - aT(t)f(t) + aT(t)Ma(t) } = 0 (2.2.36)
Ma(t) + Ka(t) = f(t), (2.2.37)
M = J pGTGdV,
J
V
K = (DG) T C(DG)d V/
v
f = J
v
GTpdV + J
Aq
GTi'jdA
The matrix G depends on x, p and q on X and t. M is called the mass matrix.

An direct derivation of a damping matrix from the Ritz approximation analo-
gous to the K- and the M -matrix of (2.2.37) is not possible. In most engineering
applications (2.2.37) has an additional damping term and the damping matrix is for-
mulated approximately as a linear combination of mass- and stiffness-matrix (modal
damping)
Ma(t) + Coti(t) + Ka(t) = f(t), Co ~ aM + 13K (2.2.38)
In the case of the study of free vibrations, we write the time dependence of a(t) in
the form
a(t) = acos(wt + rp) (2.2.39)
and from (2.2.38) with CD = O,f(t) = 0 comes the matrix eigenvalue problem
2
(K - w M )a = 0/ det[K - w 2 M ] = 0 (2.2.40)
For N coordinate functions the algebraic equation (2.2.40) yields N eigenfrequen-
cies of the deformable body.
The Rayleigh-Ritz method approximates the continuous deformable body by a
finite number of degree of freedoms , i.e. the approximated system is less flexible
than the actual body. Consequently for the approximated energy potential IT :::; II.
The energy potential converges from below. The approximate displacements satisfy
the equilibrium equations only in the energy sense and not pointwise, unless the
solution converges to the exact solution. The Rayleigh-Ritz method can be applied
to all mechanical problems since a virtual statement exists, i.e. a weak form of the
model equations including the natural boundary conditions. If the displacements
are approximate, the approximate eigenfrequencies are higher than the exact, i.e.
w;:::w.
Finally some brief remarks on weighted residual methods are given. The funda-
mental equation in the displacement approach may be formulated in the form
A(u) =f (2.2.41)
A is a differential operator. We seek again an approximate solution (2.2.29), where
now the parameters a, are determined by requiring the residual
RN = A (f
1=1
aiC[Ji + C[JO) - f f 0 (2.2.42)
be orthogonal to N linear independent weight function J/Ji
!
V
RNJ/Jidx = 0, i = 1,2, .. . r N (2.2.43)
C[Jo, C[Ji should be linear independent and complete and fulfill all boundary condi-
tions. Various known special methods follow from (2.2.43) . They differ from each
other due to the choice of the weight functions J/J(
• Galerkin's method J/Ji == C[Ji,
• Least-squares method J/Ji == A(C[Ji),
• Collocation method J/Ji == S(x - Xi) (S(x - Xi) = 1 if X = Xi otherwise 0)
The Galerkin method is a generalization of the Ritz method, if it is not possible to
construct a weak form statement. Otherwise the Galerkin and the the Ritz method for
weak formulations of problems yield the same solution equations, if the coordinate
functions C[Ji in both are the same.
The classical variational methods of Ritz and Galerkin are widely used to solve
problems of applied elasticity or structural mechanics . When applying the Ritz or
Galerkin method to special problems involving, e.g. a two-dimensional functional
IJ[U(X1' X2)] or a two-dimensional differential equation A[U(X1' X2)] = f(X1' X2),
an approximative solution is usually assumed in the form
N N M
U(X1' X2) = I:>iC[Ji(X1, X2) or U(X1' X2) = L L aijC[J1J x1 )C[J2j(X2),(2.2.44)
i=l i=l j=l
where C[Ji(X1, X2) or C[Jli(X1), C[J2j(X2) are a priori chosen trial functions and the a,
or aij are unknown constants. The approximate solution depends very strongly on
the assumed trial functions.
To overcome the shortcoming of these solution methods Vlasov and Kan-
torovich suggested an approximate solution in the form
N
U(XI I X2) = I:>i(xI)<Pi(xI IX2) (2.2.45)
i=l
The <Pi are again a priori chosen trial functions but the ai(xI) are un-
known coefficient functions of one of the independent variables. The condition
oIT[U(XI IX2)] = a or with dA = dXldx2
/ RN(u)<PidA = a,i = 1/2 / .. . , N

A
lead to a system of N ordinary differential equations for the unknown functions
a;(Xl) ' Generally it is advisable to choose if possible the trial functions <Pi as func-
tions of one independent variable, i.e. <Pi = <Pi(X2), since otherwise the system of
ordinary differential equations will have variable coefficients . The approximate so-
lution U(XI I X2) tends in regard of the arbitrariness of the assumed trial function
<Pi(X2) to a better solution in the xl-direction. The obtained approximative solution
can be further improved in the x2-direction in the following manner. In a first step
the assumed approximation
N
U(XI I X2) = I:>i(xI )<Pi(X2) (2.2.46)
i=l
yields the functions ai(xI) by solving the resulting set of ordinary differential
equations with constant coefficients. In the next step, with ai(xI) == ail (x}) and
<Pi(X2) == adx2), i.e.
N
U[I](XI IX2) = I:>i2(x2)ail(xI),
i=l
the ail (Xl) are the given trial functions and the unknown functions adx2) can be
determined as before the ail (Xl) by solving a set of ordinary differential equations.
After completing the first cycle, which yields u[I] (XII X2), the procedure can be
continued iteratively. This iterative solution procedure is denoted in literature as
variational iteration or extended Vlasov-Kantorowich method. The final form of the
generated solution is independent of the initial choice of the trial function <Pi(X2)
and the iterative procedure converges very rapidly. It can be demonstrated, that the
iterative generated solutions U(X I I X2) agree very closely with the exact analytical
solutions U(XI I X2) even with a single term approximation
(2.2.47)
In engineering applications, e.g. for rectangular plates, the single term approxima-
tions yield in general sufficient accuracy.
Summarizing it should be said that the most difficult problem in the application
of the classical variational methods or weighted residual methods is the selection of
coordinate functions, especially for structures with irregular domains. The limita-
tions of the classical variational methods can be overcome by numerical methods ,
e.g. the finite element method which is discussed in more detail in Chap . 11.
2.2.4 Problems
1. An anisotropic body is subjected to a hydrostatic pressure (/1 = (/2 = (/3 = - p,

(/4 = (/5 = (/6 = O.
a) Calculate the strain state e.
b) Calculate the stress state (T for a change of the coordinate system obtained
by a rotation TO".
Solution :
a) The generalized Hooke's law yields (Eq. 2.1.20)
£1 = -(5 11 + 5 12 + 5 13 )P, £4 = -(5 14 + 524 + 534)p,
£2 = -(512 + 522 + 523)p, £5 = -(5 15 + 5 25 + 5 3S)p,
£3 = -(5 13 +523 + 5 33 )P, £6 = -(516 +526 + 536)p
Conclusion : A hydrostatic pressure in an anisotropic solid yields exten-
sional and shear strains.
b) From (2.1.39) follows
(/~ = _p(c 2 + S2) = -p, (/~ = 0,
(/2
= _p(s2 + c 2) = -p, (/~ = 0,
(/~ = -p, (/~ = -p( -cs + cs) = 0
2. An anisotropic body has a pure shear stress state (/1 = (/2 = (/3 (/5
(/6 = 0, (/4 = t.
a) Calculate the strain state e.
b) Compare the strain state for the anisotropic case with the isotropic case.
Solution:
a) Equations (2.1.20) yield
£1 = 5 14 t, £2 = 5 24 t, £3 = 5 34 t,
£4 = 5 44 t, £5 = 545 t, £6 = 5 46 t
The anisotropic body has extensional and shear strains in all coordinate
planes.
b) In an isotropic body a pure shear stress state yields only shearing strains:
514 = 524 = 534 = 0
3. Consider a prismatic homogeneous anisotropic bar which is fixed at one end.
The origin of the coordinates Xl, X2, x 3 is placed in the centroid of the fixed
section and the X3-axis is directed along the bar axis, 1 and A are the length
and the cross-section of the undeformed bar. Assume that the bar at the point
Xl = X2 = x3 = 0 has no displacement and torsion:
U1 = U2 = U3 = 0, U1,3 = u2 ,3 = U2,1 - u1 ,2 = 0
a) A force F acts on the bar on the cross-section x3 = 1 and the stress state is
determined by (/1 = (/2 = (/4 = (/5 = (/6 = 0, (/3 = F / A. Determine the
strains, the displacements and the extension of the axis.
b) The fixed bar is deformed only under its own weight: P1 = P2 = 0,
P3 = gpoDetermine the strain state and the displacements and calcu-
late the displacements in the point (0,0, 1).
Solution:
a) The generalized Hooke's law (2.1.20) with
0"1 = O"z = 0"4 = 0"5 = 0"6 = 0, 0"3 = FIA = 0" f:. 0,
gives
£1 = 5130", £Z = 5Z30", £3 = 5 330",
£4 = 5340", £5 = 5350", £6 = 5360"
The displacements can be determined by the introduction of the following
equations
5 130" = U1,l, 5Z30" = uz,z, 5330" = u3,3,
5340" = U3,Z + uZ,3, 5350" = u3,1 + u1,3, 5360" = UZ,l + u1,Z
The equations
U1 = 0"(513X1 + 0.5536XZ),
Uz = 0"(0 .5536X1 + 5z3xz),
u3 = 0"(535 X1 + 5 34XZ + 533 X3)
satisfy the displacement differential equations and the boundary conditions
which are prescribed at the point Xl = Xz = X3 = O.
Conclusion : The stress-strain formulae show that an anisotropic tension
bar does not only lengthens in the force direction x3 and contracts in the
transverse directions, but also undergoes shears in all planes parallel to the
coordinate planes. The cross-sections of the bar remain plane. The stress
states of an isotropic or an anisotropic bar are identical, the anisotropy
effects the strain state only.
b) The stress in a bar under its own weight is
0"1 = O"z = 0"4 = 0"5 = 0"6 = 0,0"3 = pg(l - X3)
The stress-strain displacement equations are
£1 = Ul,1 = 513Pg(l - X3), £4 = U3,Z + UZ,3 = 5 34Pg(l- X3),
£Z = UZ,Z = 5z 3pg(l- X3) , £5 = U3,1 + U1 ,3 = 535Pg(l- X3),
£3 = U3,3 = 533pg(l - X3), £6 = UZ,l + U1 ,Z = 536Pg(1 - X3)
The boundary conditions are identical to case a) and the following dis-
placement state which satisfies all displacement differential equations and
the conditions at the point Xl = Xz = x3 = 0 can be calculated by integra-
tion
u1 = pg[-0.5535x~ + 513X1 (l - X3) + 0.5536XZ (I - X3)],
uz = pg[-0.5534X~ + 5Z3 XZ(l - X3) + 0.5536X1 (I - X3)],
u3 = pg[-0.5513X1 + 0 .55z3X~
+ 0.5536x1xZ + (5 34XZ + 535Xdl + 0.55 33X3(21 - X3)]
Conclusion: The cross-section does not remain plane, it is deformed to
the shape of a second-order surface and the bar axis becomes curved . The
centroid of the cross-section x3 = I is displaced in all three directions
u1 (0, 0,1) = -0.5pg535I Z,
Uz (0,0,1) = -0.5pg5 34I Z,
U3(O, O,l) = 0.5pg5331Z
4. Show that for a composite beam subjected to a distributed continuous load
q(X1) the differential equation and the boundary conditions can be derived us-
ing the extremal principle of potential energy.
Solution:
The beam is of the length I, width b and height h. q(Xl) is the lateral load per
unit length . The average elasticity modulus of the beam is E1 . With the stress-
strain-displacement relations from Bernoulli beam theory
d 2U3
0"1 = E 1£1, £1 = - X3 - -
dXI
the strain energy function WI is seen to be
1 1 2 1 2 (d 2U3) 2
WI = :20"1 £1 = :2 E 1£1 = :2 E 1X3 dXI
and
1 b/2 h/2 2 1 2
n, = ff f
o - b/2 - h/2
~1 (~~{) X~dX3dx2dxl = E~I f (~~{)
1 0 1
dXl
with inertial moment I = bh3 /12 for a rectangular cross-section.

In the absence of body forces, the potential function n a of the external load
q(Xl ) is
1
u, = - f
o
q(Xl )U3(Xl) d xl
and the total elastic potential energy is
n (U3) ~ E~l J(~2:r ) 2 dx, - J q(x,)u3(x, )d x,

o 0
From the stationary condition bn(U3) = a it follows that
Jil(u,) ~ E~ 1 J6 ( ~2:r ) 2 d x, - Jq(Xl ); u, (x,) dx, ~0

o 0
There is no variation of E 1 I or q(x d , because they are specified.
Integrating the first term by parts twice yields
d U3)] 1 [
bn(U3) = [ E1[-d 2u3
2 s ( -dx - E1[-d 2u3
2 bU3] 1
dX 1 1 0 dX 1 0
+ J[E'l~~r -
o
q(x ,)] 'U3dx , =0
Since the variations are arbitrary the equation is satisfied if
E lI(U3)"1 = q
and either
E lI(U3)" =0
or u~ is specified and
ElI(U3)1II = 0
or u3 is specified at Xl = 0 and Xl = 1.
The beam differential equation is the Euler-Lagrange equation of the vari-
ational statement orr = 0, U3, u~ represent essential boundary conditions,
and El I u~, El I U~' are natural boundary conditions of the problem. Note that
the boundary conditions include the classical conditions of simply supports,
clamped and free edges.
5. The beam of example 4. may be moderately thick and the effects of transverse
shear deformation £5 and transverse normal stress are taken into account. Show
that the differential equations and boundary condition can be derived using the
Reissner's variational principle. The beam material behavior may be isotropic.
Solution:
To apply Reissner's variational statement one must assume admissible func-
tions for the displacements Ul(Xl),U3(xd and for the stresses 0"1(Xl,X3),
0"3(Xl, X3), O"S(Xl, X3) . For the beam with rectangular cross-section and lateral
loading q(Xl) follow in the frame of beam theory
U2 = 0, 0"2 = 0"4 = 0"6 = 0
As in the classical beam theory (Bernoulli-theory) we assume that the beam
cross-sections undergo a translation and a rotation, the cross-sections are as-
sumed to remain plane but not normal to the deformed middle surface. There-
fore we can assume in the simplest case
Ul = X3o/(Xl), U3 = W(Xl)
and the strain-displacement relations may be written
aUl I aU3 aU3 aUl I
£1 = :;-
OXI
= X3o/ (xd, £3 = :;-
oX3
= 0, £5 = :;-
oXl
+ :;-
oX3
=W (Xl) + o/(Xl)
For the stresses 0"1, 0"3 and 0"5 the following functions are assumed
M bh 3
::: i: X[:;21:~~ i (:;2)'] ,

0"5 = ~~ [1 - (h72) 2], A= bh
The assumed functions for 0'1 and 0'5 are identical to those of the Bernoulli
beam theory and 0'3 may be derived from the stress equation of equilibrium in
the thickness direction, Eq. (2.2.1), with
0'3 (+h/2) = q,O'l (-h/2) = 0
The bending moment M and the shear force resultant Q will be defined in the
usual manner
+h/2 +h/2
M(X1) = J bO'l dX3, Q(Xl) = J bO'S d x3
-h/2 -h /2
Now Reissner's functional 'f'R(U,O'), e.g. (2.2.18), takes with the assumption
above the form
I +h/2
'f'R(U,O') =JJ o -h /2
{0'1E1 + O'SES - 2~ [O'f + O'j + 2(1 + v)O'l]} bdx3dx1
I
-J o
qWd x1
I +h/2
= JJ {0'1 X3tjJ/(X1) + 0'5 [W/(X1) + tjJ(xd]
o -h /2
I
- 2~ [O'f + O'j + 2(1 + v)O'l] } bdxl - J

o
qwd X1
Substituting M and Q and neglecting the term 0'3 which only depends on q and
not on the basic unknown functions tjJ, W respectively, M and Q, and yields no
contribution to the variation i5'f' we obtain
'f'(w, tjJ, M, Q) =
I
J[ /+ Q(w /+ tjJ) - 2EI + 6vqM

MtjJ
M2
3Q2 ]
SEA - SGA - qw dX1
o
I
i5'f'R = J [Mi5tjJ' + tjJ/15M + Q( i5w/ + i5tjJ) + (w/ + tjJ )i5Q

o
M 6vq 6Q ]
- EI i5M + SEA 15M - SGA bQ - qou: dXl =0
Integration the terms Mi5tjJ' and Qi5w/ by parts and rearranging the equation
Olf'R = [Motp + Qow]b + J {[Q + M']otp - [Q' - q]ow
M 6vq ]0 [ 6Q]
+ [ tp , - EI + SEA oM + tp + w
I }
- SGA oQ dXI = 0
The first term yields the natural boundary conditions of the variational state-
ment:
a) Either M = a or tp must be prescribed at Xl = O,l.
b) Either Q = 0 or w must be prescribed at Xl = O,l.
The variations otp, OW, oM and oQ are all arbitrary independent functions of Xl
and therefore olf'R = a only if
_ dM(XI)
d + Q( Xl ) -_ 0
,
dQ(xd + q(Xl) = 0,
d Xl
dtp(XI) _ M(xd 6vq(XI) _ 0
dXI EI + SEA - ,
dW(XI) 1h( ) _ 6Q(XI) = 0
dXI + 'r Xl SGA
The both equations for the stress resultants are identical with the equations of
the classical Bernoulli's theory. The term (w' + tp) in the fourth equation de-
scribes the change in the angle between the beam cross-section and the middle
surface during the deformation. The term (w' + tp) is proportional to the aver-
age shear stress Q/A and so a measure of shear deformation. With GA -t 00
the shear deformation tends to zero and tp to -w' as assumed in the Bernoulli's
theory. The third term in the third equation depends on the lateral load q and
Poisson's ratio v and tends to zero for v -t O. This term described the effect of
the transverse normal stress (/3. which will be vanish if v = 0 as in the classical
beam theory.
Substituting the differential equations for tp and w into the differential relations
for M and Q leads to
QI
6 (XI ) ] -QXI
EI [ tp " ( Xl ) +v5~ ( ) =0,
S
6GA[tp'(XI) + W"(XI)] + q(XI) = a
or
EI [tp"(XI) - v~ q(XI)] - ~GA[tp + w'] = 0

S EA 6 '
S
6GA[tp'(XI) +w"(xd] +q(xd = 0
Derivation and rearrangement yield a differential equation of 3rd order for
tp(XI)
EItpl1l (xd = -q(xd + v~ q'(xd

5 EA
With
Q(x )
I
= dM(xd
dXI
= E1 [tp"(XI ) + v~5 Q'(X
EA
I)]
and
Q(xd = ~ ~~ [tp(xd + w'(xdJ

follows an equation for w' (Xl)
I
W
'()
Xl= -tp (Xl) +:56 GA tp Xl + v:56 q(X
E1 [ " ( )
EA ) ]
Neglecting with v = a the effect of the transverse normal stress 0"3 we get the
Timoshenko's beam equation
One can note that as G -+ 00 the shear deformation tends to vanish as assumed
in classical beam theory, i.e. tp(XI) = -w' (Xl) and the classical beam equa-
tions follow to
E1w""(XI) = q(xd,
M( XI) = -E1w"(XI),
Q(XI) = -E1w"'(XI)
The derivation of the Timoshenko's beam equation for laminated beams one
can find in more detail in Sect. 7.3.
6. Derive the free vibration equations for the moderately thick beam, example 5,
using Hamilton's principle in conjunction with the Reissner variational theo-
rem.
Solution:
In order to derive the free vibration equations we apply the generalized Hamil-
ton's principle, i.e. the Hamilton 's principle in conjunction with the Reissner
Variational statement
12
JX(U,O") = J J [T(u) - lfR(U,u)Jdt = a

11
T(u) is the kinetic energy and lfR(u, er) the Reissner functional of the moder-
ately thick beam . lfR(u ,er) is known from example 5 and the kinetic energy for
the beam may be written as
with
h/2 h/2
I= !
-h/2
bx§dx3' A = !
-h/2
bdx3
and the mass density p of the beam material. The substitution of T[u] above
and 'f(w, t/J, M,Q) of example 5 in the functional X yields
oxCu,u) = 0 Jj Up H~~)'
11 0
+A ( : ) ' ]
2
I I M 6vqM 3Q2 ]}
- [ Mt/J + Q(w + t/J) - 2EI + SEA - SGA - qw drdx,
12 I
= ! ! {PI (~:t) bt/J + A ~2t~) bw

11 0 .
- Mbt/J' - t/J'bM - Q(bw ' + bt/J) - (W' + t/J)bQ
M 6vq 6Q }
+ EI bM - SEA bM - SGA bQ - qbw drdx,
Integration the terms Mbt/J' + Qbw' by parts

I I
! Mbt/J'dxl = Mbt/JI~ - ! M'bt/Jdxl,

o 0
I I
!
o
Qbw'dxl = Qbwl~ - !0
Q'bwdxl,
rearranging the equation bX and setting bX = 0 yield

12 12 I 2
!rMbt/J+ Qbw]b + ! ! {[PI~X +Q-M'] bt/J

/[1 I
Q +qA
(iPW)]
iJt
11
bw+
0 [,
t/J -
M
EI +
6Vq ]
SEA bM
2
+ [t/J + w' - S~~] bA} drdx, = 0

and the equations for free vibrations follow with q == 0
Q -:;--
a2 tjJ =
aM + pI-=;z 0,
OXl _o_t_
The underlined terms represent the contribution of rotatory inertia and the effect
of transverse shear deformation.
The system of four equations can be reduced to a system of two equations for
the unknowns wand tjJ. Substitution of
a2 tjJ -
Q = E I -2
a2 tjJ
pI -=;Z,
bh3
I = -12' A = bh
aX
1
ot
in the second and fourth equation leads
The equations for forced or free vibrations are given in Sect. 7.3 in a more
general form .
3. Effective Material Moduli for Composites
Composite materials have at least two different material components which are
bonded. The material response of a composite is determined by the material moduli
of all constituents, the volume or mass fractions of the single constituents in the
composite material, by the quality of their bonding , i.e. of the behavior of the in-
terfaces, and by the arrangement and distribution of the fibre reinforcement, i.e.the
fibre architecture.
The basic assumptions made in material science approach models of fibre rein-
forced composites are:
• The bond between fibres and matrix is perfect.
• The fibres are continuous and parallel aligned in each ply, they are packed regu-
larly, i.e. the space between fibres is uniform .
• Fibre and matrix materials are linear elastic, they follow approximately Hooke's
law and each elastic modulus is constant.
• The composite is free of voids.
Composite materials are heterogeneous, but in simplifying the analysis of compos-
ite structural elements in engineering applications, the heterogeneity of the material
is neglected and approximately overlayed to a homogeneous material. The most
important composites in structural engineering applications are laminate s and sand-
wiches. Each single layer of laminates or sandwich faces is in general a fibre rein-
forced lamina. For laminates we have therefore two different scales of modelling :
• The modelling of the mechanical behavior of a lamina, is called the micro-
mechanical or microscopic approach of a composite . The micro-mechanical mod-
elling leads to a correlation between constituent properties and average effective
composite properties. Most simple mixture rules are used in engineering applica-
tions. Whenever possible, the average properties of a lamina should be verified
experimentally by the tests described in Sect. 3.1 or Fig. 3.1.
• The modelling of the global behavior of a laminate constituted of several quasi-
homogeneous laminae is called the macroscopic approach of a composite.
Fibre reinforced material is in practice neither monolithic nor homogeneous, but it
is impossible to incorporate the real material structure into design and analysis of
composite or any other structural component. Therefore the concept of replacing the
heterogeneous material behavior with an effective material which is both homoge-
neous and monolithic, thus characterized by the generalized Hooke's law, will be
78 3. Effective Material Moduli for Composites
test test
- T
test
T
- T
GLT= -
l'
Fig. 3.1. Experimental testing of the mechanical properties of an UD-layer: EL E1>
ET = E2, GLT = G12, VLT = VI2
used in engineering applications . We assume that the local variations in stress and
strain state are very small in comparison to macroscopical measurements of material
behavior.
In the following section some simple approaches to the lamina properties are
given with help of the mixture rules and simple semi-empirical consideration. The
more theoretical modelling in Sect. 3.2 has been developed to establish bounds on
effective properties. The modelling of the average mechanical characteristics of lam-
inates will be considered in Chap. 4.
3.1 Elementary Mixture Rules for Fibre-Reinforced Laminae
In Sect. 1.1 the formulas for volume fraction, mass fraction and density for fibre
reinforced composites are given by (1.1.1) - (1.1.5). The rule of mixtures is based
on the statement that the composite property is the sum of the properties of each
constituent multiplied by its volume fraction . The notation used is as follows:
E Young's modulus
v Poisson's ratio
G Shear modulus
(T Stress
f Strain
V, M Volume, mass
u, m Volume fraction, mass fraction
A Cross-section area
p Density
= =
The subscripts f and m refer to fibre and matrix, the subscripts L 1, T 2 refer
to the principal direction (fibre direction) and transverse to the fibre direction.
3.1 Elementary Mixture Rules for Fibre-Reinforced Laminae 79
3.1.1 Effective Density
The derivation of the effective density of fibre reinforced composites in terms of

volume fractions is given in Sect. 1.1
P= M = Mf+Mm = pfVf+PmVm
V V V (3.1.1)
= Pfvf + pmvm = Pfvf + Pm(1- vf)
In literature we also find vf == <P for the fibre volume fraction and we have
P = Pf<P + Pm(1- <P) (3.1.2)
In an actual lamina the fibres are randomly distributed over the lamina cross-section
and the lamina thickness is about 1 mm and much higher than the fibre diameter
(about 0,01 mm). Because the actual fibre cross-sections and the fibre packing gen-
erally are not known and can hardly be predicted exactly typical idealized regular
fibre arrangements are assumed for modelling and analysis, e.g. a layer-wise, square
or a hexagonal packing, and the fibre cross-sections are assumed to have circular
form. There exists ultimate fibre volume fractions v ( , which are less than 1 and
j max
depend on the fibre arrangements :
• square or layer-wise fibre packing - v (
j max
= 0.785,
• hexagonal fibre packing - v (
j
= 0.907
max
For real UD-laminae we have v ( about 0.50 - 0.65. Keep in mind that a lower
j max
fibre volume fraction results in lower laminae strength and stiffness under tension
in fibre-direction, but a very high fibre volume fraction close to the ultimate values
of vf may lead to a reduction of the lamina strength under compression in fibre
direction and under in-plane shear due to the poor bending of the fibres.
3.1.2 Effective Longitudinal Modulus of Elasticity
When an unidirectional lamina is acted upon by either a tensile or compression load

parallel to the fibres, it can be assumed that the strains of the fibres, matrix and
composite in the loading direction are the same (Fig. 3.2)
,1[
£ Lf = eLm = eL = T (3.1.3)
~ FL
I, I+ L)(
,I
Fig. 3.2. Mechanical model to calculate the effective Young's modulus EL
fL
The mechanical model has a parallel arrangement of fibres and matrix (Voigt model,
Sect. 2.1.1) and the resultant axial force Ft. of the composite is shared by both fibre
and matrix so that
h = h f + hm or Pi. = Ot A = (TLfA f + (TLmAm (3.1.4)
With Hooke's law it follows that
(TL = ELELI (TLf = ELfELfl (TLm = ELmELm
or
ELELA = EfELfA f + EmELmAm (3 .1.5)
Since the strains of all phases are assumed to be identical (iso-strain condition),
(3.1.5) reduces to
Af Am
EL = ErA + Emil (3 .1.6)
with
(3.1.7)
and the effective modulus E L can be written as follows

(3.1.8)
Equation (3.1.8) is referred to the Voigt estimate or is more familiarly known as the
rule of mixture . The predicted values of EL are in good agreement with experimental
results. The stiffness in fibre direction is dominated by the fibre modulus. The ratio
of the load taken by the fibre to the load taken by the composite is a measure of the
load shared by the fibre
hf ELf
h = EL vf (3 .1.9)
Since the fibre stiffness is several times greater than the matrix stiffness, the second
term in (3.1.8) may be neglected
(3.1.10)
3.1.3 Effective Transverse Modulus of Elasticity
The mechanical model in Fig. 3.3 has an arrangement in a series of fibre and matrix
(Reuss model, Sect. 2.1.1). The stress resultant Fy respectively the stress (Ty is equal
for all phases (iso-stress condition)
Fy = FYf = FYml (Ty = (TYf = (TYm (3.1.11)
From Fig . 3.3 it follows that
,1b ,1bf + ,1bm
,1b = ,1bf + ,1bml er = - = -----"-----:--- (3.1.12)
b b
1 FT
b + Llb
! FT
Fig. 3.3. Mechanical model to calculate the effective transverse modulus ET
and with
b = vfb + (1- vf)b = bf + b m (3.1.13)
and
,1bf vfb ,1b m (1 - vf)b
ET = vfb b + (1- vf)b b = VfETf + (1 - Vf)ETm (3.1.14)
with
Using Hooke's law for the fibre, the matrix and the composite
(TT = ETET, (TTf = ETfETf, (TTm = ETmETm (3.1.15)
substituting Eqs. (3.1.15) in (3.1.14) and considering (3.1.11) gives the formula of
ET
1 vf 1 - vf vf Vm
-
Er
= -
Ef
+ -Em
- = -
Ef
+ -
Em
(3.1.16)
Equation (3.1.16) is referred to Reuss estimate or sometimes called the inverse rule
of mixtures. The predicted values of ET are seldom in good agreement with experi-
mental results. With Em « E f follows from (3.1.16) ET ~ E m (1 - vf)-l, i.e. ET
is dominated by the matrix modulus Em .
3.1.4 Effective Poisson's Ratio
Assume a composite is loaded in the on-axis direction (parallel to the fibres) as

shown in Fig. 3.4. The major Poison 's ratio is defined as the negative of the ratio of
the normal strain in the transverse direction to the normal strain in the longitudinal
direction
ET
VLT = -- (3.1.17)
EL
With
b - .1b
/ + .1/
/
Fig. 3.4. Mechanical model to calculate the major Poisson's ration VLT
.1b .1bf + .1bm

-fT = vLTfL = -T = - b = -[VffTf + (1 - Vf)fTm],
fTf fTm
vf = --,
fLf
vm = ---
fLm
it follows that
fT = -VLTfL = -vfvffLf - (1 - vf )VmfLm (3.1.18)
The longitudinal strains in the composite, the fibres and the matrix are assumed to be
equal (Voigt model of parallel connection) and the equation for the major Poisson's
ratio reduces to
(3.1.19)
The major Poisson's ratio vLT obeys the rule of mixture. The minor Poisson's ratio
VTL = -fL!fT can be derived with the symmetry condition or reciprocal relation-
ship
VTL VLT
-=-,
ET EL
ET EfE m
vTL = VLT- = (vfvf
EL + vmvm) (E E)( E E )
vf m + Vm f vf f + Vm m
(3.1.20)
The values of Poisson's ratios for fibres or matrix material rarely differ significantly,
so that neither matrix nor fibre characteristics dominate the major or the minor elas-
tic constants vLT and VTL.
3.1.5 Effective In-plane Shear Modulus
Apply a pure shear stress T to a lamina as shown in Fig. 3.5. Assuming that the shear
stresses on the fibre and the matrix are the same, but the shear strains are different
T T T
'Ym = G m' 'Yf = G/ l' = GLT
(3.1.21)
The model is a connection in series (Reuss model) and therefore

T = Tf = Tm, .1 = .1 f + .1 m, .1 = b tan l' = l'fb f + 'Ymbm (3.1.22)
and with
b = bf + bm = (vf + vm)b = vfb + (1 - vf)b (3.1.23)

it follows that
/Jf = Ifvfb, /J m = Im(1-Vf)b (3.1.24)

Using Hooke's law we have T/G LT = (T/Gm)Vm + (T/Gf)vf which yields
GmGf GmGf
GLT = ( ) (3.1.25)
1 - vf Gf + vfG m (1 -1J)Gf + 1JGm
Note that assuming isotropic fibres and matrix material
G _ Em (3.1.26)
m - 2(1 + vm )
3.1.6 Discussion on the Elementary Mixture Rules
Summarizing the rule of mixtures as a simple model to predict effective engineering

moduli it must be kept in mind that there is no interaction between fibres and matrix.
There are only two different types of material response: the Voigt or iso-strain model
in which applied strain is the same in both material phases (parallel response) and
the Reuss or iso-stress model in which the applied stress is the same in both material
phases (series response).
For an aligned fibre composite the effective material behavior may be assumed
as transversally isotropic and five independent effective engineering moduli have to
be estimated. With X2 - X3 as the plane of isotropy (Table 2.5) we have
E1 = EL , E2 = E3 = ET, E4 = G 23 = GTT = ET/[2(1 + VTT)],
E5 = Gl3 = E6 = G12 = GLT, v12 = vis = vLT, v23 = vTT,
VLTET = VTLEL
Ifwe make choice of E L, E T, GLT, GTT, VLT as the five independent moduli the rules
of mixture yield
matrix
fibre
matrix --IT T
Fig. 3.5. Mechanical model to calculate the effective in-plane shear modulus GLY
EL =v fE f+(l-Vf)E ml
EfE m
ET = -.".---":----:-
vfE m + (1 -
,vf)E/
(3.1.27)
GfGm
GLT - ---""----..,--
- vfG m + (1 - vf)G/
VLT =vfvf+(l-vf)v m
The shear modulus GTT corresponds to an iso-shear strain model and is analogous
to the axial tensile modulus case
(3.1.28)
It may be noted that neither the iso-shear stress nor the iso-shear strain condition
for G LT and GTT estimation are close to the real situation of shearing loaded fibre
reinforced composites. Therefore the equations for GLT and GTT cannot be expected
as very reliable .
If one considers the approximative predictions for the effective moduli EL and
E T as a function of the fibre volume fraction v f' i.e., EL = Ed v f), ET = ET( v f),
and the ratio Ef / Em is fixed, it is clear that reinforcing a matrix by fibres mainly
influences the stiffness in fibre direction (E L is a linear function of v f) and rather
high fibre volume fractions are necessary to obtain a significant stiffness increase in
the transverse direction (ET is a non-linear function of v f and rather constant in the
interval 0 < vf < 0 /5) .
Very often fibres material behavior is transversally isotropic but the matrix ma-
terial is isotropic. For such cases simple alternative relations for the effective engi-
neering moduli of the UD-Iamina can be given
VLT = Vf VLTf + (1 - vf) v ml
VTTfvm
v fE m + (1 - vf)E T/
VTT = vfvm + (1 - Vf)VTTf
I
(3.1.29)
G LTfG m
G LT = --:::---;--:--'------:--:::-- GT T = vfGf + (1 - vf)G m
vfGm + (1 - vf)G LT/
In Eq. (3.1.29) E ml Vm, G m = E m / 2(1 + v m) are the isotropic matrix moduli and
E f l E Tf l G LT f l G f = E Tf / 2(1 + VTTf) VTT fl VLTf are transversally isotropic fibre
I
moduli . E ml Vm of the matrix material and E f l E Tf l G LTf l VLTfl VTT f or G TTf of the
fibre material can be chosen as the independent modul i.
3.2 Improved Formulas for Effective Moduli of Composites
Effective elastic moduli related to loading in the fibre direction, such as EL and VLT,
are dominated by the fibres. All estimations in this case and experimental results are
very close to the rule of mixtures estimation. But the values obtained for transverse
Young's modulus and in-plane shear modulus with the rule of mixtures which can
be reduced to the two model connections of Voigt and Reuss, do not agree well with
3.2 Improved Formulas for Effective Moduli of Composites 85
experimental results. This establishes a need for better modelling techniques based
on elasticity solutions and variational principle models and includes analytical and
numerical solution methods .
Unfortunately, the theoretical models are only available in the form of compli-
cated mathematical equations and the solution is very limited and needs huge effort.
Semi-empirical relationships have been developed to overcome the difficulties with
purely theoretical approaches.
The most useful of those semi-empirical models are those of Halpin and Tsai
which can be applied over a wide range of elastic properties and fibre volume frac-
tions . The Halpin-Tsai relationships have a consistent form for all properties. They
are developed as simple equations by curve fitting to results that are based on the
theory of elasticity.
Starting from results obtained in theoretical analysis, Halpin and Tsai proposed
equations that are general and simple in formulation . The moduli of a unidirectional
composite are given by the following equations
• EL and VLT by the law of mixtures Eqs. (3.1.8), (3.1.19)
• For the other moduli by
M
(3.2.1)
Mm
M is the modulus under consideration, e.g. ET' GLT, . .. , Yf is a coefficient given
by
(MtlMm) -1
Yf == (3.2.2)
(Mf/Mm)+S
5 is called the reinforcement factor and depends on
- the geometry of the fibres
- the packing arrangement of the fibres
- the loading conditions .
The main difficulty in using (3.2.1) is the determination of the factor 5 by comparing
the semi-empirical values with analytical solutions or with experimental results .
In addition to the rule of mixtures and the semi-empirical solution of Halpin and
Tsai there are some solutions available which are based on elasticity models, e.g. for
the model of a cylindrical elementary cell subjected to tension. The more compli-
cated formulas for EL and VLT as the formulas given above by the rule of mixtures
yields practically identical values to the simpler formulas and are not useful. But
the elasticity solution for the modulus GLT yields much better results and should be
applied
G + vf) + Gm(1 - vf) G (1 + 1fJ) + Gm(1 - IfJ )
GLT == Gm f(l == Gm f (3.2.3)
Gf(l- vf) + Gm(1 + vf) Gf (1 - IfJ ) + Gm(1 + 1fJ)
Summarizing the results of Sects 3.1 and 3.2 the following recommendations
may be possible for an estimation of effective elastic moduli of unidirectionallami-
nae
• ELand vLr should be estimated by the rule of mixtures

• VTL follows from the reciprocal condition
• GLT should be estimated from (3.2.3) or the Halpinffsai formulas (3.2.1) and
(3.2.2)
• Er may be estimated with help of the Halpinffsai formulas. But only when reli-
able experimental values of E r and GLT are available for a composite the .5-factor
can be derived for this case and can be used to predict effective moduli for a range
of fibre volume ratios of the same composite. It is also possible to look for nu-
merical or analytical solutions for.5 based on elasticity theory. In general, .5 may
vary from zero to infinity, and the Reuss and Voigt models are special cases, e.g.
l+.51JVf
Er = 1 Em
-1Jvf
for .5 = a and .5 = 00, respectively. In the case of circular cross-sections of the
fibres j' = 2 or.5 = 1 can be recommended for Halpin-Tsai equation for Er or
GLr. But it is dangerous to use uncritically these values for any given composite.
3.3 Problems
1. Determine for a glass/epoxy lamina with a 70 % fibre volume fraction

a) the density and the mass fractions of the fibre and matrix,
b) the Young's moduli E~ == E L and E; == Er and determine the ratio of a
tensile load in L-direction taken by the fibres to that of the composite ,
c) the major and the minor Poisson 's ratio VLr, vTL,
d) the in-plane shear modulus
The properties of glass and epoxy are taken approximately from Tables B.1.
and B.2. as Pglass == Pf = 2,5 gcmr'. vf = 0,2, Vm = 0,3, pepoxy == pm =
1,35 gcm- 3 , Ef = 70 GPa, Em = 3,6 GPa.
Solution :
a) Using Eq. (1.1.3) the density of the composite is
P = Pfvf + pmvm = 2,5 · 0,7 gcm- 3 + 1,35 · 0,3 gcm- 3
= 2,155 gcm- 3
Using Eq. (1.1.4) the mass fractions are
Pf 25
mf = pVf = 2,1550,7 = 0,8121,
pm 1,35
mm = pVm = 2,1550,3 = 0,1879
Note that the sum of the mass fractions must be 1
mf + mm = 0,8121 + 0,1879 = 1
b) Using Eqs. (3.1.8), (3.1.16) and (3.1.9) we have
E L = 70 · 0,7 GPa + 3,6· a, 3 GPa = 50, 08 GPa,
1 0,7 0,3 -1
Er = 70GPa + 3,6GPa = 0,09333 GPa , Er = 10,71 GPa,
3.3 Problems 87
FLf ELf 70
FL = TVf = 50 08 0,7 = 0,9784
L ,
The ratio of the tensile load h taken by the fibre is 0,9784.
c) Using Eqs. (3.1.19) and (3.1.20) follows
VLT = 0.2·0'7 + 0.3 . 0.3 = 0.230,
10.71
VTL = 0.230 50.08 = 0,049
d) Using (3.1.26) and (3.1.25)
70GPa
Gf = 2(1 + 0.2) = 29.17 GPa,
3.6 GPa
Gm = 2(1 + 0,3) = 1.38 GPa,
1.38 GPa· 29.17 GPa
GLT= 29.17GPa.0.3+1,38GPa.0.7) =4.14GPa
Using (3.2.3)
GLT = 1.38 GPa 29.17 GPa · 1.7 + 1.38 GPa· 0.3 = 6.22 GPa
29.17 GPa· 0.3 + 1.38 GPa ·1.7
Conclusion: The difference between the both formulae for GLT is signifi-
cant. The improved formulae should be used.
2. Two composites have the same matrix materials but different fibre material. In
the first case Ef / Em = 60, in the second case Ef / Em = 30. The fibre volume
fraction for both cases is vf = 0,6. Compare the stiffness values EL and ET by
EL/ET,EL/Em,ET/Em .
Solution:
First case
Efl = 60
Em '
- 1
vf 1 - vf
ELl = 36Em + O,4Em = 36,4Em, En = (
Efl + ----P:;;;- ) = 2, 439E m,
ELl = 14 925 ELl = 36 4 En = 2 439

ETI ' , Em "Em '
Second case
E L2 = Ef 2Vf + Em(1 - Vf)' Ef 2 = 30E m,
- 1
Vf 1- Vf
EL2 = 18E m + O,4Em = 18,4Em, ET2 = (
E + ----P:;;;- ) = 2, 3810E m,
f2
EL2 EL2 ET2
-E = 7,728, -E = 18,4, -E = 2,381
T2 m m
Conclusion: The different fibre material has a significant influence on the
Young's moduli in the fibre direction. The transverse Young's moduli are nearly
the same.
3. For a composite material the properties of the constituents are Ef = 90 GPa,

vf = O,2,Gf = 35 GPa, Em = 3,5 GPa, Vm = 0,3, Gm = 1,3 GPa. The
volume fraction vf = ep = 60%. Calculate EL, ET, GLT, vLT, VTL with the help
of the rule of mixtures and also G LT with the improved formula.
Solution :
vLTE T
VTL = Ez- = a, 0358,
c.c,
GLT = (1 -vf )Gf+vf Gm = 3, 0785 GPa
The improved formula (3.2.3) yields
(1 + vf)G
f + (1- vf)G m
GLT = Gm(1 -vf )Gf+ (1 )G = 4,569 GPa
+vf m
Conclusion : The difference in the GLT values calculated using the rule of mix-
tures and the improved formula is again significant.
4. A unidirectional glass/epoxy lamina is composed of 70% by volume of glass
fibres in the epoxy resin matrix. The material properties are Ef = 85 GPa,
Em = 3,4 GPa.
a) Calculate EL using the rule of mixtures .
b) What fraction of a constant tensile force h is taken by the fibres and by
the matrix?
Solution :
a) EL = Efvf + Em(1 - vf) = 60,52 GPa
b) h = o'LA = ELEA,Ff = eTfA = EfEAf,Fm = eTmA = EmEAm
With
h = Ff+Fm
it follows that
ELEA = EfEAf + EmEA m, EL = O,7Ef + O,3Em,
60,52 = 85· a, 7 + 3,4 · 0,3 = 59,5 + I, 02
and therefore Pi. = 60,52 N, Ff = 59,5 N, Fm = I, 02 N.
Conclusion : The fractions of a constant tensile load in the fibres and the
matrix are: Fibres: 98,31 %, Matrix : 1,69 %
5. The fibre and the matrix characteristics of a lamina are Ef = 220 GPa,
Em = 3,3 GPa, ETf = 22 GPa, Gf = 25 GPa, c, = 1,2 GPa, Vf = 0,15,
V m = 0,37. The volume fraction is vf = 0,56. The experimentally mea-
sured effective moduli are EL = 125 GPa, ET = 9,1 GPa, GLT = 5 GPa,
VLT = 0,34.
a) Compare the experimental values with predicted values based on rule of
mixtures .
3.3 Problems 89
b) Using the Halpin-Tsai appro ximate model for calculating ET and GLT ,
what value of S must be used in order to obtain moduli that agree with
experimental values?
Solution :
a) The rule of mixtures (3.1.27) yields
EL = 124,65 GPa, E T = 7,36 GPa, GLT = 2,57 GPa, v LT = 0,25
It is seen that the fibre dominated modulus E L is well pred icted by the rule
of mixtures, while ET , G LT and v LT are not exactly predicted.
b) The Halpin-Tsai approximation yields with E Tf = 22 GPa , S = 2 for E T
1 + Sf/Vf ETf/E m -1
ET = 1 E m, f/ = E /E ~ = 0,6538, E T = 9,02 GPa
- f/Vf Tf m+,:,
With a value S= 2.5 follows for G LT
1 + Sf/V f G f /Gm - 1
GLT = 1 G m, f/ = G /G ~ = 0,8339, GLT = 4,88 GPa
- f/vf f m + ,:,
The predicted value for E T is nearly accurate for S = 2 which is the rec-
ommended value in literature but the recommended value of S = 1 for G LT
would underestimate the predicted value significantly
1 + f/v f G f/G m - 1
G LT =
1-
G m, n = G /G 1 = 0,9084, G LT = 3,68 GPa
f/v f f m+
It can be seen that it is dange rous to accept these values uncritically without
experimental measurements.
6. Calculate the ultimate fibre volume fraction s VI
for the following fibre arrange-
ment s: a) Square array, b) hexagonal array, c) layer-wise array. Assume circular
fibre cross-section s.
Solution:
a) Square array (Fig. 3.6 a)
_ ~ _ 0 785
2rr)/4
u _ Af _ 4(r
vf - A - 4r2 - 4 - .
c
b) Hexagonal array (Fig. 3.6 b) with a -t 2r, h -t v'3r follow A c = hr,
A f = 6(1/3)rrr2 + rrr2 and
a b c
a r
@ 'IJ
GID
r
Fig. 3.6. Fibre arrangements. a Square array, b hexagonal array, C layer-wise array
= ~ = 0.9069
2 2)/4
VU = AI = 6(1/3)nr + nr
I Ac 6V3r 2 2V3
c) Layer-wise array (Fig. 3.6 c)
U AI r2 7f 7f
vI = Ac = (2r)2 = 4" = 0.785
4. Elastic Behavior of Laminate and Sandwich
Composites
A lamina has been defined as a thin single layer of composite material. A lamina
or ply is a typical sheet of composite materials, which is generally of a thicknes s
of the order 1 mm. A laminate is constructed by stacking a number of laminae in
the direction of the lamina thickness . The layers are usually bonded together with
the same matrix material as in the single lamina. A laminate bonded of n (n ~ 2)
laminae of nearly the same thickness . A sandwich can be defined as a special case
of a laminate with n = 3. Generally, the sandwich is made of a material of low
density for the inner layer, the core or the supporting pith respectively, and of high
strength material for the outer layers, the cover or face sheets. The thickness of the
core is generally much greater than the thickness of the sheets and core and sheets
are bonded to each other at the surfaces.
The design and analysis of structures composed of composite materials demands
knowledge of the stresses and strains in laminates or sandwiches . However, the lam-
inate elements are single laminae and so understanding the mechanical behavior of
a lamina precedes that of a laminate. Section 4.1 introduces elastic behavior of lam-
inae. For in-plane and out-of-plane loading , the stress resultants are formulated and
basic formulae for stress analysis are derived. These considerations are expanded to
laminates and sandwiches in Sects 4.2 and 4.3. The governing equations of the clas-
sicallaminate theory, the shear deformation theory and of a layer-wise theory are
discussed in Chap. 5. A successful design of composite structures requires knowl-
edge of the strength and the reliability of composite materials. Strength failure the-
ories have to be developed in order to compare the actual stress states in a material
to a failure criteria. Chapter 6 gives an overview on fracture modes of laminae. For
laminates, the strength is related to the strength of each individual lamina. Various
failure theories are discussed for laminates or sandwiches based on the normal and
shear strengths of unidirectional laminae.
4.1 Elastic Behavior of Laminae

The macro-mechanical modelling and analysis of a lamina is based on average ma-
terial properties and by considering the lamina to be homogeneous . The methods
to find these average properties based on the individual mechanical values of the
constituents are discussed in Sect. 3.1. Otherwise the mechanical characterization
of laminae can be determined experimentally but it demands special experimental
92 4. Elastic Behaviorof Laminate and Sandwich Composites
equipment and is costly and time-consuming. Generally the modelling goal is to

find the minimum of parameters required for the mechanical characterization of a
lamina.
For the considerations on the elastic behavior of laminae in the following Sects
4.1.1 - 4.1 .3 one has to keep in mind that two assumptions are most important to
model the mechanics of fibre reinforced laminae:
• The properties of the fibres and the matrix can be smeared into an equivalent
homogeneous material with orthotropic behavior. This assumption allows to de-
velop the stress-strain relations and to formulate the response of a fibre-reinforced
lamina sufficient simply to deal with the structural level response in a tractable
manner.
• Three of the six components of stress state are generally much smaller than the
other three, i.e. the plane stress assumption, which is based on the manner in
which fibre-reinforced materials are used in such structural elements as beams,
plates or shells, will be sufficient accurately. With the assumption that the (Xl -
x2)-plane of the principal co-ordinate system is in-plane stress state, the in-plane
stress components 0'1,0'2,0'6 are considered to be much larger in value than the
out-of-plane stress components 0'3, 0'4, 0'5 and the last ones are set approximately
to zero.
Using the plane stress assumption it has to be in mind that some serious inaccuracies
in the mechanical response of laminates can be occurred, Sect. 4.2.
Therefore, together with the plane stress assumption two major misconceptions
should be avoided:
• The stress components 0'3, 0'4, 0'5 equated to zero have to be estimated to their
magnitude and effect. Fibre reinforced material is often very poor in resisting
stresses transversely to the plane (Xl - X2) and therefore out-of-plane stresses
may be small but large enough to cause failure of the composite material.
• With assuming 0'3 is zero does not follow that the associated strain £3 is also zero
and ignorable, for the stresses in the (Xl - x2)-plane can cause a significant strain
response in the x3-direction.
4.1.1 On-axis Stiffness and Compliances of DD-Laminae
A thin lamina is assumed to be under a state of plane stress (Sect. 2.1.4). Three cases
of material behavior of laminae are of special interest for engineering applications:
1. Short fibres or particle reinforced components with random orientation in the
matrix
The elastic behavior has no preferred direction and is macroscopically quasi-
homogenous and isotropic. The effective elastic moduli are E and v and the
relations of the in-plane stress components with the in-plane strain components
are described (Tables 2.6 and 2.7) by
4.1 Elastic Behavior of Laminae 93
2' == T
I'
Fig. 4.1. Unidirectional lamina withprincipalmaterial axis Land T (on-axis)
(4 .1.1)
with
Q11 = EI (l - v 2 ) , 511 = itt;
Q12 = Evl(l - v 2 ) , 512 = -viE,
Q66 = G = EI [2(1 + v)], 5 66 = 1/G = 2(1 + v) /E
2. Long fibres with one unidirectional fibre orientation, so-called unidirectional
laminae or UD-laminae, with loading along the material axis (on-axis case)
This type of material forms the basic configuration of fibre composites and is
the main topic of this textbook. The elastic behavior of UD-laminae depends
on the loading reference coordinate systems. In the on-axis case the reference
axes (1 /,2 ') are identical to the material or principal axes of the lamina parallel
and transverse to the fibre direction (Fig . 4.1). The I' -axis is also denoted as
L-axis and the 2 /-axis as T-axis (on-axis case) . The elastic behavior is macro-
scopically quasi-homogeneous and orthotropic with four independent material
moduli (Table 2.6)
E~ == EL, E~ == ET, E~ == G~2 == GLT, v~2 == vLT (4.1.2)
and the in-plane stress -strain relations are
0]
[~] [~:]
[Ql1Ql'
Qb Q~2 a
a a Q~6 ,
(4.1.3)
[5 0]
[~:]
115~2
[3.]
5~2 5~2 a
a a 5~6
94 4. Elastic Behavior of Laminate and Sandwich Compo sites
£1, £2, £6
Fig. 4.2. On-axis stress-strain equations for UD-Iamina (qualitative)
with
Q~l = EU (l - v~2v; I )' S~l = l/E~,
Q~2 = E;/(1- v~2v; I) ' S~2 = l/E;,
Q~6 = G ~ 2 = E~ , S~6 = 1/G~2 = l/E~ ,
Q~ 2 = E; v~ 2/ (1 - v~2v;I) ' S~ 2 = - vb/E~ = - v;dE~
3. UD-laminae with loading along arbitrary axis (Xl, X2 ) different from the
material axis (off-axis case). The elastic behavior is macroscopically quasi-
homogeneous and anisotropic. The in-plane stress-strain relations are formu-
lated by fully populated matrices with all Q ij and S ij different from zero but the
number of independent material constants is still four as in case 2. The trans-
formation rules are given in detail in Sect. 4.1.2.
A UD-lamina has different stiffness in the direction of the material axes. With
Ef » Em the stiffness in the L-direction is fibre domin ated and for the effective
moduli (Sect. 3.1) EL » ET. Figure 4.2 illustrates qualitatively the on-axis elastic
behavior of the UD-lamina . In thickness direction x 3 == T' orthogonal to the (L- T)-
plane a UD-lamina is macro-mechanically quasi-isotropic. The elastic behavior in
the thickness direction is determ ined by the matrix material and a three-dimen sional
model of a single UD-layer yields a transversely-isotropic response with five inde-
pendent material engineering constants:
E~ == EL, E~ == ET = E~ == ET" E~ = E~ == GLT,
v~2 == vLT = vb == VLT', (4.1.4)
E~ == GTT, = E;/ [2 (1 + vb)] == ET/ [2 (1 + VTT' )]
The material behavior in the 2' == T and 3 = T' direction s is equivalent. There-
fore, the notation of the engineering constants is given by E ~ = E~ == ET, E~ =
E~ == GLT, v~2 = v~3 == VLT, E~ = E~ / [2 ( 1 + v;3)] == GTT = ET/ [2(1 + VTT)].
4.1 ElasticBehaviorof Laminae 95
Summarizing, the stress-strain relations for on-axis loading of UD-laminae in a con-

tracted vector-matrix notation leads the equations
(T
I
= Q' e I
or eTiI = Q'i/'j'I Q'ij -_ Q'ji
i,j = 1,2,6 (4.1.5)
eI -- 5' (TI or f Ii -- 5'iFj'
I 5'ij -- 5'ji
The values Q:j of the reduced stiffness matrix Q' and the S:j of the compliance ma-
trix 5' depend on the effective moduli of the UD-lamina. The term reduced stiffness
is used in relations given by Eqs . (2.1.73) and (4.1.3). These relations simplify the
problem from a three -dimensional to a two-dimensional or plane stress state . Also
the numerical values of the stiffness Q:j are actually less than the numerical values
c:
of their respective counterparts j ' see Eq. (2.1.76), of the three-dimensional prob-
lem and therefore the stiffness are reduced in that sense also. For on-axis loading the
elastic behavior is orthotropic and with Q~6 = Q~6 = 0 and S~6 = S~6 = 0, there
is as in isotropic materials no coupling of normal stresses and shear strains and also
shear stresses applied in the (L- T)-plane do not result in any normal strains in the
Land T direction. The UD-lamina is therefore also called a specially orthotropic
lamina.
Composite materials are generally processed at high temperature and then
cooled down to room temperature. For polymeric fibre reinforced composites the
temperature difference is in the range of 200 0 - 300 0 C and due to the different
thermal expansion of the fibres and the matrix, residual stresses result in a UD-
lamina and expansion strains are induced. In addition, polymeric matrix composites
can generally absorb moisture and the moisture change leads to swelling strains and
stresses similar to these due to thermal expansion. Therefore we speak of hygrother-
mal stresses and strains in a lamina. The hygrothermal strains in the longitudinal di-
rection and transverse the fibre direction of a lamina are not equal since the effective
elastic moduli E L and ET and also the thermal and moisture expansion coefficients
1X 1L'
h 1X 1h and IXmo IXmo respectively are different
T L ' T ' .
The stress-strain relations of a UD-lamina, including temperature and moisture
differences are given by
I l1h]
=
[
SG 5'5;~?0]
51
eT~ + [ff~h + [flmO]
[eT ]
f~mo (4.1.6)
o 0 566 eT6 0 0
with
mO]
[ ~no
Imo] = ~}o
[' M* (4.1.7)
T is the temperature change and M * is weight of moisture absorption per unit weight
of the lamina. IXro, 1X!p0 are also called longitudinal and transverse swelling coeffi-
cients. Equation (4.1.6) can be inverted to give
96 4. Elastic Behavior of Laminate and Sandwich Composites
[ ~(T~}' ] = [QQa1121QQ12a22
v '
00 ]
Q~6
[£;1£2 -- £2£~: -- £J::]
£~
£2 (4.1.8)
Note that the temperature and moisture changes do not have any shear strain terms
since no shearing is induced in the material axes . One can see that the hygrothermal
behavior of an unidirectional lamina is characterized by two principal coefficients
of thermal expansion, tt'fh,tt'{h, and two of moisture expansion, iX~mo, «:
These
coefficients are related to the material properties of fibres and matrix and of the fibre
volume fraction.
Approximate micro-mechanical modelling of the effective hygrothermal coef-
ficients were given by Schapery and analogous to the micro-mechanical modelling
of elastic constants, Chap. 3, for a fibre reinforced lamina and isotropic constituents
the effective thermal expansion coefficients are
+ iX~(l - vf)E m
iXfthvfEf
iX th - -'----=----;-:----:-=--
L - vfEf+ (1- vf)E m ' (4.1.9)
tt~ = iXfvf(l + vf) + iX~(l- vf)(l + vm) - [vfvf + (1- Vf)Vm]iXth
If the fibres are not isotropic but have different material response in axial and trans-
verse directions, e.g. in the case of carbon or aramid fibres, the relations for ttt and
tt~ have to be changed to
iXtfvfELf + iX~(l - vf)Em

'"th --
~L
--"----::-::-----;-:--------;c--=--- ,
vfE Lf + (1 - vf)Em
h h h h (4.1.10)
tt~ = (iXh + vTfiXtf)vf + (1 + Vm)iX~ (1 - vf)
- [VfVTf + (1 - Vf)Vm]iXt
In most cases the matrix material can be considered isotropic and therefore the ori-
entation designation L, T of the matrix material constants can be dropped.
Discussion and conclusions concerning effective moduli presented in Chap.
3 are valid for effective thermal expansion coefficients too. The simple micro-
mechanical approximations of effective moduli yield proper results for iXth but fails
to predict iX~ with the required accuracy. For practical applications iXt and ix~
should be normally determined by experimental methods.
Micro-mechanical relations for effective coefficients of moisture expansion can
be modelled analogously. However, some simplification can be taken into consider-
ation. Usually the fibres, e.g. glass, carbon, boron, etc ., do not absorb moisture that
means iX/a O. For isotropic constituents the formulae for iXT o and iX O are
= y
iX;;i°E m(l- vf) _ iX;;i°E m(l- vf)
ttTO = ----,-------'--
vfEf + (1 - vf)Em E1
",mTo __ iX;;i°(1- vf)[(1 + vm)Efvf + (1- vf)Em- vfvfEm]
~ (4.1.I I)
vfEf + (1- vf)Em
iX;;i°E m(l- vf)
= E {(I + vm)Efvf + [(1- vf) - vfvf]Em}
1
and for a composite with isotropic matrix but orthotropic fibres the effective moduli
are given by
Em(1- vf)
a mo = a mo-----:::-----<--
L m EL '
(4.1.12)
1- vf
tX% = a;;:o~{(l + vm)ELfVf + [(1- vf) - VLTfvfEm}
The formulae (4.1.9) - (4.1.12) completes the discussion about micro-mechanics
in Chap. 3. Note that for a great fibre volume fraction negative at
values can be
predicted reflecting the dominance of negative values of fibre expansion a{, e.g. for
graphite-reinforced material.
Summarizing one has to keep in mind that with the plane stress assumption
referred to the principal material axis L, T the mechanical shear strains and the
total shear strain are identical, i.e. c'Jh = c~mo == 0, Eqs. (4.1.6) - (4.1.8). Also
the through-the-thickness total strains c~, c~ are zero and there are no mechanical,
thermal or moisture strains. The conclusion regarding the normal strains c3 is not
the same. Using the condition 0'3 = 0 follows
c3 = 5'130'1, + 5"230'2 + a3'thT + a3'moM*

This equation is the basis for determining the out-of-plane or through-the-thickness
thermal and moisture effects of a laminate.
4.1.2 Off-axis Stiffness and Compliances of UD-Laminae
A unidirectional lamina has very low stiffness and strength properties in the trans-
verse direction compared with these properties in longitudinal direction. Laminates
are constituted generally of different layers at different orientations. To study the
elastic behavior of laminates, it is necessary to take a global coordinate system for
the whole laminate and to refer the elastic behavior of each layer to this reference
system. This is necessary to develop the stress-strain relationship for an angle lam-
ina, i.e. an off-axis loaded UD-Iamina.
The global and the local material reference systems are given in Fig. 4.3. We
consider the ply material axes to be rotated away from the global axes by an angle
e, positive in the counterclockwise direction . This means that the (Xl, X2)-axes are
at an angle e clockwise from the material axes. Thus transformation relations are
needed for the stresses, the strains, the stress-strain equations, the stiffness and the
compliance matrices.
The transformation equations for a rotating the reference system (x~, x~) or
e
(Xl, X2) counterclockwise or clockwise by an angle follow from Sect. 2.1.2 and
are given in Table 4.1. Note the relations for the transformation matrices derived in
Sect. 2.1.2
TE = (TE') -1 = (rTf, t« = (ye)-l = (TeT)T,
(4.1.13)
TeT = (TeT,)-l = (TE'f, TIT = (TeT)-1 = (T£)T
98 4. ElasticBehavior of Laminateand Sandwich Composites
1 == x;
x == XI
Fig. 4.3. UD-lamina with the local material principal axis (1,2) (L, T) and the global
reference system (XI, X2)
Table 4.2 summarizes the transformation rules for the stress-strain relations and for
the values of the stiffness and the compliance matrices . The transformation matrice s
of Table 4.2 follow from Sect. 2.1.2. Using the relation s (4.1.13) the transformation
rules can be formulated in matrix notation
Q' = (Tf l
) T QP' = TUQ (TU)T,
S' = (T UI) T STU' = TfS (Tf) T , (4.1.14)
Q = (p)T Q'Tf,
S = (T U) T S'Tu
Starting with the stiffnes s equation (T = Qe and introducing IT = Q'e' in the trans-
formation (T = t« (T' = (T f /
) T (T' it follows that (T = (pI) T Q' e' and with
e' = T'e this gives (T = (T") T Q'Tfe. Compari son of equations (T = Qe and
(T = (Tf) T Q'Tfe yields
Qu Q12 Q16] [Q;1 Q;2 a ]
Q12 Q22 Q26 = (T f) T Qb Q~2 a t: (4.1.15)
[
Q16 Q26 Q66 a a Q66
In an analogous way
511 512 5 16] [5;1 5;2 a ]

5 12 522 5 26 = (T U ) T 5;2 5~2 a T U (4.1.16)
[
516 526 566 a a Q66
can be derived . Note that in (4 .1.15) and (4.1.16) the matrices [Qij] and [5ij] have
six different elements but the matrices [Q:) and [5: j ] have only four independent
elements. The elements in Qij or 5ij are functions of the four independent material
characteristics Q:j or 5:j and the angle e. The experimental testing is therefore more
simple than for a real anisotropic material with 6 independent material values, if the
material axes of the lamina are known.
4.1 Elastic Behavior of Lam inae 99
Table 4.1. Transformation rules of the coordinates, displacements, strains and stresses of a
lamina
a) Rotation of the reference systems
[X}] [C S] [Xl] , [Xl] = [C - S] [X}]

X2 - S C X2 X2 S C X2
X' = Rx, x = RTx'
b) Transformation of displacements
[U
u2}]= [- CS
s
] [ UI ], [ UI ]
u2 u2
C
[C-S] [U
S Cu}] 2
u' = Ru , u = RTU'
c) Transformation of strains
[ :~ ]
£~
= [ :~:~ -:~] [:~], [:~] [ 2sc:~ - 2sc:~ -:~] [:~]
- 2sc 2sc c 2 - S2 £6 £6
=
C2 - S2 £~
e' = Tee = (T<T') Te, e = TE'e' = (T<T) Te'
d) Transformation of stresses
[ u:,~l ] [ - :~SC:~ -~:~] [ ~~1 'r~~] [ :~ -S:~C -~~] [~]

SC c 2 - s2 IT6 _ _ IT6 SC c 2 - s2 IT~
IT' = T<TIT = (TEl) T IT, IT = T<T'IT' = (TEl IT'
with S == sin e,c == co s f
From the transformation c) in Table 4.2 follows the transformat ion of the engi-
neering constants EL, E T, GLT, VLT of the UD-Iamina in the on-axis-system to the
engineering constants in the global system (X l, X 2 ) . From equation a) in Table 4.2
for an angle lamina it can be seen that there is a coupling of all normal and shear
terms of stresses and strains. In Fig. 4.4 these coupling effects in an off-axes loaded
UD-Iamina are described.
The coupling coefficients
521
V12
£2
= - - = - -,
£1 511
V21
£1
= --
£2
= -5512
- (4.1.17)
22
are the known Poisson's ratios and the ratios
(4.1.18)
100 4. Elastic Behavior of Laminate and Sandwich Compo sites
Table 4.2. Transformation of the reduced stiffness matrix Q;j and comp liance matrix S;j in
the reference system (x~, x~) to the reduced stiffness matrix Qij and compliance matrix Sij
in the (Xl, X2)-system
a) Constitutive equa tions in the (Xl, x2)-reference system
u= Qe, e = Sa ,
b) Transformation of the reduced stiffnesses
C4 2 C2 5 2 54 4C 2 5 2
C25 2 c 4 +
54 C25 2 -4C 25 2
3 2
C 5 -C5(C - 52 ) - C5 -2C5(C 2 - 52 )
3
54 2C 2 5 2 c4 4C 25 2
C5 3 C5( C2 - 52) -C3 5 2C5(C 2 - 52)
C2 5 2 -2C 25 2 C25 2 (c 2 _ 5 2)2
c) Transformation of the compliances
C4 2 C25 2 54 C25 2
C25 2 c4 +54 2
C 5 2 _ C2 5 2
2C 3 5 - 2 C5( C2 - 52 ) -2C5 3 - C5( C2 _ 52)
54 2C 25 2 c4 C25 2
2C5 3 2 C5(C 2 - 52) - 2 C3 5 C5(C 2 - 52 )
4C 25 2 - 8 C25 2 4C 2 5 2 (c 2 _ 52 ?
with 5 == sine,c == cos f
are so called shear coupling values. They are non-dimensional parameters like Pois-
son's ratio and relate normal stresses to shear strains or shear stresses to normal
strains .
Hence the strain-stress equation of an angle lamina can be written in terms of
engineering constants of the off-axis case as
(4.1.19)
With the compliance engineering constants

- ' 0'6
£1 1 £2 1
- =: 511 =: - - =: 522 =: -
0'1 El 0'2 E2
£2 _ 5 _ v 12 :l =: 5 12 =: _ V21 :l =: 5 16 =: V61
- - 21 - - -
0'1 E1 0'2 E2 0'6 E6
£6 =: 5 62 =: V26 £2 =: 526 =: V62

0'2 E2 0'6 E6
Fig. 4.4. Off-axis loadedDO-lamina with one stress component in each case
1 V21 V12
5 11 = E' 512 = -F;' 521 = -E';'
5 66 = E
t ' 5 16 =
%1
£6 ' 5 61 =
~6
E' (4.1.20)
6
v62 v26 11
5 26 = E";' 5 62 = F;' 5 22 = £ 2
it follows from the symmetry conside rations of the compli ance matrix that
v 12 v2 1 v 16 v61
5 ij = 5 j i , i, j = 1, 2, 6; i.e. - = - ,- - (4.1.21)
£2 £1 £1 £6
but the anisotropic couplin g coefficients are
Vij =j:. Vji, i, j = 1,2,6 (4. 1.22)
Equation (4.1.19) can be inverted to yield the stress-strain equations in terms of
engineering constants but these relations would be more complex than (4. 1.19). Us-
ing the relationships between engineering cons tants and compliances (4.1.20) in the
compliance transformation rule (Table 4.2) we obtain the following transformations
for the engineering constants of the angle lamina including shear coupling ratios V16
and V26
1 1 4 (1 2V~2) 2 2 1 4
-E = -£' c + G' - -£' S C + E!S ,
1 1 12 1 2
1 1 2V~2) 2 2 1 4
-E = -£' S
4
+ (1
-G' - -E' S C + -£' C ,
2 1 12 1 2
1 ( 2 2 4v~2 1) 2 2 1 4 4
-G = 2 E!
12 1
+ E!2 + E!
1
- G'
12
S C + G'12 (c + S ),
(4.1.23)
V12
E V21
=E = [ F!
V~ 2 (c4+ S4) - ( E!
1 1
+ E! - 1)
-G'
22]
C S ,
1 2 1 1 2 12
l02 4. Elastic Behavior of Laminate and Sandwich Composites
V16
,[( E!2+ F!
= El
2v~2 - C'1) 3 (2 2v~2 - C'1) 3]
E! + F!
SC - SC ,
1 1 12 2 1 12
V26 = E
,[( E!2+ F! - c'1) 3 (E!2+ F!
2
2vb
S C-
1) 3]
2v~2 - G' SC
1 1 12 2 1 12
Equation (4.1.23) can be also written in the following form
EL
(4.1.24)
The engineering constants can change rapidly with angel e. This can be interpreted
as if the fibres are not oriented exactly as intended the values of engineering con-
stants are very less or more than expected.
A computational procedure for calculating the elastic constants of a UD-lamina
in off-axis loading can be illustrated by the following steps :
1. Input the basic engineering constants EL ET I CLT, VLT referred to the material
axes of the lamina and obtained by material tests or mathematical modelling.
2. Calculate the compliances S;j and the reduced stiffness Q;j"
3. Application of transformations to obtain the lamina stiffness Q ij and compli -
ances Sij '
4. Finally calculate the engineering constants E ll E21 Cl2, vl2, vn . v16, v26 re-
ferred to the (XII X2)-system.
Otherwise the engineering constants referred to the (XII X2)-coordinate can be cal-
culated directly by Eq . (4.1.24) .
Analogous to the on-axis loaded UD-lamina also the off-ax is lamina is in thick-
ness direction x3 == T' orthogonal to the (XII x2)-plane macro-mechanically quasi-
isotropic and the three-dimensional material behavior is transversely-isotropic. The
mechanical properties transverse to the fibre direction are provided by weaker ma-
trix material and the effects of transverse shear deformation may be significant. For
such cases, the stress and the strain vector should include all six components
(7'T = [(7'1 (7'2 (7'3 (T4 (Ts (T6), eT = [£1 £2 £3 £4 £S £6)
For a rotation about the direction e3 (Fig. 2.6) the transformation matrices (2.1.39)
and (2.1.40) are valid and relations for stress and strain vectors in the on-axis and
the off-axis reference system are given by
3 3
(7" =TlT (7', e' =TEe,
(4.1.25)
When the stiffness matrix C' corresponding to an orthotropic material behavior,

see Eq. (2.1.45), the transformed stiffness matrix C may be written in detail as for
monoclin ic material behavior, see Eq. (2.1.42)
(T1 Cll Cl2 C13 0 0 C16 £1
(T2 C22 C23 0 0 C26 £2
(T3 C33 0 C36
(T4
=
S y M
°°
C44 C 4S
£3
£4
(4.1.26)
(Ts
(T6 °
CSS
C66
£S
£6
The Cij are the transformed stiffness, i.e. in vector-matrix notation
(7" = C'e'
(7'
3
=Til (3)T (3)T 3
a' = T E C'e' = \ T E C' T Ee = Ce
(T = Ce '
we finally obtain
C = (T3)TC'T3 E E
, (4.1.27)
in which the C ij
+ 2C'12 C2S2 + C'22 S4 + 4C'66C 2S 2 ,

' C4
C 11 = C 11
Cl2 = C~lc2s2 + Cb(c 4 + s4) + Q2c2s2 - 4C~6C2s2,
C13 = Q3c2 + C~3s2, C14 = 0, CIS = 0,

CI6 = C~I c3s - C~2CS(c2 - s2) - C~2Cs3 - 2C~6CS(c2 - s2),
' S4
C 22 = C 11 + 2C'l2 c 2S2 + C'22 c4 + 4C'66c2S 2 ,
C23 = C~3s2 + C~3c2, C24 = 0, C2S = 0,
C26 = QIcs3 + Cbcs(c2 - s2) - C~2c3s + 2C~6CS(c2 - s2),
C33 = cb, C34 = 0, C35 = 0,

C36 = cbcs - C23CS'
' C2 + C'55S2,
C44 = C44
C45 = -C~4CS + C~sCS, C46 = 0,
C55 = C~4S2 + Q5c2, C56 = 0,
C66 = C~IC2S2 - 2Q2C2s2 + C22C2S2 + C~6(C2 - S2)2 (4.1.28)
The 13 non-zero stiffness of Cij are not independent material values . They are func-
tions of 9 C: j for a three-dimensional orthotropic material, i.e. of ql' Cb Q3'
C22' C23' Q3' Q4' qs' q6 and of 5 C:j for a transverse-isotropic behavior, i.e. of
C'11' C'12' C'22' C'23' C'55 because
. C'13 -- C'12' C'33 -- C'22' C'44 -"2
- 1 (C'22 - C')
23'
C~6 = C~5' With e' = S'a',« = Sa follow analogously the transformed compli-
ances
(4.1.29)
in which the 5 ij
5 11 -- 5'11C4 + 25'12c2S2 + 5'22s 4 + 5'66c 2S2,

5 12 = 5~1 c2s2 + 5~2(c4 + s4) + 5 22c2s2 - 5~6c2s2,
5 13 = 5~3c2 + 5 23s2, 5 14 = 0,5 15 = 0,
516 = 25~lc3s - 25~2cs(c2 - s2) - 25 22cs3 - 5~6cs(c2 - s2),
5 22 -- 5'11 S4 + 25'12c2S2 + 5'22 c4 + 5'66c2S2,
523 = 5~3s2 + 5 23c2 , 524 = 0,525 = 0,
526 = 25~lcs3 - 25~2cs(c2 - s2) - 25 22c3s - 5~6cs(c2 - s2), (4.1.30)
5 33 = 5~3,534 = 0,535 = 0,
536 = 25bcs - 25 23cs,
' c2 + 5'55S 2 '
5 44 = 544
5 45 = -5~4cS + 5~5cs, 5 46 = 0,
5 55 = 5~4S2 + 5~5c2, 5 56 = 0,
5 66 = 45~lc2s2 - 45bc2s2 + 25 22c2s2 + 5~6(s2 - C2)2
There are again 13 non-zero compliances, but only 9 independent material values
for the orthotropic and 5 independent material values for the transversal-isotropic
casc o
The stress-strain relationship for an angle lamina, i.e. an off-axis loaded UD-
lamina, including hygrothermal effects takes the following form
El 5 11 5 12 5 16 Ul E1 E1
th] [rna]
E2 = 512 522 526
[] [
(T2
] [ ]
+ [ E~h + E~: ' (4.1.31)
E6 5 16 5 26 5 66 (T6 E~h E6
where
[ e~h ]
eth
2
eth
6
(4.1.32)
with the thermal and moisture expansion coefficients a;h, ai o, i = 1,2,6 and the
temperature change T or the weight of moisture absorption per unit weight M*,
respectively. It should be remembered that although the coefficients of both ther-
mal and moisture expansions are pure dilatational in the material coordinate system
(L,T), rotation into the global (Xl, X2) system results in coefficients a~h, a~o . Fur-
thermore if there are no constraints placed on a UD-Iamina, no mechanical strains
will be included in it and therefore no mechanical stresses are induced. But in lami-
nates, even if there are no constraints on the laminate , the difference in thermal and
moisture expansion coefficients of the various laminae of a laminate induces differ-
ent expansions in each layer and results in residual stresses. This will be explained
fully in Sect. 4.2.4 and 4.2.5. With
(4.1.33)
and
e~h = e'ihc2 +£,~hs2,
£~ = £'ihs2 + £,~hc2, (4.1.34)
e~ = 2(£'ih - £,~h)cs,
follow
hc
aih = a'i 2 + a,~hs2,
th _ , th + N, th 2 (4.1.35)
a 2 - a 1 s2 '" 2 c '
a~h = 2(a'ih - a,~h)cs
In an anisotropic layer, uniform heating induces not only normal strain s, but also
shear thermal strains . For a transversal isotrop ic material behavior there is additional
e~h = a~h T, a~h = aih, a~h = a~h = O. Because £3 = e~ the strain £3 can be
obtained directly from
e3 = a3thT + a3mOM* + 5'130"1, + 5'-1

23u2
However, the stresses O"~, O"~ can be written in terms 0"1, 0"2, 0"6 referred to the off-axis
coordinate system to obtain an expression for £3 that represents the normal strain in
the x3-direction in terms of the global coordinate system
£3 = e~h + e~o + (513C2 + 523S2)0"1 + (513S2 + 5 23C 2)0"2 (4.1.36)
+ 2(5 13 - 523S2)SC£T1
106 4. Elastic Behaviorof Laminateand Sandwich Composites
4.1.3 Stress Resultants and Stress Analysis
Sections 4.1.1 and 4.1.2 describe the constitutive equations for UD-laminae in an
on-axis and an off-axis reference system as a relation between stresses and strains.
For each lamina, the stress components can be integrated across their thickness hand
yield stress resultants. Stress resultants can be in-plane forces, transverse forces and
resultant moments. The constitutive equations may then be formulated as relations
between mid-plane strain and in-plane forces, transverse shear strains and transverse
forces and mid-plane curvatures and resultant moments, respectively.
The in-plane stress resultant force vector, denoted by
N = [N I N2 N6f, (4.1.37)
is defined by
h/2
N = !
-h/2
UdX3 (4.1.38)
The N, are forces per unit length, NIl N 2 are normal in-plane resultants and N 6 is
a shear in-plane resultant, respectively. They are illustrated in Fig. 4.5 for constant
in-plane stresses UI U2, u6 across the thickness. In this case we have
I
N =uh (4.1.39)
The reduced stiffness matrix Q of the lamina has also constant components across
h. The strains of the midplane X3 = a of the lamina are given by
Fig. 4.5. In-plane force resultants per unit length NT = [Nt N2 N6]
e(X1 ,X2, X3 = 0) =e(x 1, x2)

and Eq. (4. 1.39) yields
N = Qeh = Ae, A = Qh, eT = [€1 € 2 € 6] (4.1.40)
Q is the reduced stiffness matrix (Table 4.2 a) and A is the off-axis stretching or
extensional stiffness matrix of the lamina. From (4. 1.40) it follow s that
e = A -IN = aN, a = A - I = Sh- 1 (4.1.41)
a is the off-axis in-plane complian ce matrix. A and a are, like Q and S symmet-
ric matrices, which have in the general case only non-zero elements. In the special
cases of on-axis reference systems or isotropic stiffness and compliances, respec-
tively, the structure of the matrices is simplified. A is the extensional stiffness and a
the extensional compliance matrix expressing the relationship between the in-plane
stress resultant N and the mid-plane strain e:
Off-axis extensional stiffness and compliance matrices
A =
A l1 Al2 A16]
Al2 A22 A26 , aF
rali a22 a26
a l2
a16]
al2
(4.1.42)
[
A 16 A26 A66 L a16 a26 a66
On-axis extensional stiffness and compliance matrices
A = [ ~~~ ~~~ ~ ], a= [:~~ :~~ ~ ] (4. 1.43)

o 0 A 66 0 0 a66
If the stresses are not constant across h, resultant moments can be defined
h/2
M= f u X3d x3 (4.1.44)
-h/2
The resultant moment vector is denoted by
M = [M 1 M 2 M 6 f (4. 1.45)
The M i are moments per unit length, M 1 , M2 are bending moments and M6 is a
torsional or twisting moment. Figure 4.6 illustrates these moments and a linear stress
distribution across h. The resultant moments yield flexural strains, e.g. bending and
twisting strains, which are usually expressed by the relationship
e(x1, x2, X3) = x3K, KT = [K1 K2 K6] (4. 1.46)
K is the vector of curvature, K1 , K2 correspond to the bending moments M 1, M 2 and
K6 to the torsion moment M 6, respectively. The flexural strains are assumed linear
across h. With Q ij = cans t across h, i, j = 1,2,6 follow
h/2
M = QK fX~dx3 = QK~; = DK, K =D- 1M =dM (4.1.47)

- h/ 2
108 4. ElasticBehaviorof Laminateand Sandwich Composites
h
Q~
11 X l
Fig. 4.6. Resultant moment vector M T [MI M2 M6] and transverse shear resultants
QsT = [Q~ Q~]
D = Qh 3/12 is the flexural stiffness matrix and d the flexural compliance matrix
expressing the relations between stress couples M and the curvatures. For off-axis
and on-axis reference systems the matrices are given by:
Off-axis flexural stiffness and compliance matrices
0 11 0 12 016] [d ll d 12 d 16]
D = [
0 12 022 026 , d = d 12 d 22 d 26 (4.1.48)
0 16 0 26 0 66 d 16 d26 d 66
On-axis flexural stiffness and compliance matrices
0 11 012 0 ]
D = 0 12 0 22 0
[ o 0 0
, (4.1.49)
66
The transverse shear resultants can be defined in the same way by
h/2
QS = [§U f = [~!] dX3 (4.1.50)

-h/2
QS is (like the in-plane resultants) a load vector per unit length in the cross section
of the lamina Xl = canst or x2 = canst, respectively. The transverse shear resultant
vector QS is written with a superscript s to distinguish it from the reduced stiffness
matrix Q. When modelling a plane stress state, there are no constitutive equations
for 0"4,0"5 and the shearing stresses are calculated with the help of the equilibrium
equations, Eq. (2.2.1), or with help of equilibrium conditions of stress resultant,
e.g. Chap. 8. In three-dimensional modelling, including transverse shear strains,

however, constitutive equations for transverse shear resultant can be formulated.
For a lamina with resultant forces N and moments M the in-plane strain e and
the curvature term IC have to be combined
(4.1.51)
For the stress vector is
U(Xl, X2, X3) = Q[e(xl, X2) + X3IC(XI, X2)]
(4.1.52)
= Qe(xl, X2) + QX3IC(XI, X2)
and by integration through the lamina thickness h follow
h/2 h/2
N= !
-h/2
UdX3 Qeh + QK !
-h/2
X3dx3 = Ae + BIC,
(4.1.53)
h/2 h/2
M= !
-h/2
uX3dx3 = Qe !
-h/2
X3dx3 + QIC ~; = Be + DIC
The coupling stiffness matrix B is zero for a lamina, which is symmetric to the
midplane x3 = 0, i.e. there are no coupling effects between the Nand IC or M and
e, respectively. In Table 4.3 the constitutive equations of the lamina resultants are
summarized for a symmetric general angle lamina, for a UD-orthotropic lamina and
for an isotropic layer. In a contracted vector-matrix notation, we can formulate the
constitutive equation of a lamina by
(4.1.54)
where the in-plane stiffness submatrix A = Qh and the plate stiffness submatrix
D = Qh 3 / 12. 0 are zero submatrices . The inverted form of (4.1.54) is important
for stress analysis
[~~] [~],
A =Qh,
[:] = (4.1.55)
D = Q(h 3 / 12 )
Equation (4.1.52) yields the stress components a., i = 1,2,6
Ul = Qll (t"1 + X3 Kd + Q12(t"2 + X3 K2) + QI6(t"6 + X3 K6) = (TIM + (TIB,
(T2 = Q21 (t"1 + X3 Kl) + Q22(t"2 + X3 K2) + Q26(t"6 + X3 K6) = u2M + (T2B,
(T6 = QI6(t"1 + X3 Kd + Q62(t"2 + X3 K2) + Q66(t"6 + X3 K6) = (T6M + (T6B
(TiM are the membrane or in-plane stresses coupled with N, and (TiB the curvature or
plate stresses coupled with Mi. The membrane stresses are constant and the bending
stresses linear through the lamina thickness (Fig. 4.7).
The transverse shear stresses (T4, (T5 for plane stress state condition are ob-
tained by integration of the equilibrium equations (2.2.1). If the volume forces
PI = P2 = 0, Eqs. (2.2.1) yield
Table 4.3. Stiffness matrices of laminae
Anisotropic single layer or UD-lamina, off-axis
All A12 A16 0 a 0 €1

A12 A22 A26 0 a a €2 A ij = Qijh
A16 A26 A66 0 a a €6
o 0 0 011 012 0 16 Kl ' h3
o 0 0 012 022 026 K2 Oij = Qij 12
o 0 0 016 026 066 K6
Orthotropic single layer or UD-laminae, on-axis
E1
1- V12V21
All A 12 0 0 0 0 €1 E2
A 12 A22 a 0 0 0 €2 1 - V12V21
o 0 A 66 0 0 0 €6 E2
o 0 a 011 012 0 K1 'Q12 = 1 -V12V12V21
o 0 0 012022 0 K2
o 0 a 0 0 0 66 K6 V21 E1
1- V12V21
G12
Isotropic single layer
All A12 0 0 0 0
A12 All 0 0 0 0
o 0 A 66 0 0 0
a 0 0 011 012 0
a 0 0 012 011 0
o 0 a 0 0 0 66
(4.1.56)
4. I Elastic Behavior of Laminae III
Nl
11 = (TIM (Tl = (TIM + (TIB
o o o
1/ V
-, / Ll
Fig. 4.7. In-plane membrane stresses (TiM, bending stresses (TiB and total stresses (Ti across h
(qualitative)
X3
(TS(X3) = - !
-h/Z
{a~l [Qn(el + X3 Kl) + Q12(€Z + X3 KZ) + Q16(€6 + X3 K6)]
+ d~Z [Q61 (€l + X3 Kl) + Q6Z(€Z + X3 KZ) + Q66(€6 + X3 K6)]} dX3 ,

(4.1.57)
X3
lT4(X3) = - !
-h/Z
{a~l [Q61 (€l + X3 Kd + Q6Z(€Z + X3 KZ) + Q66(e6 + X3 K6)]
+ a~z [QZl (€l + X3 Kd + Qzz(ez + X3 KZ) + QZ6(€6 + X3 K6)]} dX3

Substituting the midplane strain e and the curvature 1C by the resultants Nand M
Eqs. (4.1.57) takes the form
X3
lTS(X3) = - ! {
-h/Z
Qn a~l [anNl + a 12Nz + al6 N6
a
+Q12:;--[a21 Nl + azzNz + aZ6 N6
oXl
+x3(d zl M l + dzzM z + d Z6M6)]
a
+Ql6:;--[a61 Nl + a6Z NZ + a66 N6
oXl
+x3(d6l Ml + d6ZMZ + d66M6)]
a
+Q6l :;--[au Nl + a12 NZ + a16 N6
oxz
+x3(d u Ml + d12Mz + d 16M6)]
a
+Q6Z:;--[aZl Nl + azzNz + aZ6 N6
oxz
+x3(d21M1 + dzzMz + dZ6M6)]
a
+Q66:;--[a16 Nl + aZ6 NZ + a66 N6
oxz
+x3(d 16M 1 + d Z6MZ + d66M6)] } d X3 1
(4.1.58)
X3
(T4(X3) =- J {
-h jZ
Q6l a~l [aU Nl + a12 NZ + a16 N6
+x3(d uM1 + d1ZMz + d16M6)]

a
+Q6Z-:;--[a21 Nl + a22 NZ + aZ6 N6
oXl
+x3(d z1M1 + dzzMz + dZ6M6)]
a
+Q66:;--[a61 Nl + a6Z NZ + a66 N6
oXl
+x3(d 61M 1 + d6ZMz + d66M6)]
a
+Q21:;-- [au N 1 + a12 NZ + a16 N6
oxz
+x3(d uM1 + d 12Mz + d 16M6)]
a
+Q22:;-- [a 21 N 1 + azzNz + aZ6 N6
oxz
+x3(d 21M1 + dzzM z + dZ6 M6)]
a
+QZ6 -:;-- [a6l N1 + a6Z NZ + a66 N6
oxz
+x3(d61 Ml + d6ZMZ + d66M6)] } d X3
The distribution of the transverse shear stresses through the thickness h is obtained
by integration from the bottom surface x3 = -h/2 of the lamina to x3
4.I Elastic Behavior of Laminae 113
X3
j QdX 3 = A(X3) = Q (X3 + hj2),

-h/Z
(4.1.59)
jX3
Q X3dx 3 = B(X3) = Q
-- 1 (Zx3 - hZ )
"4
2
-h/Z
and we have
A( -hj2) = B( -hj2) = 0, A (hj2 ) == A , B(hj2) == B
Finally, the transverse shear stress equations (4. 1.57) take the form
lTS(X3) =-
-
[
--
OXI
dKI -
~ -
OXI
dK2 -
~
All (x3h- + A IZ(X 3h- + A I6(X3h-
dK6
uXI
- ~
+ BII(X3)S--+BIZ(X3)~+BI6(X3)S--
OXI uXI OXI
- d€l - d€z -- d€6
+A61(X3)-d +A6Z(X3)-d +A66(X3)~
Xz Xz UX2
- dKI - dKz - dK6]
+ B6l(X 3h - + B6Z(X3 )~ + B66(X3h-- ,
oXz uXz OX2
(4.1.60)
- d€ l - d€z - d€6
lT4( X3) =- [ A61(X3)S-- +A62(X3)-d +A 66( X3)S--
u~ Xl o~
- dKI - dKZ - dK6
+ B61(X3)~+B6Z(X3)S--+B66 (X3)-d
oXl oXI Xl
-- d€l - d€z - d€6
+ A ZI (X3) ~ + A ZZ(X3) ~ + A Z6(X3h-
uX2 uX2 oXz
- dKI - dKZ - dK6]
+ B21(X3)~ oX2
+ B22(X3):;-oxz
+ BZ6(X3)~oxZ
or an analogous equation to (4.1.59) by substituting the in-plane strains e and the
mid-plane curvatures by the stress resultants Nand M .
The transverse shear stresses lT4, lTs are parabolic functions across the lamina
thickness. If there are no surface edge shear stresses, the conditions lTs(hj2 ) =
lT4(hj2) = 0 are controlling the performance of the equilibrium equations and the
accuracy of the stress analysis.
4.1.4 Problems
1. For a single layer unidirectional composite, the on-axis elastic behavior is given
by E L = 140 GPa, Ey = 9 GPa, VLY = 0.3. Calculate the reduced stiffness
matrix Q' and the reduced compliance matrix 5' .
Solution:
EL == E~, Ey == E~, VLT = v~ z ' Equation (4. 1.3) yields
[ ~lT~ ] =
[Q~l
Qb Q~z
Q~2
0]
~
[£'£1'
1] [£'£11] = [S~5~2l S~25~2?0][lT~]
lT~,
lT6 0 0 Q66 £6 £6 0 0 566 lT6
Q~l = EU(l - V~2V21)' 5~1 = l/E~,

Q~2 = E~/(l - V~2V21) ' 5~2 = 1/E2,
Q~2 = E~vb/(l - v~2v21)' 5 = -v~2/E2'
12
Q66= q2 = E~/2(1 + vb), 566 = 1/G~2'
v21 = v~2E2/E~ = 0,0192, Gb = EU 2(1 + V~2) = 53,846 GPa,

Q~l = 140,811 GPa, Q~2 = 9,052 GPa,
Q~2 = 2,716 GPa, Q66= 53,846 GPa,
5~1 = 7,14310- 3 GPa- 1, 5~2 = 111,11110-3 GPa- 1,
5~2 = -2,14310- 3 GPa- 1, 566 = 18,57110- 3 GPa- 1,
140, 811 2, 716 0 ]

Q' = 2,716 9,052 0 GPa,
[ o 0 53,846
7,143 -2,143 0 ]
S' = -2,143111,111 0 1O- 3GPa- 1
[ o 0 18,576
2. A composite panel is designed as a single layer lamina with E L = 140 GPa,
ET = 10 GPa, GLT = 6,9 GPa, VLT = 0,3 and e = 45° . Calculate the strains
El, E2 and E6 when the panel is loaded by a shear stress 176 = ±T = ± 10 MPa.
Solution:
From Fig. 4.4 follows
El = ±516(T6, E2 = ±526(T6, E6 = ±566(T6
With EL == E~,E T == E~,GLT == G~2 and vLT = v~ 2 and Eq. (4.1.17) is
5~1 = l/E~ = 7,14310- 3 GPa- 1,
5~2 = 1/ E2= 100,00010- 3 GPa- 1,
5 = -vb/E~ = -2,14310- 3 GPa- 1,
12
5 66 = l/Gb = 144,92810- 3 GPa- 1
The transformation rule, Table 4.2, yields
5 16 = 526 = -0,4610- 1 GPa- 1, 566 = 1,11 10- 1 GPa- 1
The strains are El = =r=0,46 .10- 3 , E2 = EJ, E6 = ±1, 11.10-3 .
Conclusion : A positive shear load 176 = +T shortens the composite panel in
both directions, a negative shear load 176 = -T would enlarge the panel in both
directions .
3. In a unidirectional single layer is a strain state Ell = 1% = 10- 2 , E22 =
-0.5% = -0.5 10- 2,112 = 2% = 2 10- 2. In the principal directions, the
following engineering constants of the composite material are E~ = E L = 40
GPa, E~ = ET = 10 GPa, G12 = GLT = 5 GPa, VLT = 0.3. Determine the
e
plane stress statefor the axis (Xl, X2) and (x~, x~) == (L, T) and = 45° .
Solution:
The stress states a' and 17 are to calculate for a given strain state El = 10- 2 ,
E2 = -0,510- 2, E6 = 210- 2 for a UD lamina with E~ = 40 GPa, E~ = 10
e
GPa, Clz = 5 GPa, vl2 = 0, 3 and a fibre angle = 45°. With Table 4.1 the
strains for the off-axis system xl, X2 are transferred to the strains for the on-axis
system xl' x;. Taking into account cos 45° = sin 45° = ../2/2 = 0,707107
we obtain
= 0,50,5 0,5] [10]

0, 5 0, 5 -0,5 -5 10- 3 = [12'5]
-7,5 10- 3 ,
[
-1 1 °
20 -15
and
v' E'
v'21 = -.lL..1.
E' =
1
°' 075
The reduced stiffness Q;j and the stresses (TI in the on-axis system follow from
(4.1.3)
Q11 = E1/(1 - vlzv~l) = 40,9207 GPa, Q;2 = E;/(l - vlzv~l) =
10,2302 GPa,
Q12 = E;vlz/(l- v~2v~1) = 3,0691 GPa, Q~6 = C12 = 5,0 GPa,
[
(TI] = [Q11
(Tj Q12 Q
1z
Q;2 °] [E;]1
~ E = [488'5]
-38,36 10-3 GPa
(T6 ° ° Q66 E6 -75, °
The stresses (Ti in the off-axis system are calculated with the help of the trans-
formation rules Table 4.1
2
C s2
S2 c2
-
2SC]
2sc
1
[(T']
(T'
[
sc -SC c2 - S2 (T~
0, 5 0,5 -1] [ 488,5 ] [0,300]
0,5 0,5 1 -38,36 1O- 3 GPa = 0,150 GPa
[ 0,5 -0,5 °
-75,0 0,263
4. Sketch the variation curves Ed E; and Cl21E; against the fibre orientation e
for a carbon-epoxy and glass-epoxy lamina using the following material data:
carbon-epoxy E = 140 GPa, E; = 10 GPa, C~2 = 7 GPa, vlz = 0,3
1
glass-epoxy E = 43 GPa, E; = 9 GPa, Clz = 4,5 GPa, v~2 = 0,27
1
Discuss the curves.
Solution:
From (4.1.23) follows
£t{(})/£~
14 I
12 1
i
10
I
~
8
6 I
4 Z~ I
-j----
I
2 +--- ~~ ~ • ~
'~-===-~-----l
O .......................~............~.L.....o..............L ~.....L.~.L...............J. ~........................... (}
o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
carbo n-epoxy • glass-epoxy
Fig. 4.8. Variation of E1 (8) I E~ against the fibre orientation for two composites
(Ed
-1 _
-
(12') + £I'
C4 s
£I + a - £ '
V 12
S C
2 2 4
1 12 2 2
(G12 )
-1 _ (2 2 4v~2 1) +a(c
-2 E'+E'+£'- G'
1 +s) 2 2
S C
4 4
1 2 1 12 12
Now the functions ft(B) = E1(B)/E~ and h(B) = G12(B)/Ei can be
sketched. The results are shown on Figs. 4 .8 and 4 .9 . Discussion of the func-
G 12 (8) / £~
0.9 I l
0.8
. . '........ -....J . . .
0.7
/ ''-----\--.
I
.
.
0.6
--7-'
.
1 .
I
. \~ -- t-
t~-
0.5 / 1 , I , , , ' , , , ' '" I ! "I ,,:>-- 8
o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
carbo n-epoxy • glass-epoxy

Fig. 4.9. Variation of G12(e)/E~ against the fibre orientation for two composites
tions It (0) and 12(8):

a) The anisotropic ratio E 1 I E~ is higher for carbon- than for glass-epoxy.
b) The longitudinal effective modulus E1 of the lamina drops sharply as the
loading direction deviates from the fibre direction, especially for-carbon-
epoxy.
c) The effective shear modulus of the lamina attains a maximum value at 8 =
45° .
5. For a UD-lamina with the elastic properties E~ = 180 GPa, E~ = 10 GPa,
q2 = 7 GPa, v~2 = 0,3 calculate
5:
a) the on-axis compliances j and the on-axis strains, if the applied on-axis
stresses are (T{ = 2 MPa, (T~ = -3 MPa, (T~ = 4 MPa,
b) the off-axis compliances 5ij and the off-axis and on-axis strains e,e/ if 0 =
45° (Fig. 4.3) and the applied off-axis stresses are
(T1 = 2 MPa, (T2 = -3 MPa, (T6 = 4 MPa,
c) the coefficients of thermal expansion in the off-axis system if
a~hl = 9 1O- 6 / 0K, aif' = 22 1O- 6 /°K.
Solution:
a) Using (4.1.3) follows
5~1 = (E~)-l = 5,5561O- 12 pa- 1 ,
5~2 = -v~2IE~ = -1,66710- 12 pa- 1,
5~2 = (E~)-l = 10010- 12 Pa- 1 ,
5~6 = (G~2)-1 = 142,8610- 12 Pa- 1 ,
1
f/ ] [5,556 -1,667 0 ] [ 2]
f2 = -1,667 100 0 1O- 12 pa- 1 -3 10 6 Pa
[
f
6 a a 142, 86 4
16,113]
= -303,334 10- 6
[ 571,440
b) With Table 4.2 the transformed compliances 5 ij can be calculated (note that
c = cos 45° = 0.7071, s = sin 45° = 0.7071)
5 11 = 61,27010- 12 Pa- 1 , 5 22 = 61,27110- 12 Pa- 1 ,
5 12 = -10,16010- 12 Pa- 1 , 5 66 = 108,8910- 12 Pa- 1 ,
516 = 5 26 = -47,22210- 12 Pa- 1
E[Q:t]tiO:S ([4~:: r::i:r]·1.[2~ ]Yield the strains e i

f6 516 526 566 (T6
61,270 -10,160 -47,222] [ 2]

-10,160 61,271 -47,222 1O- 12 pa- 1 -3 10 6Pa
[ -47,222 -47,222 108,89 4
[ =~~3~~~]
482,782
10-6
U[s~~g] Table[ ~:~ ~~ st~~~ns]lO c[:~ b]e transformed to the strains 10'
£2 = 0.5 0.5 -0.5 £2
£~ -1 1 0 £6
F r0.5 0.5 0.5 ]

0.5 0.5 -0.5
[-35,868]
-393,01 10- 6
L -1 1 0 482, 782
F r-455,83
26,95]
10- 6
L -357,14
c) The transformed thermal expansion coefficients a: h follow like the strains
W[i~ih'r]able4[.~.~0
a~h = 0.5 0.5 0.5
0.5 -0.5] [a ih']
a~h' =
[15'5]
15,5 1O- 6/K
Nth 1 -1 0 Nth' -13 0

""6 ""6'
Note that in the off-axis system :F O. at
6. The micro-mechanical material parameters of a carbon-epoxy composite are
ELf = 411 GPa, E Tf = 6.6 GPa, vTLf = 0.06, VLTf = 0.35,
a~f = -1.2 10- 6 11K, a~f = 27.3 10- 6 11K,
Em = 5.7 GPa, Vm = 0.316, am = 4510- 6 11K, "! = 0.5
The experimental tested values of the lamina are
EL = 208 .6 GPa, ET = 6.3 GPa, VLT = 0.33 ,
a~ = -0.510- 6 1IOC, a~ = 29.3 10- 6 1IOC,
Predict the lamina values using the micro-mechanical modelling and compare
the calculated and the experimental measured values.
Solution:
Using Eqs. (3.1.27) and (4.1.9)
EL = vfELf + (1 - vf )E m = 208.35 GPa,
VLT = VfVLTf + (1 - vf)vm = 0.33,
ET = ET£Em/[VfEm + (1 - vf)ETfJ = 6.12 GPa,
a~ = [atrvfELf + a~(1- vf)Em]/EL = -0.571O- 61/K,
th -_ ( a th
aT th ) Vf + (1 + Vm ) am
+ vTfaLf th (1 - Vf ) - VLTa th
Tf L
= 4.4310- 6 I/K
It can be concluded that the simple rules of mixture providing proper results
for longitudinal material characteristics E L, VLT and a~. In this case also ET is
predicted quite well but the formula for «t fails to predict the transverse thermal
expansion coefficient with required accuracy. For engineering applications the
thermal expansion coefficients should be normally determined by experimental
methods.
4.2 Elastic Behavior of Laminates
In Sect. 4.1, stress-strain equations were developed for a single lamina. Mo stly im-
portant in engineering applications are isotropic, quasi-isotropic (stocha stic distri-
bution of short fibres or particles) and quasi-orthotropic (unidirectional fibre re-
inforced) laminae . Reduced stiffness Qij, compliances Sij' membrane or in-plane
stiffness A ij and plate or out-of-plane stiffness Dij were defined. Assuming sym-
metry about the midplane of a lamina in-plane and plate responses are uncoupled in
the form of a first order theory (linear force-displacement relations).
The mechanics of laminated composite materials is generally studied at two dis-
tinct levels, commonly called micromechanics and macromechanics. In Chap. 3 the
micromechanics was used to study the interaction between the fibres and matrix in a
lamina such that the mechanical behavior of the lamina could be predicted from the
known behavior of the constituents. Micromechanics establishes the relationship be-
tween the properties of the constituents and those of the lamina. All micromechanics
approaches suffer from the problem of measuring the material properties of the con-
stituents and generally require correction factors to correlate with measured lamina
properties . For most engineering design applications an analysis that addressed to
the micro-mechanical level is unrealistic .
At the macro-mechanical level the properties of the individual layers of a lami-
nate are assumed to be known a priori. Macromechanics involves investigation of the
interaction of the individual layers of a laminate with one another and their effects
on the overall response quantities, e.g. elastic stiffness, influence of temperature and
moisture on the response of laminated composites, etc. Such global response quan-
tities can be predicted well on this level. Thus, the usc of macromechanical formu-
lations in designing composite laminate s for desired material characteristics is well
established. Macromechanics is based on continuum mechanics, which models each
lamina as homogeneous and orthotropic and ignoring the fibre/matrix interface.
The lamination theory is the mathematical modelling to predict the macro-
mechanical behavior of a laminate based on an arbitrary assembly of homoge-
neous orthotropic laminae. A two-dimen sional modelling is most common, a three-
dimensional theory is very complex and should be limited to selected problems, e.g.
the analysis of laminates near free edges .
A real structure generally will not consist of a single lamina. A laminate consist-
ing of more than one lamina bonded together through their thickness, for a single
lamina is very thin and several laminae will be required to take realistic structural
loads. Furthermore the mechanical characteristics of a UD-Iamina are very limited
in the transverse direction and by stacking a number of UD-Iaminae it may be an
optimal laminate for unidirectional loading only. One can overcome this restriction
by making laminates with layers stacked at different fibre angles corre sponding to
complex loading and stiffness requirements. To minimize the increasing costs and
weights for such approach one have to optimize the laminae angles . It may be also
useful to stack layers of different composite materials .
4.2.1 General Laminates
In the following section the macro-mechanical modelling and analysis of laminates

will be considered. The behavior of a multidirectional laminate is a function of the
laminae properties, i.e. their elastic moduli, thickness, angle orientations, and the
stacking sequence of the individual layers. The macro-mechanical modelling may
be in the framework of the following assumptions :
• There is a monolithic bonding of all laminae i.e. there is no slip between laminae
at their interface and no special interface layers are arranged between the angle
plies.
• Each layer is quasi-homogeneous and orthotropic , but the angle orientations may
be different.
• The strains and displacements are continuous throughout the laminate . The in-
plane displacements and strains vary linearly through the laminate thickness.
We will see that the stacking codes of laminates have a great influence on the global
mechanical laminate response (Sect. 4.2.3), but there are some rules to guarantee an
optimal global laminate behavior:
• Symmetric laminate stacking yields an uncoupled modelling and analysis of in-
plane and bending/torsion stress-strain relations and avoids distorsions in the pro-
cessing .
• Laminates should be made up of at least three UD-laminae with different fibre
angle orientation.
• The differences of the mechanical properties and the fibre orientations between
two laminae following in the stacking sequence should not be so large that the
so-called interlaminar stresses are small.
• Although it is possible to determine an optimum orientation sequence of lami-
nates for any given load condition , it is more practical from a fabrication stand-
point and from effective experimental lamina testing to limit the number of fibre
orientations to a few specific laminae types, e.g. fibre orientations of 0°, ±4So
and 90° , etc.
Consider a laminate made of n plies shown in Fig. 4.10. Each lamina has a thickness
of h(k), k = 1,2, ... , n, and we have
h(k) = x1nk ) - x1k- 1
), k = 1,2, . . . , nthickness of a lamina,
h = E h(k) thickness of the laminate ,
k= l (4.2.1)
x1k ) = -~ + i: h(i) distance from the mid-plane,

2 i=l
x1n) = x1°) = - ~ are the coordinates of the top and the bottom surface of
~ and
the laminate, x1 ) and x1 - ), k = 1,2, .. . , nare the location coordinates of the top
k k 1
and the bottom surface of lamina k. Each layer of a laminate can be identified by its
X3
II
(II)
X3
11 (II- I)
x3
2
Mid-plane x3 =0
V X2
~
(2)
X3
XI ( 1)
x3
x (O ) h
2 3 2
2
I
Fig. 4.10. Laminate made of n single layers, coordinate locations
location in the laminate, its material and its fibre orientation . The layers of the lam-
inate may be symmetric,antisymmetric or asymmetric to the midplane X3 = O. h(k)
and the reduced stiffness Q (k) may be different for each lamina, but Q (k) is constant
for the kth lamina . The following examples illustrate the laminate code . In Fig. 4.11
the laminate codes for an unsymmetric laminate with four layers and a symmetric
angle-ply laminate with eight layers are illustrated. A slash sign separates each lam-
ina. The codes in Fig. 4.11 imply that each lamina is made of the same material and
b e = 0° 8
a e = 0° 4 e = - 45° 7
e = 90° 6
X3 =0 e = 30° 3
X3 = 0 e = 45° 5
e = - 30° 2 e = 45° 4
e = 90° 3
e = 90° I e = - 45° 2
e = 0° I
[0/ - 45/90/45/45/90/- 45/0]

[90/ - 30/30/0]
== [0/- 45/90/45]5
Fig. 4.11. Angle-ply laminates. a unsymmetric 4-layer laminate, b symmetric 8-layer-

laminate
e = -45° 5
e = 45° 4
3
-
e = 90° r---
e= 45° 2
e= -45° I
[-45/45/90/45/ - 45] == [-45/45/90]5
Fig. 4.12. Regular symmetric angle-ply laminate: orientation of the midplane e 90°
is of the same thickness . Regular symmetric are those laminates which have an odd
number of UD-Iaminae of equal thicknesses and alternating angle orientations (Fig.
4.12). Since the number of laminae is odd and symmetry exists at the mid-surface,
the 90° lamina is denoted with a bar on the top. The subscript S outside the code
brackets, e.g., in Fig. 4.11 b), represents that the four plies are repeated in the reverse
order.
A general laminate has layers of different orientations 8 with -90° ~ 8 ~ 90° .
An angle-ply laminate has ply orientations of 8 and -8 with 0° ~ 8 ~ 90° and
at least one lamina has an orientation other than 0° or 90°. Cross-ply laminates are
those which have only ply orientations of 0° and 90°.
A laminate is balanced when it consists of pairs of layers with identical thick-
ness and elastic properties but have +8 and -8 orientations of their principal ma-
terial axes with respect to the laminate reference axes. A balanced laminate can be
symmetric, antisymmetric or asymmetric
[+811 - 811 + 8z/ - 82]5 symmetric lay-up,
[8118 2 1- (hI - 81 ] antisymmetric lay-up, (4.2.2)
[8118z/ - 811 - 82 ] asymmetric lay-up
Antisymmetric laminates are a special case of balanced laminates, having the bal-
anced +8 and -8 pairs of layers symmetrically situated about the middle surface.
Generally each layer of a laminate can have different fibre angles, different thick-
nesses and different composite materials. The influence of the laminate codes, i.e
the properties and the stacking sequences, on the elastic behavior of laminates will
be considered in Sect. 4.2.3.
4.2.2 Stress-Strain Relations and Stress Resultants
The stiffness matrix of a single lamina referred to the reference system xi, i
1,2,3, has been formulated in Sect. 4.1.2, Eq. (4.1.26). Extending the assumption
of a plane stress state to laminates with in-plane and out-of-plane loading, the stress-
strain relation (4.1.26) can be rewritten by separating the transverse shear stresses
and strains. The stresses in the kth layer are expressed by means of the reduced
stiffness coefficients Qij
lTl (k)
lTz
[Ql1 Q12 Q16
Q21 Qzz QZ6
0 0]
0 0
(k) [10 1
EZ
(k)
lT6 = Q6l Q6Z Q66 0 0 10 6 (4.2.3)

[ lT4 0 0 0 Q44 Q4S 104
lTs 0 0 0 QS4 Qss lOS
or in contracted notation
(k) 2
lTi = Q(k) (k) . .
ij Ej , I,) = 1, ,6,
(k) (4.2.4)
lTi = Qij(k) E(k) . .
j , I,) = 4,5
with (see also 2.1.75)
lT~k) = 0, E~k) = - C~3 (C13El + CZ3EZ + C36E6) (4.2 .5)
QW), i, j = 1,2,6 are the reduced stiffness of the kth layer and functions of Q:j(k)
and the fibre orientation angle, the Qi~, Qi~ = Q~~, Q~~ are identical to the ma-
terial coefficients ci~ ci~ = , C~~), C~~, which are not reduced by the assumption
of a plane stress state. The discontinuity of QW) from layer to layer implies the
discontinuity of the stresses when passing from one lamina to another.
From the assumption of macro-mechanical modelling of laminates it follows
that
(4.2.6)
i.e the strains 101, EZ, 106 vary linearly through the laminate thickness. e(xl, xz) is
the vector of the in-plane or membrane strains and X3K(Xl, xz) the vector of flexu-
ral strains (bending and twisting) . K(Xl, xz) is the vector of curvature subjected to
bending and twisting. We shall see later (Sect. 5.4) that there are different curvature
components in the classical and the shear deformation theory of laminates .
The in-plane stress resultant force vector N of a laminate follows by summariz-
ing the adequate vectors of all laminae
n
N = L N(k), NT = [Nl N z N6]' N(k)T = [N~k) Ny) N~k)] (4.2.7)
k=l
By analogy it follows that the resultant moment vector is
n
M = L M(k), MT = [Ml M z M 6 ], M(k)T = [Ml k) M~k) M~k)] (4.2.8)
k=l
The positive directions are corresponding to Figs. 4.5 and 4.6 for a single layer. The
transverse shear resultants given in (4.1.50)
n
Q S( Xl , X2 ) = L Q s(k), Q ST = [Qi Q~], Q S(k)T = [Q~(k) Q~(k)] (4.2.9)
k=l
Equations (4.2.4) and (4.2.6) yield
cr(k) = Q (k)e = Q (k) (e + X3K) (4.2.10)
and the resultants N and M for the laminate are (k = 1,2, . . . , n)
N (k) = ! cr(k) d X3 = cr(k)h (k), h (k) = x~k) _ x~k-l),

(h(kJ)
(4.2.11)
n
N = L cr(k)h (k)
k=l
and
M (k) = !cr(k)X3 d x3 = cr(k) ~ (x~k)2 _ x~k-l)2 ) = cr(k)h(k)x(k),
(WJ) (4.2.12)
n
M = L cr(k)h(k)x(k)
k=l
with
- (k) _
x -
~
2 ( (k)
x3
+ x (k- l »)
3
For each layer the membrane strains tl, t2, t6 , the curvatures Kl' K2, K6 and the
reduced stiffness QW, Q~1, Q~~, Q~1, Q~~, Q~~ are constant through each thick-
ness h(k) and (4.2.11) and (4.2.12) reduces to:
N =
(t k-l
Q (k) ]
X3
"' )
(k- l J
d X3 e+
(t k-l
Q (k) ]
(k-l
X3
"' )
)
X3d x3 K
(t
A e+ B K,
.' ) (t
(4.2.13)
M=
k-l
Q (k) ]
(k -l )
X3
X3d x3 e +
k-l
Q (k) ]
"' X~dX3)
(k- l )
X3
K
= B e+ D K
A , B, D are the extensional, coupling and bending stiffness matrices, respectively.

From (4.2.4) and (4.2.9), the relations for the transverse shear resultants are
(4.2.14)
with
c- = [C44 C4S] / if = [0"4] / -ys = [ £4] / A S = [A 44 A 4S ]

CS4 Css O"s £s
AS 4 Ass
Equation (4.2.14) is a first approach and consists of taking the transverse shear strain
independent of the coordinate X3. AS is the transverse shear stiffness matrix. An
improvement is possible by replacing the transverse shear stiffness A7j by (kA )7r
kIj are so called shear correction factors (Sect. 5.4). The elements of the matrices
A ,B,D,As are
n n
Aij = L Q~) (x~k) - x~k- l) ) = L Q~)h (k)/ ' i, j = 1/2/ 6/
k= l k= l
BIJ.. -_ ~ ~ Q (k) ( (k) 2 _ (k_ l) 2) _ ~ Q(k )-(k)h (k)
2 L..J ij x3 x3 - L..J ij x 3 /
k= l k= l
(k)2 ) (4.2.15)
D .. = ~ ~ Q(k) ( (k)3 _ (k- l)3 ) ~ Q(k) _(k)2 + _h_ h(k)
IJ 3 L..J IJ x3 x3 L..J IJ ( x 3 12 /
k= l k= l
n n
A7j = L Cf ) (x~k) - x~k- l) ) = L C &k)h (k)/ i, j 4/5=
k= l k= l
The constitutive equation for laminates including extensional, bending/torsion and
transverse shear strains is the superposition from the so-called classical equations
for N and M and the equation that involves the transverse shear resultant QS. The
constitutive equation can be written in the following contracted hypermatri x form
[~ ]
QS
= [:
0 0 AS
~~ ] [: ]
-ys
(4.2.16)
The stiffness Qf) and C &k) in (4.2.15) referred to the laminate's global reference
coordinate system x., i = 1/2/3 , are given in Table 4.2 as functions of the Q;j (k)
and in (4.2.17) as functions of the C;/ k) referred to the material principal directions
of each lamina (k)
C44 = Q 4c2 + q ss 2,
C4S = (qs - C~4)sc, (4.2.17)
Css = C~4s2 + q sc 2
Equation (4.2.16) illustrates the coupling between stretching and bending/twisting

of a laminate, i.e. in-plane strains result in in-plan e resultants but also bending
and/or torsion moments and vice versa. Since there are no coupling effects with
the transverse shear strains or shear resultants we consider the in-plane and flexural
simultaneous equations, (4.2.18), separately
or
All A12 A 16 : Bl l B12 B 16

N1 €1
A 12 A 22 A 26 : B12 B22 B 26
N2 €2
N6 A 16 A 26 A 66 : B 16 B 26 B 6 6 €6
. . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (4.2.18)
M1 K1
Bll B12 B 16 : 011 0 12 0 16
M2 K2
M6 B12 B 22 B 26 : 0 12 0 22 026 K6
B16 B 26 B 66 : 016 026 0 66
The follow ing steps are necessary for analyzing a laminated composite subjected to
forces and moments:
• Calcu late the values of the reduced stiffness Q~j for each lamina k using the four
elastic moduli, EL , ET , VLT , GLT (4.1.2) and (4.1.3).
• Calculate the values of the transformed reduced stiffness Q ij for each lamina k
(Table 4.2).
• Knowing the thickness h(k) of each lamin a k calculate the coordinates x~k), x~k-1)
to the top and the bottom surface of each ply.
• Calculate all A ij, B ij and Oij from (4.2.15).
• Substitute the calculated stiffness and the applied resultant forces and moments
in (4.2.18) and calculate the midplane strains e, and curvatures Ki .
• Calculate the global strains e(k ) in each lamina using (4.2.6) and then the global
stresses u (k) for each lamina k using (4.2.10).
• Calcul ate the local strains e,(k) and the local stresses u ,(k) for each lamina k using
Table 4.1
The inverted relation (4.2.18) leads to the compliance hypermatrix for the in-plane
and flexural resultant s
(4.2.19)
The compliance submatrices a, b, c, d follow from the stiffness submatrices A , B, O .

With
N = A€+BK (4.2.20)
it follow s that
e = A- 1(N - BK) (4.2.21)
and using (4.2.13)
M = BA- 1N - (BA- 1B - O)K (4.2.22)
The first result is a mixed-type con stitutive equation
(4.2.23)
A* = A-I, B* = -A-lB,
C* = BA-l = _B*T, D* = D - BA-lB
With
K = D*-lM - D*- lC*N (4.2.24)
it follows that
€ = (A* - B*D*-lC*)N + B*D*-lM (4.2.25)
and the compliance relation has in contracted notation the form
[.:] = [:::] [ : ] ,
(4.2.26)
a = A* - B*D*-lC* = A* + B*D*-lB*T,
b = B*D*-l ,
C = -D*-lC* = D*-lB*T = bT,
d = D*-l
Equations (4.2.18) and (4.2.26) are inverse relations of the constitutive equation for
the resultants and the strains of a laminate. The elements of the submatrices A, B, D
and a, b, c, d are functions of the geometry, the material properties and the struc-
ture of a laminate and therefore averaged effective elastic laminate moduli. The
submatrices A, B, D, a, d are symmetric submatrices . That is not the case for the
submatrices band c but with c = bT the compliance hypermatrix is symmetric .
The coupling of different deformation states is a very important quality of the con-
stitutive equations of laminates. In the general case, considered in this section, all
coupling effects are present. Figure 4.13 illustrates for example the coupling states
for the resultant force N l and the resultant moment MI.
In the next Sect. 4.2.3 we shall see that the stacking sequence of a laminate in-
fluences the coupling behavior of loaded laminates. In engineering applications it is
desired to specify the stacking sequence such that a number of coefficients of the
stiffness matrix will be zero and undesirable couplings between stretching , bending
and/or twisting will be avoided. But it is rather difficult to specify an optimum stack-
ing sequence without detailed information about the performance requirements .
Engineering composite design has continued to evolve over many years. Most
early applications of composite materials were aimed particularly at weight reduc-
tion. Metals were replaced by composites with little or no emphasis placed on tailor-
ing the composite properties. Engineering design created quasi-isotropic laminates
128 4. Elastic Behavior of Lamina te and Sandwich Composites
N1 AlI A 12 A16 BlI B12 B 16 10 1

N2 A 22 A26 B 22 B26 10 2
N6 A66 B 66 106
M1 011 012 0 16 K1
M2 S y M 0 22026 K2
M6 066 K6
""
""
T~J
""':- >-
N1 -c A l1 "" A I6
"" A12 >-
""
-c >-
"" >-
>-
"" >-
>-
""
<
"" >-
>-
strai n £1 strain £2 shea r £6
curv at ure " I curvature "2 twisting "6
Nj
""
""
-c
-c
"" cu rvature " 1

>-
»
>-
>-
>-
>-
.
-c
""
-c
..
0>
""
""
""
812
curva ture "2

,.>-
>-
>-
>-
>-
>-
>-
""
""
twisting "6
>-
>-
8 11
strai n £ 1 stram £2 shear £6
Fig. 4.13. Coupling of strain states: Influence of the stiffness A I j, 0l j and B1j (j = 1,2,6)
on the strains tj and the curvature Kj of the middle surface of a general laminate loading with
Nl or MI . In each case 6 deformatio n states of N 1 and M 1 have to be superposed.
that largely suppressed the directional material properties of unidirectional lami-

nae and made the laminate material response similar to that of isotropic materials,
e.g. of metals. We shall see in the following discussion that one of such quasi-
isotropic laminate is given if it has equal percentages of 0 0 , +45 0 , -45 0 and 90 0
layers placed symmetrically with respect to the laminate mid-plane. Quasi-isotropic
laminates have elastic properties that are independent of the direction in the plane
of the laminate, like traditional isotropic engineering materials. Therefore, quasi-
isotropic laminates were in the first applications of composites a convenient replace-
ment for steel or alloys in weight critical applications, e.g. in aerospace industries.
Weight saving could be achieved by simple replacing the isotropic metal with a
similar stiffness laminate that was lighter and probably stronger. If we compare a
graphite/epoxy laminate with an quasi-isotropic stacking sequence of laminae and
aluminium we find nearly the same elastic moduli, e.g. E ::::i 70 GPa, but the den-
sity values p and the specific stiffness E/ p differ significantly. The specific stiffness
of graphite/epoxy laminate can be twice that of aluminium. Such applications of
quasi-isotropic laminates required a minimal amount of redesign effort and there-
fore minimal changes in structural configuration.
By the time the number of design engineers which are trained in composite
materials increased and the tailoring of material properties gained more acceptance.
To maximize the utility of the non-isotropic nature of laminates, the influence of
the stacking sequence on the structural behavior must be investigated in detail and
optimized. Particularly the coupling effects of in-plane and out-of-plane responses
affect the effort of laminate structural analysis.
4.2.3 Laminates with Special Laminae Stacking Sequences
Now special cases of laminates which are important in the engineering design of
laminated structures will be introduced . Quite often the design of laminates is done
by using laminae that have the same constituents, the same thicknesses, etc. but
have different orientations of their fibre reinforcement direction with respect to the
global reference system of the laminate and a different stacking sequence of these
layers. In other cases layers with different materials or thicknesses are bonded to a
laminate. The stacking sequence of the layers may result in reducing the coupling
of normal and shear forces, of bending and twisting moments etc. It can simplify
the mechanical analysis but also gives desired mechanical performance. In the fol-
lowing, the mechanical behavior of special symmetric and unsymmetric laminates
are considered .
1. Symmetric laminates
A laminate is called symmetric if the material, angle and thickness of laminae
are the same above and below the midplane, i.e. two symmetric arran~ed layers
to the midplane have the same reduced stiffness matrix Q(k) == Q(k) and the
same thickness h(k) == h(k') for opposite coordinates x(k) and x(k') = _x(k)
(Fig. 4.14). It follows that the coefficients Bij of the coupling submatrix Bare
zero and there are no coupling relations of stretching and bending
1================111 == 11
kl
X3 = 0
1
Fig. 4.14. Symmetric laminate with identical layers k and k' opposite to the middle surface
(h(k) = h( k'), Q(k) = Q (k' )
BIJ.. -_ ~2 L...
~ Q(k) ( (k)2 _ (k-1)2 )
ij x3 x3
k=1
_ ~ ~ Q(k) ( (k) + x (k-1» ) ( x (k ) _ x (k- 1») (4.2.27)
- 2 L... ij x3 3 3 3
k=1
n
= L Q~)x~k) h(k) = 0, i, j = 1,2,6
k=1
With xt) = -x~) the sum above have two pairs of equal absolute values but
opposite signs. T hu s the ABD-matrix of symmetric laminates is uncoupled , i.e.
all term s of the coupling submatrix [Bij ] are zero, see following equation
All A 12 A 16 : 0 0 0
N1 £1
A12 A 22 A26 : 0 0 0
N2 £2
N6 A 16 A 26 A 66 : 0 0 0 £6
= .. ....... .. . . . .. . . . . .. . . . .. (4.2.28)
M1 K1
0 0 0 : 0 11 0 12 0 16
M2 K2
M6 0 0 0 : 0 12 0 22 0 26 K6
0 0 0 : 0 16 0 26 0 66
Th e exte nsional submatrix A and the bending sub matrix D are in the case of
symmetric ang le ply laminates fully populated and we have in-plane normal
and shear strain and out-of-plane bending and torsion couplings . Since the cou-
pling submatrix B is zero the elastic behavior of symmetric laminates is simpler
to analyze than that of general laminates and symmetric laminates have no ten-
dency to warp as a result of thermal contractions induced during the composite
processing. Some important special cases of symmetric laminates are:
• Symmetri c laminate with isotropic layers
(k) _ (k) _ (k') _ (k') _ E(k)
Q11 - Q22 - Q11 - Q22 - 1- v(k)'
(k) _ (k') _ v(k) E(k)
Q12 - Q12 - 1 _ v(k) /
(k) _ Q(k) _ Q(k') _ Q(k') - 0
Q 16 - 26 - 16 - 26 - /
(k) _ (k') _ E(k) _ (k)
Q 66 - Q 66 - 2(1 + v(k») - G /
n
A ij = L Q~)h(k)
k=l
===> All = A 22, A 16 = A 26 = 0/
(4.2.29)
0 .. =
IJ
~ Q(k)h(k)
LJ lJ
(x(k)2
3
+ h(k)2)
12
k=l
===> 0 11 = 0 22/016 = 0 26 = 0/
All A 12 0 0 0 0
£"1
0 0 0 0
N11 A 12 All
~:
£"2
0 0 A66 : 0 0 0 £"6
= . ....... .... .. . . .. . .. . . . .. . (4.2.30)
M
M2
M6
1 j 0
0
0
0
0 : 011 0 12 0
K1
K2
0 : 0 12 0 11 0 K6
o 0 0 : 0 0 0 66
This type of symmetric laminates has no stretching-shearing or bending-
torsion coupling .
• Symmetric cross-ply laminate
A laminate is called a cross-ply laminate or a laminate with specially or-
thotropic layers if only 0° and 90° plies were used. The material principal
axes and the global reference axes are identical. If for example for the kth
layer the fibre orientation and the xl-direction of the global reference system
coincide, we have
132 4. Elastic Behaviorof Laminateand SandwichComposites
a b
6 = 11(1)
90 °11 (6) c
3 0° II 5 00 11(5) = 11 (2) 4 nO II
S S 4 S 3 90° II
2 90° II 3 2 gnO II
2 I nO II
I 0° II
Fig. 4.15. Symmetric cross-ply laminate. a 3-layer laminate with equal layer thickness, b 6-
layer laminate with equal layer thickness in pairs, c 4-layer laminate with equal layer thick-
ness
(k) _ (k') _ E~k) (k) _ (k') _ E~k)

Qn = Qn -
1-
(k) (k)' Q 22
v I 2 v21
Q 22 - = (k) (k) '
1 - v I 2 v 2I
(k) _ (k') _ v~~) E~k)
(k) _ (k') _ (4.2.31)
Q 12 =Q I2 - (k ) (k)' Q 16 Q I6 = - 0,
1 - v 12 v21
(k)
Q 66 - =Q(k')
66 -
_ k)
12 '
d Q(k)
26 -
Q(k')
26
= - 0
-
and with (4.2.15) A 16 = A 26 = =
0, D 16 = O. The stiffness matrix
D 26
of the constitutive equation has an adequate structure as for isotropic layers,
but now An =I- A22 and D n =I- D 22, i.e. the laminate has an orthotropic
structure
An A 12 0 0 0 0
N1 €1
A 12 An 0 0 0 0
N2 €2
N6 0 0 A 66 : 0 0 0 €6
. .. .. . .... ... .. .... .. .... .. (4.2.32)
MI K1
0 0 0 : D 11 D 12 0
M2 K2
M6 0 0 0 : D 12 D 22 0 K6
o 0 0: 0 0 D66
Figure 4.15 illustrates examples of symmetric cross -ply laminates. With
A 16 = A26 = 0, D 16 = D26 = 0 there is uncoupling between the nor-
mal and shear in-p lane forces and also between the bending and the twis ting
moments.
• Symmetric balanced laminate
A laminate is balanced when it consists of pairs of layers of the same thick -
ness and material where the angles of plies are + 8 and -8. An example is
the 8-layer-laminate [± 8I/ ± 8z/Js. The stiffness coefficients A ij and Dij
will be calculated from
4.2 ElasticBehavior of Laminates 133
A ij = t Q~)h(k), h(k) = h(k'), O(k) = -OW)

k=l
==} A 16 = A 26 = 0,
.. - !
D IJ - 3 i: ij
f.
Q(k) ( (k)3 _ (k-1)3)
x3 x3
k=l
(4.2.33)
= f. Q(~) (X(k)2 + h(k)2) h(k)
i: IJ 3 12
k=l
with
h(k) = h(k'), O(k) = OW), x~k') = _x~k)
and the constitutive equation yields
A 11 A 12 a a a a
N1
N2
A12 A22 a a a a c1
c2
N6 a a A6 6 : a a a c6
= . . . . .. .. .. .. . .... .. .... .. .. (4.2.34)
M1 K1
M2
a a a : 011 012 016
K2
M6 a a a : 012 022 026 K6
a a 0 :0 16 026 066
The fact that the in-plane shear coupling stiffness A 16 and A26 are zero
is a defining characteristic of a balanced laminate . In general the bend-
ing/twisting coupling stiffness 0 16 and 0 26 are not zero unless the laminate
is antisymmetric.
Summarizing the results on symmetric laminates above, it is most important
that all components of the B-matrix are identical to zero and the full (6 x 6)
ABD-matrix decouples into two (3 x 3) matrices, namely
N = Ae, M = DK (4.2.35)
Therefore also the inverse relations degenerates from (6 x 6) into two (3 x 3)
relations
e = aN, K = dM (4.2.36)
In these matrix equations a is the inverse of A and d the inverse of D
0 22066 - 0~6
d 11 = Det[D] ,
d _ 0 260 16 - 0 12066
12 - Det[Dl '
d _ 0 12026 - 0 22 0 26
16 - Det[D] I
(4.2.37)
0 11066 - °I6
d22 = Det[D] ,
d _ 0 12016 - 0 11026
26 - Det[D] I
A 11A22 - AI2 D 11D22 - Di2

a66 = Det[A] , d66 = Det[D]
with
Det[X] = X11(X22X66 - X~6) - X12(X12X66 - X26 X16)
+ X16(X12X26 - X22 X16); X ij = Aij , Dij
For the special symmetric stacking cases one can find

a) Isotropic layers
a11 = a22, a16 = a26 = a, A 11= A 22, A 16 = A 26 = a,
d 11= d22, d 16= d 26 = a, D11 = D 22, D 16 = D26 = a,
Eh Eh
A 11 = -1-'
-v A 12 = v A 11, A66 = 2(1 + v) '
Eh3 Eh3
D 11 = 12(1 _ v 2 ) ' D12 = vD 11, D 66 = 24(1 + v)
with h = Lk=l h( k)
b) Cross-play layers
A 22 D 22
a11 = 2 ' d 11 = 2 '
A l1A 22 - A 12 D 11D22 - D 12
-A 12 -D 12
a12 = 2 ' d 12 = 2 '
A 11A22 - A 12 D 11 D22 - D 12
All D 11
a22 = 2 ' d 22 = 2 '
A 11A22 - A 12 D11 D22 - D 12
1 1
a66 = - - , d66 = - -
A 66 D66
c) Balanced layers
The aij are identical to cross-ply layers. The d ij are identical to the general
symmetric case.
2. Antisymmetric laminates
A laminate is called antisymmetric if the material and thickness of the laminae
are the same above and below the midplane but the angle orientations at the
same distance above and below of the midplane are of opposite sign, i.e two
symmetric arranged layers to the midplane with the coordinates x(k) and x(k') =
_x(k) having the same thickness h(k) = h( k') and antisymmetric orientations
e( k) and e( k') = _e (k) (Fig. 4.14).
• Antisymmetric cross-ply laminate
Antisymmetric cross-ply laminates consist of 00 and 90 0 laminae arranged
in such a way that for all aD-laminae (k) at a distance x(k) from the midplane
there are 90 0-laminae (k') at a distance x(k') = _ x (k) and vice versa. By
definition these laminates have an even number of plies. The reduced stiffness
fulfills the conditions
l
(k) _ Q(k ) Q(k) _ Q (k') Q (k) _ Q (k' )
Q 11 - 2i?l' 22 - 11' 12 - 12'
Q~~ = Q~~) = Q~~ = Q~~) = a,
which yield considering (4.2.15) and the 00 and 90 0 layers have the same
thickne ss
All = A22, A16 = A 26 = 0,

Bll = -B22, B 12 = B 16 = B 26 = B 66 = 0, (4.2.38)
D 11 = D 22 , D 16 = D 26 = 0
and the constitutive equation has the form
All A 12 0 :B ll 0 0
N1 £1
A12 All 0 0 -B ll 0
N2 £2
N6 0 0 A 66 : 0 0 0 £6
. . . .. . .. .. .. . . .. . .. . . . . ... . . . . (4.2.39)
M 1 K1
Bll 0 0 : Dll D12 0 K2
M2
M 6 0 - Bll 0 :D 12 Dll 0 K6
o 0 0: 0 0 D66
The constitutive equation (4.2.39) shows that antisymmetric cross-ply lam-
inates only have a tensionlbending coupling . It is important to note that the
coupling coefficient B 11 approaches zero as the number of plies increases for
a constant laminate thickness since it is inversely proportional to the total
number of layers.
• Antisymmetric balanced laminate
Antisymmetric balanced laminates consist of pairs of laminae (k) and (k' )
at a distance x (k ) and x (k' ) = _x (k ) with the same material and thick-
ness but orientation s 8 (k) and 8(k') = _8 (k). Examples of these laminate s
are [8d - 81 ], [8d82/ - 82 / - 81 ], etc. As for all balanced laminate s
A 16 = A 26 = 0 and with
.. _ ~ ~ Q (k) ( (k)3 _ (k- l)3)
D lJ (4.2.40)
- i : i; x3 x3
3 k= l - \
and
l
( x 3(k)3 - x 3(k- l )3) -_ (

x 3k )3 - x 3(k'_ 1)3 ) '
(k ) _ _ Q (k' ) Q (k) _ _ Q (k' )

Q 16 - 16' 26 - 26
it follows that
D 16 = D26 = 0
Note that x~k) = _X~kl), h(k) = h(k') and
l) l)
(k) _ Q(k Q(k) _ Q(k') Q(k) _ Q(k
Q 11 - 11' 22 - 22 ' 12 - 12'
(k) _ Q (k' ) Q (k) _ _ Q (k' ) Q (k) _ _ Q (k' )
Q 66 - 66' 16 - 16 ' 26 - 26
Equation (4.2.15) =
yields Bll = = B 66 = O. Balanced
B 22 B 12
antisymmetric laminates have no in-plane shear coupling and also no
bending/twisting coupling but a coupling of stretching/twisting and bend-
ing/shearing. The constitutive equation has the following structure
An A 12 0 0 0 B 16
N1 £1
A 12 A 22 0 0 0 B 26
N2 £2
N6 0 0 A 66 : B 16 B 26 0 £6
. . . . . . . . .. . ..... .. .. . . . . . . . (4.2.4 1)
M1 K1
0 0 B 16 : On 0 12 0
M2 K2
M6 0 0 B 26 : 0 12 0 22 0 K6
B 16 B26 0 0 0 0 66
Table 4.4 summarizes the stiffness matrices for symmetric and unsymmetric lam-
inates which are used in engineering applications. Symmetric laminates avoid the
stretching/bending coupling. But certain applications require the use of nonsyrn-
metric laminates. If possible symmetric balanced laminates should be used. The
bending and shearing couplings are elimin ated and one can show that for symmet-
ric laminates with a constant total thickness h the values of the bending or flexural
stiffness 0 16 and 026 decrease with an increasing number of layers and approach
zero for k -* 00 . If the stiffness A ij, Bij and O ij are calculated, the compliances
ai j, b ij , Cij = b~ , d ij follow from (4.2.26) or for symmetric laminates from (4.2.37) .
The experimental identification of the compliances is simpler than for the stiffness
parameters.
The coupling stiffness Bij and A 16, A 26 , 0 16 and 0 26 complicate the analysis
of laminates. To minimize coupling effects symmetric balanced laminates should be
created with a fine lamina distribution. Then all Bij and the A 16, A 26 are identical
to zero and the 0 16 , 0 26 couplings are relatively low because of the fine lamina
distribution. Whenever possible it is recommended to limit the number of fibre ori-
entations to a few specific one, that are 0°, ±4So, 90° to minimize the processing
and experimental testing effort and to select a symmetric and balanced lay-up with a
fine lamina interdispersion in order to eliminate in-plane and out-of-plane coupling
and the in-plane tension/shearing coupling and to minimize torsion coupling.
There is furthermore a special class of quasi-isotropic laminates. The layers of
the laminate can be arranged in such a way that the laminate will behave as an
isotropic layer under in-plane loading. Actually, such laminates are not isotropic,
because under transverse loading normal to the laminate plane and under interlami-
nar shear their behavior is different from real isotropic layer. That is why one use the
notation quasi-isotropic layer. Because all quasi-isotropic laminates are symmetric
and balanced the shear coupling coefficients A 16 , A 26 are zero. It can be checked in
general any laminate with a lay-up of
[
0/
n n
n
72 / 2 j ... / n - 1)
n
n] S
or
n j2-
n j ... [tt ]
[-
n n S
Table 4.4. Stiffness matrices for symmetric and unsyrnrnetric laminates
Symmetric laminate Unsymmetric laminate

Isotropi c layers Balanced laminate
A u A 12 0 0 0 0 Au A 12 0 B 11 B12 B 16
A12 A u 0 0 0 0 A12 A 22 0 B12 B 22 B 26
0 0 A 66 0 0 0 0 0 A 66 B 16 B26 B 66
0 0 0 Ou 0 12 0 13 u B12 B 16 Ou 0 12 0 16
0 0 0 0 12 Ou 0 13 12 B22 B 26 0 12 0 22 026
0 0 0 0 0 0 66 13 16 B2 6 B 66 0 16 0 26 06 6
Eq. (4.2.30)
Cross-ply laminate Antimetric balanced laminate
A u A 12 0 0 0 0 Au A12 0 0 0 B 16
A 12 A22 0 0 0 0 A 12 A22 0 0 0 B2 6
0 0 A 66 0 0 0 0 0 A 66 B 16 B26 0
0 0 0 Ou 0 12 0 0 0 B 16 Ou 0 12 0
0 0 0 012 0 22 0 0 0 B 26 0 12 022 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 66 13 16 B2 6 0 0 0 0 66
Eq. (4.2.32) Eq. (4.2.41)
Balanced laminate Cross-ply
Au A12 0 0 0 0 Au A12 0 Bu 0 0
A12 A22 0 0 0 0 A 12 A u 0 0 -B u 0
0 0 A 66 0 0 0 0 0 A 66 0 0 0
0 0 0 Ou 0 12 0 16 B11 0 0 01 1 0 12 0
0 0 0 012 0 22 026 0 -Bu 0 0 12 Ou 0
0 0 0 0 16026066 0 0 0 0 0 0 66
Eq. (4.2.34) Eq. (4.2.39)
Angle-ply laminate Cross-ply
(approximate solution k -t 00)
A u A 12 A 16 0 0 0 A u A 12 0 0 0 0
A 12 A 22 A 26 0 0 0 A 12 A 22 0 0 0 0
A 16 A 26 A 66 0 0 0 0 0 A 66 0 0 0
0 0 0 Ou 0 12 01 6 0 0 0 Ou 012 0
0 0 0 0 12 0 22 0 26 0 0 0 0 12 Ou 0
0 0 0 016026066 0 0 0 0 0 0 66
Eq. (4.2.28)
is quasi-isotropic for any integer n greater than 2. The simplest types are laminates
with the following lay-up
[0/ 60/ - 60]5' n = 3,1200 =-60 0
and
4,135 =-45
0 0
[0/ + 45/ - 45/90]5 ' n =
Summarizing the mechanical performance of laminates with special laminae

stacking sequences which are used in laminate design, we have considered the fol-
lowing classification:
I . Generallaminates
The stacking sequence, the thickness, the material and the fibre orientations of
all laminae is quite general. All extensional stiffness Bij are not zero.
For every layer to one side of the laminate reference surface there is a corre-
sponding layer to the other side of the reference surface at an equal distance
and with identical thickness, material and fibre orientation . All coupling stiff-
ness Bij are zero.
For every layer to one side of the laminate reference surface there is a corre-
sponding layer to the other side of the reference surface at an equal distance,
with identical thickness and material, but opposite fibre orientation . The stiff-
ness A 16, A 26, 0 16 and 0 26 are zero.
4. Balanced laminates
For every layer with a specified thickness, specific material properties and spe-
cific fibre orientation there is another layer with identical thickness and mate-
rial properties, but opposite fibre orientation anywhere in the laminate, i.e. the
corresponding layer with opposite fibre orientation does not have to be on the
opposite side of the reference surface, nor immediately adjacent to the other
layer nor anywhere particular. A balanced laminate can be
• General or unsymmetric: A 16 = A 26 = a
• Symmetric A 16 = A26 = 0, Bij = a
• Antisymmetric A 16 = A26 = 0,0 16 = 026 = a
An antisymmetric laminate is a special case of a balanced laminate, having its
balanced ± pairs of layers symmetrically situated to the middle surface.
5. Cross-ply laminates
Every layer of the laminate has its fibers oriented at either 0° or 90°. Cross-ply
laminates can be
• General or unsymmetric: A 16 = A 26 = 0, B 16 = B26 = 0, 0 16 = 026 = a
• Symmetric A16 = A26 = 0, 0 16 = 026 = 0, Bij = a
• Antisymmetric A 16 = A 26 = 0,0 16 = 0 26 = 0, B12 = B 16 = B 26 =
B6 6 = 0, All = A22, Bll = B 22, 0ll = 0 22
Symmetric cross-ply laminates are orthotropic with respect to both in-plane and
bending behavior and all coupling stiffness are zero.
6. Quasi-isotropic laminates
For every laminate with a symmetric lay-up of
[O/~/ ... /(n-l)7T]s or [O/~/27T/ ... /7T]S

n n n n
the in-plane stiffness are identical in all directions . Because all these quasi-
isotropic laminates are also balanced we have All = A22 = canst, A 12 =
canst, A 16 = A 26 = 0, B ij == 0, Oij :F a
7. Laminates with isotropic layers

If isotropic layers of possible different materials properties and thicknesses
are arranged symmetrically to the middle surface the laminate is symmetric
isotropic and we have Au = A 22, D u = D 22, A 16 = A 26 = 0, D 16 =
D26 = 0, Bij = 0, i.e. the mechanical performance is isotropic .
For symmetric laminates the in-plane and flexural moduli can be defined with
help of effective engineering constants. We start with (4.2.26). a.b,c = bT,d are
the extensional compliance matrix, coupling compliance matrix and bending com-
pliance matrix, respectively. For a symmetric laminate B = 0 and it can be shown
that a = A -1 and d = D-1. The in-plane and the flexural compliance matrices a
and d are uncoupled but generally fully populated
E = aN, Ie =dM (4.2.42)
Equations (4.2.42) lead to effective engineering moduli for symmetric laminates .
1. Effective in-plane engineering moduli E~, Ef, G~, v~ :
Substitute N} "10, N2 = N6 = 0 in E = aN as
[ :~]
E6
= [:~~ :~~ :~:] [o~}]
a}6 a26 a66
(4.2.43)
which gives
€} = auNt
and the effective longitudinal modulus E~ is
EN} =
_ O'"} =
NI!h = _1_ (4.2.44)
auNt
€} hau
In an analogous manner with N } = 0, N2 "I 0, N 6 = 0 or N} = N 2 = 0,
N6 "I 0, the effective transverse modulus Ef or the effective shear modulus
G~are
E2N =_ 0'"2 = Nz/h = _1_, (4.2.45)

€2 a22 N2 h a22
G}N2 =_ 0'"6 = N 6/h = _1_ (4.2.46)

€6 a66 N6 ha66
The effective in-plane Poisson 's ratio v~ can be derived in the following way.
With N 1 "I 0, N 2 = N 6 = 0 (4.2.43) yields €2 = a12N}, €} = anN1 and V12
is defined as
N €2 a12 N} a12
v12 = -- = - - - = - - (4.2.47)
€1 auNt au
The Poisson's ratio v:ti can be derived directly by substituting N 1 = N6 = 0,
N2 "lOin (4.2.42) and define v:ti = -€I!€2 or by using the reciprocal rela-
tionship v~/ E~ = v:ti/ Ef. In both cases v:ti is given as
N a12
V21 = - - (4.2.48)
an
The effective in-plane engineering moduli can be also fonnulated in terms of
the elements of the A -matrix
EN _ A 11A22 - AI2 EN _ A 11A 22 - AI2 eN _ A 66
1 - A 22h ' 2 - A11 h ' 12 - h '
(4.2.49)
N A 12 N A 12
V12 = - - , V21 = - -
A 22 All
2. Effective flexural engineering moduli E{"f, EfI, eti,vti, vfi:
To define the effective flexural moduli we start with 1C = dM . Apply M 1 i= 0,
M2 = 0, M 6 = 0 and substitute in the flexural compl iance relation to give
and the effective flexural longitudinal modulus E{"f is
E1M = 12M31 = ~
3
(4.2.50)
K1h h d 11
Similarly, one can show that the other flexural elastic moduli are given by
M 12 M d 12 M 12 M d 12
E2 =h3d22' V12=-d11 ' e12 = h 3d
66
' V21=-d22 (4.2.51)
Flexural Poisson's ratios also have a reciprocal relationship

M
v 12 M
v21
EM - EM (4.2.52)
1 2
In terms of the elements of the D matrix we find
EM _ 12(D11022 - 0I2) M _ 12(011 022 - 0r2)
1 - 022h3 ' E2 - 011h3 '
(4.2.53)
M _ 120 66 M _ 012 M _ 0 12
e 12 - - - 3 - ' v12 -
h
- - , v 21 -
0 22
--
0 11
Consider unsymmetric laminates, the laminate stiffness or compliance matrices
are not uncoupled and therefore it is not meaningful to use effective engineering
laminate moduli .
4.2.4 Stress Analysis
Laminate stresses may be subdivided into in-plane stresses , which are calculated
below with the classical assumption of linear strain functions of x 3, and the through-
the-thickness stresses, which are calculated approximately by integration of the
equilibrium conditions. Taking into account the assumptions of macro-mechanical
modelling of laminates the strains £ 1, £2, £6 vary linearly across the thickne ss of the
laminate
(k) _
(TIM -
(k)
Q 11 £ 1 (T(k) - Q (k)X3 Kl (T(k) _ (T(k) + (T(k)
IB - 11 1 - 1M IB
(k) _ (k)
(T2M - Q 22 £2 o:(k) -
2B -
Q (klx
22 3K2
er.(k) - o:(k)
2 - 2M
+ er.(k)
2B
(k) _
(T6M -
(k)
Q66 £6 (T(k) - Q(k)X3 K6 (T(k) _ (T(k) + (T(k)
6B - 66 6 - 6M 6B
~:rn-----J7
IJz(1)
1/,(2)
/,(3)
Fig. 4.16. Qualitatively variation of the in-plane membrane stresses (TiM , the bending stresses
(TiB and the total stress (Ti through the thickness of the laminate. Assumptions h (l ) = h (3) ,
Q (1) = Q (3) < Q(2 ),i = 1,2,6
n
e(xl, x2 , X3) = €(Xl, X2) + X3K(Xl, X2) , h = L h (k) (4.2.54)
k=1
These global strains can be transformed to the local strains in the principal material
directions of the kth layer through the transformation equations (Table 4.1)
e/ (k) = T £e(k)
,
x (k- l )
3
<
-
x < x (k)
3 _ (4.2.55)
If the strains are known at any point along the thickness of the laminate, the stress-
strain relation (Table 4.2) calculates the global stress in each lamina
u(k) = Q(k)e(k) = Q(k)(€ + X3K), x~k-l) ~ x3 ~ x(k) (4.2.56)
By applying the transformation equat ion for the stress vector (Table 4.1) the stresses
expressed in the principal material axes can be calculated
u' (k) = T CTu (k) (4 .2.57)
Starting from the strains £/ (k) , the stresses in the kth layer are expressed as follows
(4.2.58)
From (4.2.56), the stresses vary linearly through the thickness of each lamina and
may jump from lamina to lamina since the reduced stiffness matrix Q(k) changes
from ply to ply since Q(k) depends on the material and orientation of the lamina
(k). Figure 4.16 illustrates qualitatively the stress jumps of the membrane stresses
ur:J which follow from the in-plane resultants N and are constant through each
lamina and the bending/torsion stresses u~k) following from the moment resultants
M and vary linearly through each ply thickness. The transverse shear stresses u4, Us
follow for a plane stress state assumptions that is in the framework of the classical
laminate theory, Sect. 5.1, not from a constitutive equation but as for the single
layer, (4.1.56), by integration of the equilibrium equations. For any lamina m of the
laminate by analogy to (4.1.57) can be established
distance of lamina k from the midplane. The shear stresses

x~m)), i = 4,5, at the top surface of the mth lamina can be formu-
(4.2.61)
with
F(k) T _ [h(k)d k) h(k)d k) h(k)Q(k) S(k) Q(k) s(k) Q(k) s(k) Q(k) ]
1 - (11) (12) (16) (11) (12) (16) ,
F(k)T _ [h(k)Q(k) h(k)Q(k) h(k)Q(k) s(k) Q(k) s(k) Q(k) s(k) Q(k) ]
2 - (21) (22) (26) (21) (22) (26) ,
F(k) T _ [h(k)Q(k) h(k)Q(k) h(k)Q(k) s(k) Q(k) s(k) Q(k) s(k) Q(k) ]
6 - (61) (62) (66) (61) (62) (66)
and
tiT = [dEl dE2 dE6 dX1 dX2 dX6], tlI = [dEl dE2 dE6 dX1 dX2 dX6]
dX1 dX1 dX1 dX1 dX1 dX1 dX2 dX2 dX2 dX2 dX2 dX2
The transverse shear stresses only satisfy the equilibrium conditions but violate the
other fundamental equations of anisotropic elasticity. They vary in a parabolic way
through the thicknesses h(k) of the laminate layers and there is no stress jump if one
crosses the interface between two layers.
4.2.5 Thermal and Hygroscopic Effects
In Sect. 4.1.2 the hygrothermal strains were calculated for unidirectional and angle
ply laminae. As mentioned above, no residual mechanical stresses would develop
in the lamina at the macro-mechanical level, if the lamina is free to expand. Free
thermal strain, e.g., refers to the fact that fibres and matrix of an UD-lamina are
smeared into a single equivalent homogeneous material and that the smeared ele-
ments are free of any stresses if temperature is changed. When one considers an
unsmeared material and deals with the individual fibres and the surrounding matrix,
a temperature change can create significant stresses in the fibre and matrix. When
such selfbalanced stresses are smeared over a volume element, the net result is zero.
However, in a laminate with various laminae of different materials and orientations
each individual lamina is not free to deform. This results in residual stresses in the
laminate. As in Eqs. (4.1.31) and (4.1.32) a th , a mo are the thermal and moisture ex-
pansion coefficients, T is the temperature change and M* the weight of moisture
absorption per unit weight. In the following equations, T and M* are independent
of the x3-coordinate, i.e. they are constant not only through the thickness h(k) of a
single layer but through the thickness h of the laminate. Heat transfer in thin lam-
inates, e.g., is generally quite rapid and, hence, thermal gradients in x3-direction
are seldom taken into account and the temperature change T is then approximately
independent of x3. Analogous considerations are valid for changes in moisture.
144 4. Elastic Behavior of Laminateand Sandwich Composites
For a single layer in off-axis coordinates, the hygrothermal strains and stresses
are given by
e = SO' + «thT + «moM *, 0' = QCe - «thT - «moM *) (4.2.62)
or substituting e = e + x3K
0' = QCe + x3K - «thT - «moM *) (4.2.63)
The definitions of the force and moment resultant s Nand M
N = /O'dX 3 = / QCe + X3K - «thT - «moM*)d x3 ,

(h) (h)
(4.2.64)
M = /O'X 3dX3 = / QCe + X3K - «thT - «"" M *)X3d x3
(h) (h)
yield the equations

N = Ae+BK-Nth _Nmo,
(4.2.65)
M = Be + DK - M th - M mo,
3
A=Qh, B =0, D =Qh
12
B = 0 follow s from the symmetry of a single layer to its midplane. Nth, N?",
M th, Mmo are fictitious hygrothermal resultant s which are defined in (4.2.66). If T
and M * are independent of X3 one can introduce unit thermal and unit moisture
stress resultants Nth, M th, N mo, M mo, i.e. resultants per unit temperature or mois-
ture change
Nth =/ Q«thTdx3 = Q«thTh = N thT,

(h)
M th = / Q«thTx3dx3 = ~Q«thTh2 = MthT,
(h)
(4.2.66)
Nmo = / Q« moM*d x3 = Q« moM *h = N moM *,
(h)
M mo = / Q« moM *X3d x3 = ~Q«moM*h2 = M moM*.
(h)
Nth and N mo have the units of the force resultant, namely N/m, and M th and M mo
the units of the moment resultants , namely N rnIm . The integral form of the resultant
definition s makes these definitions quite general, i.e. if T or M * are known func-
tions of x3, the integration can be carried out. But for the temperature changes with
X3 and if the material properties change with temperatu re, the integration can be
complicated , but in general the simple integrated form, Eqs. (4.2.66) can be used.
With the total force and moment resultants N,M, equal to the respective sums of
their mechanical and hygrotherrnal components
N = N + Nth + Nmo, M = M +Mth + M mo, (4.2.67)
the extended hygrotherrnal constitutive equation for a lamina can be written
[:] = [:::1 [:]

This constitutive equation is identical to that derived for mechanical loading only,
(4.2.68)
(4.1.54), except for the fact that here the hygrotherrnal forces and moments are
added to the mechanically applied forces and moments. The inversion of (4.2.68)
yields the compliance relation
(4.2.69)
The values of the stiffness A ij, Dij and compliances a ij, d ij are the same as for pure
mechanical loading (Table 4.3) and unit stress resultants Nth, Mth , N mo, Mmo are
N{h = (Ql1aih + Q12a~h + Q16a~h)h,
N4h = (Q12aih + Q22a:~h + Q26a~h)h,
N~h = (Q16ai h + Q26a~h + Q66a~h)h,
Mih = (Ql1 aih + Q12a~h + Q16a~h)-21 h 2, (4.2.70)
A
M 2th _
-
~,th
(Q 12""1 + Q22""2
",th + Q Nth ) I h2
26""6 2 '
M 6th -_ (Q 16 a1th + Q26 a2th + Q66 a6th) 21 h2

A
and analogous for unit moisture stress resultant with

general case the integral definitions have to used .
ar
o, i = 1,2,6. In the more
When a laminate is subjected to mechanical and hygrotherrnal loading, a lam-

ina k within the laminate is under a state of stress (T(k) and strain e(k). The hy-
grotherrnoelastic superposition principle shows that the strains e(k) in the lamina k
are equal to the sum of the strains produced by the existing stresses and the free, i.e.
unrestrained, hygrotherrnal strains and the stresses (TCk) follow by inversion
eCk) = SCk)(TCk) + /X.th(k) T + /X.mo(k) M*,
(TCk) = QCk)(eCk) _ /X.th( k)T _ /X.mo(k) M *)

(4.2.71)
= QCk)(eCk) + X3"Ck) _ /X.th(k)T _ /X.m o(k)M*)
When in the lamina k all strains are restrained, then e Ck) = 0 and the hygrotherrnal
stresses are
er(k) = Q(k) ( _ttlh(k)T _ «mo(k) M*) (4.2.72)
Integration of the stresses er(k) and the stresses cr(k) multiplied by the x3-coordinate
across the thickness h(k) and summation for all laminae gives the force and moment
resultants of the laminate
(4.2.73)
(4.2 .74)
The fictitious hygrothermal resultants are given by

n n
Nih =T L Q(k)«lh(k)h(k) =T L N(k)lh,
k= l k=l
n
N mo = M* L Q(k)«mo(k)h(k) = M* Ln N(k)mo,
k=l k=l
_ ~T f.
M lh -2 L
Q(k) Ih(k) (
«
(k)2 _
~ ~
(k-l)2)
(4.2.75)
k=l
= T L Q(k)«lh(k)X~k)h(k) = T Ln iVf(k)lh,
n
k=l k=l
M mo -_ ~M*
2
~
LJ
Q(k) mo(k) (
IX
(k)2 _
x3
(k-I)2)
x3
k=1
n n
= M* L Q(k)IXmo(k)x~k)h(k) = M* L M(k)mo
k= 1 k=1
By analogy to the single layer one can introduce total force and moment resultants
Nand 1\4 the stiffness and compliance equation s expanded to the hygrothermal
components
N + Nth + N?" = N, M + M th + M mo = 1\4,
a = A* - B*D*-Ie*, A* = A-I,
b = B'D*-I, B* = -A-IB, (4.2.76)
d = D·-I, D* = D -BA-IB
The coupling effects discussed in Sects 4.2.2 and 4.2.3 stay unchanged and the stiff-
ness matrices in Table 4.4 can be transferred .
If we can classify a laminate as symmetric, balanced, cross-plied or some combi-
nations of these three laminate stacking types, some of the thermal or moisture force
or moment resultant coefficients may be zero. For temperature or moisture change
that depends on x3, no general statements can be given. However for changes in-
dependent of x3, the following simplifications for the unit stress resultants can be
considered, J = th, mo
Symmetric laminates
M 1_
A
I -
0,
A
M 2I -- 0,
M~ =0
Balanced laminates
Symmetri c balanced laminates

I A
M I = 0,
MAl2 -- 0,
M~ =0
Cross-ply laminates
Symmetric cross-ply laminates

A
M 1J -- a,
A
M 2J -- a,
M~ = a
Summarizing the hygrothermal effects one can see that if both mechanical and
hygrothermalloads are applied the mechanical and fictitious hygrothermalloads can
be added to find ply by ply stresses and strains in the laminate, or the mechanical
and hygrothermalloads can be applied separately and then the resulting stresses and
strains of the two problems are added.
4.2.6 Problems
1. A symmetric laminate under in-plane loading can be considered as an equiva-

lent homogeneous anisotropic plate in plane stress state by introducing average
stress U = N /h and N = A€. Calculate the effective moduli for general sym-
metric laminates and for symmetric cross-ply lamin ates .
Solution :
Equations (4.2 .37) yields € = aN, a = A-I . The components of the inverse
matrix a are
au = (A 22A66 - A~6)/.1,al2 = (A 16 A26 - A 12A66)/.1,
a22 = (A uA66 - AI6)/.1,a16 = (A l2A 26 - A22A16)/.1,
a26 = (A l2A 16 - A uA26)/L1,a66 = (AuA n - AI2)/L1,
.1 = Det(Ad
J
= All I AA 22 AA261_ A121 AA l2 A261
A
+ A161 Al2
A A
A221
26 66 16 66 16 26
The comparison € = aN = haa with (4.1.19) leads to
£1 = l/ hau , £2 = 1/ha22, £6 = 1/ha66,
V12 = -al2/au, V21 = -a12/an, V16 = a16/au,
V61 = a16/a66,V26 = a26/ a22,V62 = a26/a6
These are the effective moduli in the general case . For cross-ply laminates is
A 16 = A 26 = a (Eqs . 4.2.31) . The effective moduli can be explicitly expressed
in terms of the in-plane stiffness A ij . With Det(A ij ) = AuA22A66 - AI2A66
follow the effective moduli
£1 = (AU A22 - AI2)/ hA22, Vl2 = A l2/ A 22,
£2 = (A llA 22 - AI2)/hA u, V21 = A 12/ All,
Gl2 == £6 = A 66/ h, V16 = V61 = V26 = V62 = a
Note that these simplified formulae are not only valid for symmetric cross-ply
laminates (0/90)5 but also for laminates (±45)s.
2. Show that a symmetric laminate [±45°/0° /90°]5 with E~ = 140 GPa, E2 =
10 GPa, E~ = 7 GPa, v~2 = 0,3 has a quasi-isotropic material behavior. The
thicknesses of all plies are constant h(k) = 0,1 mm.
Solution :
a) Calculation of the on-axis reduced stiffness Q:j
With respect to (2.1.54) we obtain
vb/ E~ = v2dE 2 ==9 V2l = (v~2E2)/E~ = 0,0214
and finally from Eqs. (4.1.3) follow
Q~l = E~ (1 - v~2v2l) = 140,905 GPa,
Q 22 = E2(1 - vbv2l) = 10,065 GPa,
Qb = E2vb/(1- vb v2l) = 3,019 GPa,
Q~6 = E~ = 7 GPa
b) Calculation of the reduced stiffness in the laminae (Table 4.2)
Qij[OO] == Q:j'
Qll[900] = Q22 = 10,065 OPa,
Q12[900] = Q~2 = 3,019 GPa,
Q22[900] = Q~l = 140,905 GPa,
Q66[900] = Q~6 = 7 OPa,
Q16[900] =
Q26[900] 0, =
Qll[±450] = 46,252 GPa,
Q12[±450] =
32,252 GPa,
Q22[±450] = 46,252 GPa,
Q66[±450] = 36,233 GPa,
Q16[±450] =
±32,71 GPa,
Q26[±450J = ±32, 71 GPa
c) Calculation of the axial stiffness A ij (4.2.15)
8 4
A ij = L Q~) h(k) = 2 L Q~) h(k) ,
n= l n=l
All = 48,695 10 6 Nm- l = A22, A12 = 14,108 10 6 Nm- 1, A 66
17,29310 6 Nm- l , A 16 = A26 = 0
d) Calculation of the effective moduli (example I)
El = E2 = (Ail - AI2)/hA 22 = 446,1 OPa, E6 = A 66/h = 172,9
GPa, V12 = V2l = A 12/ A22 = 0,29
Note that E = 2(1 + v)G = 446,1 GPa, i.e. the isotropy condition is
satisfied.
3. Calculate the laminar stresses (T and (T' in the laminate of previous example
loaded by uniaxial tension N l .
Solution:
The following reduced stiffness matrices are calculated
140, 9 3,02 0]
3, 02 10, 06 a 10 9pa,
[ a a 7,0
10, 06 3,02 0]
= 3, 02 140,9 a 109pa,
[ a a 7,0
46,25 32,25 ±32, 71]
Q[±4S0 j = 32,25 46,25 ±32,71 109Pa
[ ±32,71 ±32,71 36,23
The axial stiffness matrix A is also calculated

48, 70 14,11 a ] 6N/m
A = 14,1148,70 a 10
[ a a 17,29
With
all ::A22/(A~1 - A~2) :: 0,022411O- 6m/N,
a22 - All/(A ll - A 12) - all,
a66 = 1/ A 66 = 0, 057841O- 6m/N,
a12 = -A 12/(A nA22 - AI2) = -0, 006451O- 6m/N
follows the inverse matrix a = A-I
22,41 -6,49 a ]
a = -6,49 22,41 a 1O-9m/N
[ a a 57,84
The strains are with (4.2.42)
E ~ aN = [m [1']=a = [=~~~ ]lO-'(rnIN)N,

N 1 is given in N/m, i.e. €i are dimensionless.
Now the laminar stresses are (Table 4.2)
[ ~~ ]
(T6 [00]
= Q[ooJ E = [3;0,~8] N1[N/m2],
[ ~~]
(T6 [900]
= Q[90 0jE [!~F8] N 2
1 [N/m ],
~~] = Q[±4S0]E = [ ~;~: ~ ] N 1 [N/m2]

[ (T6 [±4S0 j ±520,7
The stresses jump from lamina to lamina . Verify that the resultant force N2 = O.
The stress components in reference to the principal material axes follow with
the transformation rule (Table 4.1)
2
i]
<T [ c s2 2sc ] [<T
1]
<T~ = s2 c2 -2sc <T2,
[
<T~ -cs CS c2 - s2 <T6
Note: These stresses are used in failure analysis of a laminate.

4. A laminate with an unsymmetric layer stacking [-45°/30° /0°] has three layers
of equal thickness h(l) = h (2) = h(3) = 5 mm. The mechanical properties of
all UD-Iaminae are E~ = 181 GPa, E~ = 10,30 GPa, Gb = 7,17 GPa,
vb = 0,28 GPa. Determine the laminate stiffness A ij, B ij, Dij'
Solution:
Using (4.1.3) the elements S;j of the compliance matrix 5' are
S~l = l/E~ = 0,0055 GPa- 1 ,

S~2 = -vb/E~ = -0,0015 GPa- 1,
S~2 = l/E~ = 0,0971 GPa- 1 ,
S~6 = l/Gb = 0,1395 GPa- 1
The minor Poisson's ratio follows with
V~ l = v~2E~/ E~ = 0, 01593
Using (4.1.3) the elements Q;j of the reduced stiffness matrix Q' are
Q~l = EU(l - v~2v~1) = 181, 8109 pa,

Q~2 = vbE~/(l - v~2v~1) = 2,897109 pa,
Q~2 = E~/(l- v~2v~1) = 10,35109 Pa,
Q~6 = G~2 = 7,17109 Pa
Verify that the reduced stiffness matrix could also be obtained by inverting the
compliance matrix, i.e. Q' = 5'-1 . Now the transformed reduced stiffness
matrices Q[oO], Q(300], Q[-450j have to be calculated with the help of Table 4.2
taking into account that c = cos 0° = 1, cos 30° = 0,8660, cos( -45°)
0,7071 and s = sin 0° = 0, sin 30° = 0,5, sin( -45°) = -0,7071
181, 8 2, 897 0 ]
2,89710,35 0 10 9pa,
[ o 0 7,17
109, 4 32, 46 54, 19 ]

32,4623,6520,05 10 9pa,
[ 54,1920,0536,74
56,66 42,32 -42,87]

Q[ -450] = 42,32 56,66 -42,87 10 9Pa
[ -42,87 -42,87 46,59
The location of the lamina surfaces are x~O) = -7,5 mm, x~1) = -2,5 mm,
x~2) = 2,5 mm, x~3) = 7,5 mm. The total thickness of the laminate is 15 mm.
From (4.2.15) the extensional stiffness matrix A follows with
Aij = i: Q~)h(k) i: Q~)mm,

k=l
= 5
k=l
the coupling matrix B follows with
Bij = i: Q~)h(k)x~k) = i: Q~k)x~k)mm

k=l
5
k=l
and the bending stiffness matrix D ij follows with
D .. =
IJ
~3 ~ dk)h(k)
L.J IJ
((x(k))2
3
+ h(k)2)
12
= ~3 L.J
~ d IJk) (25
12
+ (x(k))2)
3
mm3
k=l k=l
with
_(k) _
x3 - 2"1 ( x 3(k) + x 3(k-l)) '
i.e. x~1) = 5 mm, x~2) = 0 mm, x~3) = -5 mm . Summarizing the formulas
for Aij, Bij and Dij we have the equations
A ij = 5[QU) + Q}fl + Q~)]mm,

Bij = 5[5QU) + OQ~2) - 5Q~)mm2],
D ij = 5[(25 + 25/12)QU) + (25/12)Q~2) + (25 + 25/12)Q~)]mm3
and the stiffness matrices follow to
17, 39 3,884 0,566]

A = 3,884 4,533 -1,141 10 8 Pa m,
[ 0,566 -1,141 4,525
- 3, 129 0,986 -1,072]

B 0,986 1,158 -1,072 106 Pa m2 ,
[ -1,072 -1,072 0,986
33,43 6,461 -5,240]

D = 6,461 9,320 -5,596 10 3 Pa m3
[ -5,240 -5,596 7,663
4.3 Elastic Behavior of Sandwiches
One special group of laminated composites used extensively in engineering appli-

cations is sandwich composites. Sandwich panels consist of thin facings, also called
skins or sheets, sandwiching a core. The facings are made of high strength material
while the core is made of thick and lightweight materials, Sect. 1.3. The motiva-
tion for sandwich structure elements is twofold . First for beam or plate bending
the maximum normal stresses occur at the top and the bottom surface. So it makes
sense using high-strength materials at the top and the bottom and using low and
lightweight strength materials in the middle. The strong and stiff facings also sup-
port axial forces. Second, the bending resistance for a rectangular cross-sectional
beam or plate is proportional to the cube of the thickness . Increasing the thickness
by adding a core in the middle increases the resistance. The maximum shear stress
is generally in the middle of the sandwich requiring a core to support shear. The
advantages in weight and bending stiffness make sandwich composites attractive in
many applications .
The most commonly used facing materials are aluminium alloys and fibre re-
inforced plastics. Aluminium has a high specific modulus, but it corrodes without
treatment and can be prone to denting. Therefore fibre reinforced laminates, such
as graphite/epoxy or glass/epoxy are becoming more popular as facing materials.
They have high specific modulus and strength and corrosion resistance . The fibre
reinforced facing can be unidirectional or woven laminae .
The most commonly used core materials are balsa wood, foam, resins with spe-
cial fillers and honeycombs (Fig. 1.3). These materials must have high compressive
and shear strength. Honeycombs can be made of plastics, paper, card-boards, etc.
The strength and stiffness of honeycomb sandwiches depend on the material and
the cell size and thickness. The following sections consider the modelling and anal-
ysis of sandwiches with thin and thick cover sheets.
154 4. ElasticBehaviorof Laminate and Sandwich Composites
4.3.1 General Assumptions
A sandwich can be defined as a special laminate with three layers . The thin cover
sheets, i.e . the layers 1 and 3, are laminates of the thicknesses w»
for the lower skin
and h(3) for the upper skin. The thickness of the core is h(2) == h C • In a general case
h(1) does not have to be equal to h(3), but in the most important practical case of
symmetric sandwiches h(1) = h(3) == hi.
The assumptions for macro-mechanical modelling of sandwiches are:
1. The thickness of the core is much greater than that of the skins, h(2) »
h(1),h(3) orh c » hi
2. The strains £ 1, £2, £6 vary linearly through the core thickness h C
e= E + X3"
3. The sheets only transmit stresses 0"1,0"2,0"6 and the in-plane strains are uniform
through the thickness of the skins. The transverse shear stresses 0"4,0"5 are ne-
glected within the skin.
4. The core only transmits transverse shear stresses 0"4 and 0"5, the stresses 0"1,0"2
and 0"6 are neglected.
5. The strain £3 is neglected in the sheets and the core.
With these additional assumptions in the frame of linear anisotropic elasticity, the
stresses and strains can be formulated .
Strains in the lower and upper sheets:
k = 1,3, i = 1,2,6 (4.3.1 )
The transverse shear strains £ 4, £5 are neglected.

Strains in the sandwich core:
hC hC
--
2 < - +-
- x3 <
(4.3 .2)
2
The transverse shear strains are, in a first approach, independent of the coordinate
X3 (4.2.14)
-ySC = [£~ £~f (4.3.3)

We shall see in Chap . 5 that in the classical laminate theory and the laminate theory
including transverse shear deformations the strain vector e is written in an analogous
form, and only the expressions for the curvatures are modified .
Stresses in the lower and upper sheets :
In the sheets a plane stress state exists and with assumption 3. the transverse shear
stresses 0"4 and 0"5 are neglected. These assumptions imply that for laminated sheets
in all layers of the lower and the upper skins
O"4(k) -- O"(k) - 0
5 -
The other stresses are deduced from the constant strains

1
(1) (1)
£1 ' £2 ' £6 '
(1)
= I, 3
by the relationships
o'?) = Qt)£}l), i,j = 1,2,6, 1 = 1,3 (4.3.4)
for the kth layer of the lower (1 = 1) or the upper (l = 3) skin.

Stresses in the sandwich core:
From assumption 4. it follows
lTf=lT~=lTg=O
and the core transmits only the transverse shear stresses
[1]
lT4
55 45]
= [CC45 C [£5]
C44 £4
(4.3.5)
or in matrix notation (Eq. 4.2.14)

o" = CS'}'s (4.3.6)
The coefficients Cfj of CS are expressed as functions of the coefficients Cf;

referred
to the principal directions by the transformation equation (4.2.17). The coefficients
Cf; in the principal directions are themselves written as functions of the shear mod-
uli of the core (Sect. 2.1, Table 2.5), measured in principal directions as follows
~ =
C44 G23'
C CC
55 = G~13 (4.3.7)
For an isotropic core material a transformation is not required.
4.3.2 Stress Resultants and Stress Analysis
The in-plane resultants N for sandwiches are defined by

_!h C !hC+h( 3)
N = f lTdX3 + f lTdX3, (4.3.8)
-(!h c+h(1») !h c
the moment resultants by
-i hC
M= f lTX3 d x3 + (4.3.9)
-(i hc+h(1 »)
and the transverse shear force by
!h'
QS = f lTsdX3 (4.3.10)
-i hc
156 4. ElasticBehavior of Laminate and Sandwich Composites
For the resultants Nand M the integration is carried out over the sheets only and
for the transverse shear force over the core.
By substituting Eqs. (4.3.4) - (4.3.7) for the stresses into the preceding expres-
sions for the force and moment resultants, we obtain analogous to (4.2.16) the con-
stitutive equation
[ ~ ] [~~ ~
Q5
=
0 0 N
] [: ]
1'5
(4.3 .11)
with the stiffness coefficients
A ij = AU) + Aif), Bij = ~hC (Aif) - A~l)) ,

(4.3.12)
CiJ· = dIJl) + dIJ3 ) ' D iJ' = ~hc
2
(dIJ3 ) _ dl))
IJ
and
(4.3.13)
with x3Ck) -- l(x

2 3
Ck) + x 3Ck- l ) and
A fj = hcqj' i, j = 4,5 (4.3.14)
nl and nz are the number of layers in the lower and the upper sheet respectively and
qj are the transverse shear moduli of the core. The constitutive equations (4.3.11)
for a sandwich composite has a form similar to the constitutive equation for lami-
nates including transverse shear. It differs only by the terms Cij instead of B ij which
induce an unsymmetry in the stiffness matrix.
In the case of symmetric sandwiches with identical sheets hCl) = h(3) =
hi, A~l ) = Aif) = A~, C~l) = _C&3) C~ and from this it results that the
stiffness coefficients Eq. (4.3.12) are
A ij = 2A~, Dij = hCC~, Bij = 0, c; = a (4.3.15)

As developed for laminates including shear deformations, the coefficients A fj can be

corrected by shear correct ion factors kfj and replaced by shear parameters (kSAS)ij
to improve the modelling.
In the case of symmetric sandwiches there is no coupling between stretching
and bending and the form of the constitutive equation is identical to the constitutive
equation for symmetric laminates including transverse shear.
4.3.3 Sandwich Materials with Thick Cover Sheets
In the case of thick cover sheets it is possible to carry out the modelling and analysis
with the help of the theory oflaminates including transverse shear. Considering the
elastic behavior of sandwich composites we have:
• The stretching behavior is determined by the skins.
• The transverse shear is imposed by the core.
The modelling assumption I. of Sect. 4.3.1 is not valid. Restricting the modelling
to the case of symmetric sandwich composites and to the case where the core's
principal direction is in coincidence with the directions of the reference coordinate
system. The elastic behavior of the composite material is characterized by
• the reduced stiffness constants Q£

for the face sheets,
• the reduced stiffness constants Qij and the transverse shear moduli Cij for the
core
Application of the sandwich theory, Sect. 4.3.2, leads to the following expressions
for the stiffness coefficients of the constitutive equation (upper index Sa) , one lam-
ma
The shear stiffness coefficients Afj are in the sandwich theory
Afr = hCCij, i.] = 4,5, C44 = Ch, C55 = Cb,C45 = 0 (4.3.17)

Application of the laminate theory including transverse shear, Sect. 4.2.2, (4.2.15)
leads (upper index La) to
Ata = 2h!Q£ + hCQij, Bta = 0,

(4.3.18)
D~a
IJ
= ~Qf.hf
2 IJ
[(hf + hc)2 + ~(hf)2]
3
+ ~Qc.(hC)3
12 IJ "
i J' = 1 2 6
"
The shear stiffness coefficients Afj are now

c c c c
A sLa
ij = 2hfCfij + we:ij: 1,..] = 45
, , Cf/ 23' ell'
44 = Cf/ 55 = Cf/
13' Cf/
45 = 0(4319)
..
For symmetric faces with n laminae Eqs. (4.3.16) - (4.3.19) yield
n
A Sa
I)
= 2'\'
LJ
Q!(k)hf Ck)
I) ,
k=l
n
D Sa = hC'\' Qf(k)hiCk) x Ck)
I) LJ I) 3 '
k=l
n
ALa = 2 '\' Q!( k)h! Ck) + hCQc,
I) LJ I) I)'
k=l
n Q!( k) ( h!Ck)(xCk))2 + __
DL.a = '\' h/Ck)3) + QC.hc3_
I) LJ I) 3 12 I) 12
k=l
The comp arison of the analysis based on the sandwich or the laminate theory yields
CQC)
ALa = A Sa 1 + __
h i)_ '
I) I) ( 2hf f , '
QI ) (4.3.20)
La _ Sa hf h C+ (4/3 )h/ QC
I), (h C)2 ) . . _
D ij - D ij ( 1 + hC h C+ hi + 6Q~ hi (hC+ hi) , I, ] - 1,2,6
sLa sSa hie!I) ) . .

(4.3.21)
A ij = A ij
( 1 + 2h CCfj , I,] = 4,5
Generally the core of the sandwich is less stiff than the cover sheets
QC
I)
, « Q!.
I)
and the relation s (4.3.20) can be simplified
A La,..., A Sa DL.a,..., DSa

I) ,..., I) ' I) "'" I)
(1 + hi
hC
C
h + (4/ 3 )h! )
hC+ hi (4.3.22)
Equation (4.3.21) stays unchanged.

The bending stiffness D ij are modified with respect to the theory of sand-
wiches and can be evaluated by the influence of the sheet thickness. If for exam-
ple hC = 10 mm and the sheet thickness hi = 1 mm/ 3 mm or 5 mm we find
Dha = 1, 103D ~a /1 , 326D ~a or 1, 555D ~a, a difference of more than 10%, 30%
or 50 %.
4.4 Problems
1. The reduced stiffness QYj and Q~ of a symmetric sandwich satisfies the

relation QYj « Q~ . Evaluate the influence of the sheet thicknes s on the
bending stiffness ratio Dha/ D ~a if the core thickness is constant (h C = 10
mm) and the sheet thickness vary: h/ = 0.5/1.0/3.0/5.0/8.0/10.0 mm.
4.4 Problems 159
Solution :
Using the simplified formula (4.3.22) the ratio values are
1.051/1.1 03/1.323/ 1.555/1.91 812.167 i.e. the difference
D ~.a _ D?a
IJ IJ 100%
D?a
IJ
of the stiffness values for Dha and D~a are more than 5%/10%/32%/55%/91%
or 116%.
Conclusion:
The sandwich formulas of Sect. 4.3.2 should be used for thin cover sheets only,
i.e . hi « h C •
2. A sandwich beam has faces of aluminium alloy and a core of polyurethane
foam. The geometry of the cross-section is given in Fig. 4.17. Calculate the
bending stiffness D and the distributions of the bending and the shear stress
across the faces and the core, if the stress resultants M and Q are given.
Solution:
The bending stiffness D of the sandwich beam is the sum of the flexural rigidi-
ties of the faces and the core
3 C c3
D = 2EI bhl 2EI bhl (h + hi) 2 EC bh
12 + 2 + 12
EI and EC are the effective Young's moduli of the face and the core materials.
The first term presents the local bending stiffness of the faces about their own
axes, the third term represents the bending stiffness of the core. Both tenns are
generally very small in comparison to the second term , Provided that
(hC+ hl )/hl > 5,77, [(El hf )/(EChC)](h C+ hl )/hCj2 > 100/6
a b c
•I X3
I III
• -
I i 1--- - - . , 1 - J ~
.'~
l
- - - ....
II' II l- -"
~ III ! 1-- --, _ _ J ~
,;.
L• b
Fig. 4.17. Sandwich beam. a Geo metry of the cross -section of a sandwich beam, b Distribu -
tion of the bending stress, if the local stiffness of the faces and the bending stiffness of the
core are dropped, C Distribution of the shear stress, if only the core transmit shear stresses
i.e.
3/6
El bhl 1 ECbh C3/12 1
E/[bh/ (h + h/)2J12 < 100
C E/[bh/ (h + h/)2]/2 < 100
C
the first and the third term are less than 1% of the second term and the bending
stiffness is approximately
o ~ Elbhl(h C
+hl )2/ 2
The bending stress distributions through the faces and the core are
The assumptions of the classical beam theory yield the shear stress equation for
the core
The maximum core shear stress will occur at x3 = O. If
Elhi (h + hi) > 100

C
£Ch c2/4
the ratio of the maximum core shear stress to the minimum core shear stress
is < 1% and the shear stress distribution across the core can be considered
constant
Q -Elhi (h C + hi)
T ~ - ---'----'-
o 2
and with
o ~ Elbhl(h C
+hl )2/ 2
follow T ~ Q/b(h C + hi) ~ Q/bh. In Fig. 4.17 the distributions of the bending
and shear stresses for sandwich beams with thin faces are illustrated . Note that
for thicker faces the approximate flexural bending rigidity is
o ~ EI bhl (h + hi) / + EI bhl 3/12

C
5. Classical and Improved Theories
In this chapter, the theoretical background for two commonly used structural the-
ories for the modelling and analysis of laminates and sandwiches is considered ,
namely the classical laminate theory and the first-order shear deformation theory.
The classical laminate theory (CLT) and the first-order shear deformation theory
(FSDT) are the most commonly used theorie s for analyzing laminated or sand-
wiched beams, plates and shells in engineering applications . The CLT is an ex-
tension of Kirchhoff's classical plate theory for homogeneous isotropic plates to
laminated composite plates with a reasonable high width-to-thickness ratio. For ho-
mogeneous isotropic plates the Kirchhoff 's theory is limited to thin plates with ratios
of maximum plate deflection w to plate thicknes s h < 0.2 and plate thickness/ mini-
mum in-plane dimensions < 0.1. Unlike homogeneous isotropic structure elements,
laminated plates or sandwich structures have a higher ratio of in-plane Young's mod-
uli to the interlaminar shear moduli, i.e. such composite structure elements have a
lower transverse shear stiffness and often have significant transverse shear deforma-
tions at lower thickness-to span ratios < 0.05. Otherwise the maximum deflections
can be considerable larger than predicted by CLT. Furthermore, the CLT cannot
yield adequate correct through-the-thickness stresses and failure estimations. As a
result of these considerations it is appropriate to develop higher-order laminated and
sandwich theories which can be applied to moderate thick structure elements, e.g.
the FSDT. CLT and FSDT are so-called equivalent single-layer theories (ESLT).
Moreover a short overview of so-called discrete-layer or layerwise theories is given,
which shall overcome the drawbacks of equivalent single layer theories.
5.1 General Remarks
A classification of the structural theories in composite mechanics illustrates that the

following approaches for the modelling and analysis of beams and plates composed
of composite materials can be used:
1. So called equivalent single-layer theorie s: These theories are derived from
the three-dimensional elasticity theory by making assumptions concerning the
kinematics of deformation and/or the stress distribution through the thickness of
a laminate or a sandwich. With the help of these assumptions the modelling can
be reduced from a 3D-problem to a 2D-problem. In engineering applications
162 5. Classical and Improved Theories
equivalent single-layer theories are mostly used in the form of the classical
laminate theory, for very thin laminates , and the first order shear deformation
theory, for thicker laminates and sandwiches .
An equivalent single layer model is developed by assuming continuous dis-
placement and strain functions through the thickness . The stresses jump from
ply to ply and therefore the governing equations are derived in terms of thick-
ness averaged resultants . Also second and higher order equivalent single layer
theories by using higher order polynomials in the expansion of the displacement
components through the thickness of the laminate are developed . Such higher
order theories introduce additional unknowns that are often difficult to inter-
pret in mechanical terms. The CLT requires Cl-continuity of the transverse dis-
placement, i.e. the displacement and the derivatives must be continuous, unlike
the FSDT requires CO-continuity only. Higher order theories generally require
at least Cl -continuity .
2. Three-dimensional elasticity theories such as the traditional 3D-formul ations
of anisotropic elasticity or the so-called layerwise theories: In contrast to the
equivalent single-layer theories only the displacement components have to be
continuous through the thickness of a laminate or a sandwich but the derivatives
of the displacements with respect to the thickness coordinate x3 may be discon-
tinuous at the layer interfaces. We say that the displacement field exhibits only
CO-continuity through the thickness directions .
The basic assumption of modelling structural elements in the framework of the
anisotropic elastici ty is an approximate expression of the displacement components
in the form of polynomials for the thickness coordinate x3 . Usually the polynomials
are limited to degree three and can be written in the form
dW(XI, X2)
+ il:X3 d
Xl
+ {3X3o/l(XI,X2)
+ I'X~tPI(XI,X2) + bX~XI(XI,X2),
dW(XI, X2) (5.1.1)
+il:X3 d + {3X3o/2(Xl,X2)
X2
+ I'X~tP2(XI' X2) + bxh2(XI, X2),
U3(Xl,X2,X3) = W(XI,X2) + {3X3o/3(XI ,X2) + 'YX~tP3(XJ,X2)
A displacement field in the form of (5.1.1) satisfies the compatibility conditions for
strains, Sect. 2.2.1, and allows possible cross-sectional warping, transverse shear
deformations and transverse normal deformations to be taken into account. The dis-
placement components of the middle surface are U(XI, X2), V(Xl, X2),W(Xl, X2) ' In
the case of dynamic problems the time factor t must be introduced in all displace-
ment functions .
The polynomial approach (5.1.1) of the real displacement field yields the fol-
lowing equivalent single-layer theories
• Classical laminate theories
5.1 General Remarks 163
II: = -1, f3 = l' = 0 = 73 = ry = a

• First-order shear deformation theory
II: = 0, f3 = 1, l' = 0 = 73 = ry = a
• Second order laminate theory
II: = 0, f3 = 1, l' = 1,0 = 73 = ry = a
• Third order laminate theory
II: = 0, f3 = 1, l' = 1,0= 1,73= ry = a
Theories higher than third order are not used because the accuracy gain is so little
that the effort required to solve the governing equations is not justified. A third order
theory based on the displacement field Ul, U2, u3 has 11 unknown functions of the
in-plane coordinates Xl, X2. U, V, W denote displacements and 0/1, 0/2 rotations of the
transverse normals referred to the plane x3 = O. 0/3 has the meaning of extension
of a transverse normal and the remaining functions can be interpreted as warping
functions that specify the deformed shape of a straight line perpendicular to the
reference plane of the undeformed structure . Also implementations of higher order
theories into finite element approximations cannot be recommended. If a laminated
plate is thick or the 3D stress field must be calculated in local regions, a full 3D
analysis should be carried out.
The most widely used approach reduces the polynomial function of degree three
to a linear or first order approximation , which includes the classical and the first-
order shear deformation theory
Ul(Xl,X2,X3) = U(Xl,X2) + X30/l(Xl,X2),
U2(Xl, x2, X3) = V(XI' X2) + X30/2(Xlt X2), (5.1.2)
U3(Xl, x2, X3) = W(Xl, X2)
0/1 (Xl, X2) = - :;;, 0/2(Xl, X2) = - :~ yield the classical approximation and the
number of unknown functions reduces to three, that are u, v, w. On the other hand
there are five independent unknown functions u, v, W, 0/1, 0/2.
The strain-displacement equations (2.2.3) give for the first order displacement
approximation a first order strain field model with transverse shear
dU do/I dV d0/2
cl = :;--
uXl
+ x3~,
uXl
c2 = :;--
uX2
+ x3~,
uX2
c3 = 0,
dW dW
c4 = :;--
uX2
+ 0/2, c5 = :;--
oX1
+ 0/1, (5.1.3)
dU dV ( d0/2
c6= - + - + x 3
dX2 dX1 dXl
- +do/I)
-
dX2
For the in-plane strains one can write in contracted form
ci(X1, X2, X3) = €i(Xl' X2) + X3ICi(XI, X2), i = 1,2,6,
i.e. the in-plane strains cl, C2 and c6 vary linearly through the thickness h.
The stress-strain relations in on-axis coordinates are

u; = C!A, i, j = 1,2, . . . ,6
From the transformation rule (4.1.27) follow the stiffness coefficients in the off-
axis-coordinates
3 £T 3£
C =T C'T
and with (4.1.26) the constitutive equation is
Ul Cll Cl2 C 13 0 0 C 16 £1
0"2 Cl2 C22 C 23 0 0 C 26 £2
0"3 C 13 C Z3 C 33 0 0 C36 £3
(5.1.4)
0"4 0 0 0 C 44 C 45 0 £4
0"5 0 0 0 C 45 C 55 0 £5
0"6 C 16 C26 C 36 0 0 C 66 £6
Assuming 0"3 ~ 0, the stiffness matrix can be rewritten by separating the transverse
shear stresses and strains in analogy to (4.2.3) - (4.2.5)
0"1 ] [Qll Q12 Q16 0 0

0"2 Q12 QZ2 Q26 0 0
0"6 = Q16 Q26 Q66 0 0 (5.1.5)
[ 0"4 0 0 0 C 44 C 45
0"5 0 0 0 C45 C55
and from
0"3 = C13£1 + C23£2 + C 33£3 + C36£6 = 0
it follows
1
£3 = --C
33
(C13£1 + C23£2 + C 36 e6)
The Qij are the reduced stiffness in the off-axis reference system
C 3C3
Qij = Ci j - -' C J, i,j = 1,2,6, Qij = Cij, i,j = 4,5
33
Summarizing, one can say that the first order displacement approach (5.1.2) includes
the classical and the shear deformation theory for laminates and sandwiches . In both
cases the in-plane displacements and strains vary linearly through the thickness, but
the explicit expressions for the curvature vector 1C differ. The force and moment re-
sultants can be defined for both theories in the usual way, e.g. (4.2.13), (4.2.14), but
in the classical theory there are only constitutive equations for the in-plane force
and the moment resultants N, M. It can be proved that a CLT approach is sufficient
for very thin laminates and it has been used particularly to determine the global
response of thin composite structure elements, i.e. deflections, overall buckling, vi-
bration frequencies, etc. The FSDT approach is sufficient for determining in-plane
stresses even if the structure slenderness is not very high.
The CLT neglects all transverse shear and normal effects, i.e. structural deforma-
tion is due entirely to bending and in-plane stretching. The FSDT relaxes the kine-
matic restrictions of CLT by including a constant transverse shear strain. Both first
order theories yield a complete understanding of the through-the-th ickness laminate
response. Transverse normal and shear stresses, however, play an important role in
the analysis of beams, plates and shells since they significantly affect characteris-
tic failure modes like, e.g., delamination. The influence of interlaminar transverse
stresses are therefore taken into account by several failure criteria. Simple but suf-
ficient accurate methods for determination of the complete state of stress in com-
posite structures are needed to overcome the limitations of the simple first order 2D
modelling in the frame of an extended 2D modelling. In Sects 5.2 and 5.3 a short
description of CLT and FSDT is given including some remark s to calculate trans-
verse stress components. In Chap. II will be seen that both the CLT and the FSDT
yield finite elements with an economical number of degrees of freedom, both have
some drawbacks. CLT-models require C 1-continuity which compli cates the imple-
mentation in commonly used FEM programs. FSDT-models have the advantage of
requiring only CO-continuity but they can exhibit so-called locking effects if lami-
nates becomes thin. Further details are given in Chap. II .
5.2 Classical Laminate Theory
The classical laminate theory uses the first-order model equations (5.1.2) but makes
additional assumptions:
I . All layers are in a state of plane stress, i.e.
0'3 = 0'4 = 0'5 = 0

2. Normal distances from the middle surface remain constant, i.e. the transverse
normal strain £3 is negligible compared with the in-plane strains £11 £2 .
3. The transverse shear strains £ 41 £5 are negligible. This assumption implies that
straight lines normal to the middle surface remain straight and normal to that
surface after deformation (Bemoulli/KirchhofflLove hypotheses in the theory
of beams, plates and shells).
Further we recall the general assumption of linear laminate theory that each layer
is quasi-homogeneous, the displacements are continuous through the total thickness
h, the displacement s are small compared with the thickness h and the constitutive
equations are linear.
From assumptions 2. and 3. it follows from (5.1.3) that
dW dW
t/JI (X I I X2) = -~I t/J2 ( Xlt X2) = -~ I (5.2.1)
OXI o X2
and the displacement approach (5.1.2) and the strain components (5.1.3) are written
by
aW(X}, X2)
U} (X} , X2, X3)=U (X} , X2) - X3 axl '
aw(x}, X2) (5.2.2)
U2(Xl , X2, X3)= V(Xl , X2) - X3 aX2 '
U3(Xl , X2, X3) = W(Xl ,X2),
(5.2.3)
au av aw 2
£4 = 0, £S = 0, £6 = -
aX2
+-
aXl
- 2 X3 -
aXlOX2
- -
The condensed form for the in-plane strains can be noted as

£i(Xl , x 2, X3) = €i ( Xl, X2) + x3Ki , i = 1,2,6
with
au ov au ov
€l = a Xl ' €2 = OX2' €6 = OX2 + OXl '
ow 2 ow 2 ow 2
Kl = - -oXI- ' K2 = - ox~
-- , K6 =- 2- - -
ox }OX2
eT = [e l €2 € 6] is the vector of midplane strains (stretching and shearing) and

KT = [Kl K2 K6] the vector of curvature (bending and twisting). For all k layers the
stresses are given in condensed form by
(k) _ Q (k ) 2
(Ti - ij € i + X3Q ij(k ) Ki, . .
I, J = 1, ,6 (5.2.4)
and the stiffness equations for the stress resultants follow from (4.2.13) - (4.2.18).
The classical laminate theory is also called shear rigid theory, the material equa-
tions yield zero shear stresses (T4, (TS for zero strains £4 , £5, in the case th at the shear
stiffness has finite values. But the equilibrium conditions yield non-zero stresses
(T4, (Ts, if the stresses (Tl, (T2 and (T6 are not all constant. This physical contradiction
will be accepted in the classical theory and the transverse shear stresses are approx-
imately calculated with the given stresses (Tl, (T2, (T6 by the equilibrium equations
(4. 1.56).
The approximate calculation of transverse shear stresses can be simplified if one
assumes the case of cylindrical bending, i.e. Nl = N2 = N 6 ~ 0, M 6 ~ O. The
constitutive equation (4.2.18) orthe inverted Eq. (4.2.19) with N == 0 gives
(5.2.5)
that is with Eqs. (4.2.20) - (4.2.26)

e = -A- lBK,M = (D - BA - lB )K = D *K
5.2 Classical LaminateTheory 167
(".-1) (".- 2) X(O )

X3 X3 3
(11/ - 1)
Fig. 5.1. Derivation of partial stiffness A(X3) and B(X3) for the shaded part of the cross-
section
(5.2 .6)
For symmetric laminates are B = 0, B* = 0, D* D and Eqs. (5.2.6) can be

replaced by
e = O,lC = D- 1M (5.2.7)
The partial extensional and coupling stiffness A(X3), B(X3)' Fig. 5.1, become
X3
A(X3) = J
x (O)
Q(X3) d x3
3
m-l
= L Q(k)h(k) + Q(m) (X3 _ x~m-l») ,
k=1
(5.2.8)
X3
B(X3) = J
x(O)
Q(X3)X3 d x3
3
1
= mt Q(k)s(k) + ~Q(m) (X~ _ x~m-l)2) ,
k=1
h
(k) _ (k) _ (k-l)
- X3 X3 ' s -
!(
(k) _ h(k)-(k) _ (k)
X3 - 2 x 3
+ x (k-l») ( x (k) _
3 3
(k-l»)
x3
Outgoing from the equilibrium equations (2.2 .1) the shear stress equations can be
written
(5.2.9)
(5.2.10)
with
uS(X3) = [0"50"4]T, M - [M 1 M2 M 6 ]T
F(X3) = [A(X3)A- 1B ~X~~3)];~~1 =,X[. ~~~'~~~'~~:] (5.2.12)

F61 F62 F66
in the general case if non-symmetrical laminate and
F(X3) = B(X3)D- 1 (5.2.13)
for symmetrical laminates,
1 0 0] 0 0 1] (5.2.14)
B1 = [ 001 ' B2 = [ 010
are so called Boolean matrices . Equation (5.2.11) can also be written in component
notation.
Equations (5.2.11) and (5.2.16) constitute the straight forward equilibrium ap-
proach for transverse shear stresses which only neglects the influence of the in-plane
force derivatives N ,xi' but this is a very minor restriction, since, in most engineer-
ing applications, the dominating source for transverse shear stresses are transverse
force resultants. To express the bending moment derivatives by transverse shear
stress resultants it is necessary to assume special selected displacements modes.
If one selects the cylindrical bending around the Xl- and the X2-axis one obtains
M 6 = 0, M l,X2 = 0, M2,Xl = 0
Ml,xrCxd = Qi(Xl), M2,X2(X2) = Q~(X2) (5.2.15)
with the transverse forces
Ql(Xl) = J (h)
£TS(X3) d x3 = t J£T~k)(X3)dx3'
k-l(h)
Q~(X2) = J
(h)
£T4(X3) d x3 = tJ
k-\h)
£Tt)(X3) d x3
(5.2 .16)
Equation (5.2.11) becomes in matrix notation

US(X3) = F(X3)Qs,
U S = [£TS(X3) £T4(X3)f, QS = [Qi (xd Q~(x2)f,
(5.2.17)
F - [Fll(X3) F62(X3)]
- F6l (X3) F22(X3)
Summarizing the derivations of transverse shear stresses we have considered two
cases
1. N == O,M = [Ml M 2 M 6 f ,
2. N == O,M = [M l (Xl) M 2(X2)f
In case 1. follow Eqs . (5.2.18) and in case 2. Eqs. (5.2 .19)
(5.2.18)
£TS(X3) ] _ [Fll(X3) F62(X3)]

[ £T4(X3) - F6l(X3) F22(X3) Q2'
[Ql]
(5.2.19)
oMl(xd = Ql,
oM 2(X2) = Q2
OXI OX2
Symmetric laminates are preferred in engineering applications. In this case
D* = D,B == OandF(x3) = -B(X3)D- l . The calculation of the transverse shear
stresses is more simple . The approximate solution for transverse shear stresses in the
classical laminate theory satisfies the equilibrium condition. The shear stresses are
layerwise parabolic functions and there is no stress jump at the layer interfaces.
Also in the frame of the classical laminate theory an approximate constitutive

equation can be formulated
[2i] = [~:: ~::] [::]

(5.2.20)
Regarding the complementary transverse shear theory formulated in shear stresses
wr = ~ J qST (C)- l qS d x 3 (5.2.21)

(h)
and in shear forces

Wr = ~QST
2
(A S)- IQs (5.2.22)
The stress vector US is a function of x3 only, and therefore the integration is carried
out over x3. In
CS = [Css C4S ]
C4S C 44
the C ij, i, j = 4,5 are the elastic constants of the Hooke's law. In Eq. (5.2.21) the
stress can be replaced by the transverse force resultants, Eq. (5.2.19). The Qf do not
depend on x3 and Eq. (5.2.21) yields
Wi ' ~ ~Q'T [£ FT(x,)(e') -1 F(X3) d X3] Q' (5.2.23)
F(X3) is the reduced elasticity matrix Eq. (5.2.18) and Eq. (5.2.23) leads to
W*s =
1
~[Qs
2
QS] {J [FII 62 ] T [Css C
1 F61 F22
2 C C
F [FII F62] dX3} [Q}](5 .2.24)
F6I F22
4S
4S ] - 1
44 Q 2
(h)
With Wr = Wi' s follows the approximate shear stiffness
(5.2.25)
The C ij are layerwise constant. The calculation of AS demands an integration over

layerwise defined polynomials of 4th order and can be just simple carried out by
programming. For unsymmetricallaminates F(X3) is defined by Eq. (5.2.12).
Hygrothermal effects have no influence on the transverse shear stresses. In the
classical laminate theory for mechanical and hygrothermalloading as demonstrated
in Sect. 4.2.5, the resultants Nand M must be substituted by the effective resultants
NandM.
5.3 Shear Deformation Theory for Laminates and Sandwiches

The classical laminate theory allows us to calculate the stresses and strains with
high precision for very thin laminates except in a little extended region near the
free edges. The validity of the classical theory has been established by comparing
theoretical results with experimental tests and with more exact solutions based on
the general equations of the linear anisotropic elasticity theory.
If the width-to-thickness ratio is less about 20, the results derived from the clas-
sical theory show significant differences with the actual mechanical behavior and
the modelling must be improved.
A first improvement is to include approximately the effect of shear deformation
in the framework of a first-order displacement approach . A further improvement is
possible by introducing correction factors for the transverse shear moduli.
The model used now has the same general form, as (5.1.2), for the displace-
ments, but contrary to the classical theory, 0/1 and 0/2 are independent functions and
a normal line to the middle surface of the composite remains straight under defor-
mation, however it is not normal to the deformed middle plane. In the shear defor-
mation theory the actual deformation state is approximated by 5 independent two-
dimensional functions u, v, W, 0/1, 0/2, in the classical theory by 3 functions u, v, W,
respectively: The strains are deduced from the displacements, (5.1.3). The compo-
nents of the strains
e(Xl, X2, X3) = E(Xl, X2) + X3"(Xl, X2), i = 1,2,6
again vary linearly through the thickness h and are given by
dU dV dU dV
£] = ~, £2 = ~, £6 = ~ + ~,
oXl oX2 oX2 oXl
(5.3.1)
do/I d0/2 d0/2 do/I
Kl = ~ ,K2 = ~ ,K6 = ~+~
oXl oX2 oXl oX2
The components of the vector E T = [£1£2 £6] are not changed, however the compo-
nents of the curvature vector "T = [K] K2 K6] are now expressed by the derivatives
of the functions 0/1, 0/2, The stresses in the kth layer can be expressed by
dU do/I
dXl + x3 dXl
(k) [ £1 (k) -dV
+X3 d0/2
-
dX2 dX2
2
__ Q(k) ££6 __ Q(k) dU
- + -dV+ X3 (d0/2
- +do/I)
- (5.3.2)
dX2 dXl dXl dX2
£4 dW
£5 dX2 + 0/2
dW
dXl + 0/1
The stresses 0"1,0"2 and 0"6 are superimposed on the extensional and the flexu-
ral stresses and vary linearly through a layer thickness, the stresses 0"4,0"5 are,
in contradiction to the equilibrium equations, constant through h(k) . The strains

fl, f2, f6 vary linearly and the strains f4, fS constant through the laminate thickness
h, i.e. they vary continuously through the total thickness . Unlike, the corresponding
stresses (TI, (T2,(T6 and (T4, (Ts vary linearly or remain constant, respectively, through
each layer thickness h(k) only. Therefore is no stress continuity through the lami-
nate thickness but stress jumps from ply to ply at their interfaces depending on the
reduced stiffness Q and QS .
With the definition equations for the stress resultants N, M, QS and the stiffness
coefficients A ij, Bij, D ij, Afj for laminates (4.2.13) - (4.2.15) or sandwich (4.3.8)-
(4.3.10), (4.3.12) - (4.3.14), respectively, the constitutive equation can be written in
the condensed hypermatrix form, Eqs. (4.2.16)
[ZtQS ] = [~~ ~ ] [:'Y ]

0 0 AS s
(5.3.3)
The stretching, coupling and bending stiffness A ij, Bij, Dij stay unchanged in com-
parison to the classical laminate theory. The shear stiffness are approximately given
by
n
A S.
IJ
= LJ
" dk)h(k)
IJ '
. .
I, J =
4, 5 (5.3.4)
k=l
The Ch k
) are the constant shear moduli of the kth lamina. These approximated shear
stiffness overestimate the shear stiffness since they are based on the assumption of
constant transverse shear strains and also do not satisfy the transverse shear stresses
vanishing at the top and bottom boundary layers.
The stiffness values can be improved with help of shear correction factors. In
this case the part of the constitutive equation relating to the resultants N, M is not
modified . The other part relating to transverse shear resultants QS is modified by
replacing the stiffness Afj by (kAnj' The parameters kfj are the shear correction
factors . A very simple approach is to introduce a weighting function f(X3) for the
distribution of the transverse shear stresses through the thickness h.
Assume a parabolic function f(X3)
(5.3.5)
and considering that for the kth layer
(T~k) = Qi~f4 + Qi~fS' (T~k) = Qi~f4 + Q~~fS (5.3.6)

the transverse resultants are:
(5.3.7)
The shear stiffness coefficients AIj of the constitutive equations
Qz = A~4E4 + A~5E5, Ql = A~5E4 + A §5 E5 (5.3.8)

are calculated by
~
AS. =
IJ 4 c: Q(~)
f. IJ
[( (k) _ (k-l) ) _ ~ ( (k)3 _ (k-l)3 ) ]
x3 x3 3h z x3 x3
k=l
(5.3.9)
= ~4 i:
f. Q~~)
IJ
[h(k) _ i-h(k) (h (k)Z + -x (k)Z)]
hZ 12 3 , i , j = 4,5
k=l
This approach yields for the case of single layer with Q 44 = Q55 = G, Q45 = 0 a
shear correc tion factor k S = 5 /6 for the shear stiffness Gh
AS= ~G [h - ~~ ( ~~ +0)] = ~Gh (5.3. 10)
The weighting function (5.3.5) resulting in a shear correction factor kS is consiste nt

with the Reissner theory of shear deformable single layer plates .
A second method to determine shear correction factors consists of considering
the strain energy per unit area of the composite. Some remarks on this method are
174 5. Classical and ImprovedTheories
given in Chaps . 7 and 8. However shear correction factors depend on the special
loading and stacking conditions of a laminate and not the only factors is generally
applicable.
A particularly physical foundation to improve the shear stiffness values A S is
the equilibrium approach, Eq. (5.2.25). The sequence of calculation steps for deter-
mining improved transverse shear stresses in the frame of the FSDT are analogous
to the CLT and shall be shortly repeated
• firstly, calculate the improved shear stiffness
(5.3.11)
• secondly, calculate the resultant transverse shear forces

QS = ASes (5.3.12)
• thirdly, calculate the improved transverse shear stresses
o" = FQs
AS = [Aij],i,j = 5,4, CS = [Cij] ,i,j = 5,4
(5.3.13)
F= [FF ll F62 ]
61 F22 , QS = [Qi Q~f, U = [(Ts (T4f,
Relying on the results of calculation improved transverse shear stresses us, the trans-
verse normal stress can be evaluated. The following equations explain the principal
way. One starts with solving the equilibrium condition for (T3, Eq. (2.2.1)
(T3(X3) = - 1(~~:
x3=O
+ ~~:) dX3 + Po (5.3.14)
Po denotes the transverse load at the starting point of integration.

With
F(X3) = [FF11 F
61 F
62
n
] = [/~]
12
(5.3.15)
we are able to replace the transverse shear stresses in Eq. (5.3.14) by Eq. (5.3 .13)
u,(x,) = - [,l ff dX3Q:" + ,,l IIdX'~"] + Po (5.3.1 6)
Only the components of 11 and 12 depend on x 3 and therefore the derivatives of QS

remain unchanged by the integration process . Moreover, Eq. (5.2.12) demonstrates
that only the partial stiffness A( X3) and B(X3) depend on x3, but not the matrices
A, Band D*. Therefore the integration of F (X3) yields
"l F(X3)d x3 = [Z A(X3) d x3A -1 B -,Z B(X3) d X3] D,-1 ~ I'(X3) (5.3 .17)
For symmetrical laminates is the coupling matrix B == 0 and F(X3) can be simplified
to
J J
X3 X3
F(X3) d x3 =- B(X3)d x3D - 1 = F(X3) (5.3.18)

X3=O x 3=O
(5.3.19)
where
and
S
Q~,X2 = (ASe ),x2
The boundary conditions of vanishing transverse shear stresses at both surfaces are
fulfilled automatically. The boundary conditions for the transverse normal stresses
must be regarded and are taken into account in the integration process.
Summarizing the considerations on single layers or smeared modelling of lam-
inated structures it can be seen that an increasing number of higher order theories
particularly for the analysis of laminated plates has been published. The vast ma-
jority falls into the class of plate theories known as displacement based ones . All
consideration in this textbook are restricted to such theories . The term "higher order
theories" indicates that the displacement distribution over the thickness is repre-
sented by polynomials of higher than first order. In general, a higher approximation
will lead to better results but also requires more expensive computational effort and
the accuracy improvement is often so little that the effort required to solve the more
complicated equations is not justified. In addition, the mechanical interpretation of
the boundary conditions for higher order terms is very difficult. The most used ESLT
in engineering applications of composite structure elements is the FSDT. The CLT
applications are limited to very thin laminates only, for in comparison to homoge-
neous isotropic plates, the values of the ratio thickness to minimum in-plane dimen-
sion to regard a plate as "thin" or as "moderate thick" must be considerably reduced.
Generally, fibre-reinforced material is more susceptible to transverse shear than its
homogeneous isotropic counterpart and reduces the range of applicability of CLT.
Increasing in-plane stiffness may alternatively be regarded as relevant reduction of
its transverse shear strength.
The FSDT yields mostly sufficient accurate results for the displacements and
for the in-plane stresses. However, it may be recalled, as an example, that transverse
shear and transverse normal stresses are main factors that cause delamination failure
of laminates and therefore an accurate determination of the transverse stresses is

needed.
In Sect. 5.3 it was demonstrated that one way to calculate the transverse stresses
is an equilibrium approach in the frame of an extended 2D-modelling . Another rel-
ative simple method is to expand the FSDT from five to six unknown functions or
degrees of freedom, respectively, by including an x3-dependent term into the poly-
nomial representat ion of the out-of-plane displacement u3 (Xl, X2, X3) ' Several other
possibilities can be found in the literature.
5.4 Layerwise Theories

Layerwise theories are developed for laminates or sandwiches with thick single lay-
ers. Layerwise displacement approximations provide a more kinematically correct
representation of the displacement functions through the thickness including cross-
sectional warping associated with the deformation of thick composite structures.
So-called partiallayerwise theories are mostly used which assume layerwise expan-
sions for the in-plane displacement components only. Otherwise so-called full lay-
erwise theories use expansions for all three displacement components. Compared
with equivalent single layer models the partiallayerwise model provides a more re-
alistic description of the kinem atics of composite laminates and the discrete-layer
behavior of the in-plane components.
Assume a linear displacement approximation (5.1.2) for each layer
u~k) (Xli X2, X3) = u(k) (Xl, X2) + X3t/J~k) (Xl, X2),
u~k)(XI,X2,X3) = v(k)(XI,X2) +X3t/J~k)(XI,X2)' (5.4 .1)
k)(XI,X2,X
u1 3) = W(XI,X2)
with x1
k- l)
~ x3 ~ x1
k);
k = 1,2, . . . n. A laminate with n layers is determined
by (4n + 1) unknown functions u(k), v(k), t/J~k), t/J~k), w; k = 1,2, . . . , n. The con-
tinuity conditions of the displacements at the layer interfaces yield 2( n - 1) equa-
tions and the equilibrium for the transverse shear stresses yield additional 2( n - 1)
equations. With these 2 . 2( n - 1) equations the maximum number of the unknown
functions can be eliminated and we have independent of the number of layers in all
cases (4n + 1) - (4n - 4) = 5 unknown trial functions. An equivalent single layer
model in the first-order shear deformation theory and the partial layerwise model
have the same number of functional degrees of freedom, which are 5. The mod-
elling of laminates or sandwiches on the assumption of the partial layerwise theory
is often used in the finite element method.
Summarizing one can say for the class of partial or discrete layer-wise models
that all analytical or numerical equations are two-dimensional and in comparison to
a real three-dimensional modelling, their modelling and solution effort, respectively,
is less time and cost consuming. The transverse normal displacement does not have
a layerwise representation, but compared to the equivalent single layer modelling,
5.5 Problems 177
the partiallayerwise modelling provides more realistic description of the kinematics

of composite laminates or sandwiches by introducing discrete layerwise transverse
shear effects into the assumed displacement field.
Discrete layerwise theories that neglect transverse normal strain are not capa-
ble of accurately determining interlaminar stresses and modelling localized effects
such as cutouts, free edges, delamination etc. Full or generalized layerwise theories
include in contrast to the partial layerwise transverse shear and transverse normal
stress effects.
Displacement based finite element models of partial and full layerwise theories
have been developed and can be found in the literature . In Chap. 11 the exemplary
consideration of finite beam and plate elements have been restricted to CLT and
FSDT.
5.5 Problems
1. The displacement field of a third order laminate (5.1.1) may defined by it
-co,{3 = 1,1 = O,b = -Cl,~ = l' = O.
a) Formulate the displacement equations and recover the displacement equa-
tions for the classical and the shear deformation laminate theory.
b) Introduce new variables <PI = 0/1 - codw/i)xl, <P2 = 0/2 - COdW/dX2 and
express the displacement field in terms of <PI and <P2.
c) Substitute the displacements into the linear strain-displacement relations .
d) Formulate the equations for the transverse shear stresses 0"4,0"5, Find the
equations for Cl so that the transverse shear stresses vanish at the top and
the bottom of the laminate if Co = 1.
Solution:
a) The starting point is the displacement field
dW(Xl, X2)]
Ul (Xl, X2, X3) = U(X l, X2) + X3 [ 0/1 (Xl, X2) - Co dXl
- X~ClXl (Xl, X2),

. [ dW(Xl, X2)]
U2(Xl, X2, X3) = V(Xl, X2) + X3 0/2(Xl, X2) - Co dX2
- X~ClX2(Xl' X2),
U3(Xl,X2,X3) = W(Xl,X2)
Classical laminate theory: cl = 0,0/1 = 0,0/2 = O,co =1
First shear deformation theory: Co = Cl = 0
b) The starting point is now another displacement field
ul (Xl, X2, X3) = U(Xl, X2) + X3<Pl (Xl, X2)
- ClX~Xl(Xl,X2),
U2(Xl,X2,X3) = V(Xl,X2) +X3<P2(Xl,X2)
- ClX~X2(Xl,X2)'
U3(Xl, X2, X3) = W(Xl, X2)
c) Using the strain-displacement equation (2.2.3) and substitute equations b)

we find
e1 = -
dU1 e«
= -+X3--X3C1-
dC/J1 3 dX1
dX1 dX1 dX1 dX1
__ ° I 3 II
-- e 1 + X3e1 + x 3e1 '
e5 = -dU3
dX1
+
dU1
-
dX3
= dW
-
dX1
+
2
C/J2 -- 3C1X3X1
= eg + x~e~I
Note e?
== ti.
d) The transverse shear stress in the kth layer of a laminate follow with (5.3.5)
to
_ Q(k)" + Q(k)"5 __ Q(k)("O + x2elI) + Q(k)(,,0 + x2elI)
(T4(k) -- 44 "'4 45'" -- 44 "'4 3 4 45 "'5 3 5 '
o:(k)
5 --
-- Q(k)e4
45
+ Q(k)e5
55
--
--
Q(k)(e
55 5
O+ x 2elI)
3 5
+ Q(k)(eO
45 4
+ x32eII)
4
The transverse shear stresses shall vanish at the bottom and the top of the
laminate, i.e.
k
d2
)(± h/ 2) = (T~k)(±h/2) = 0 ifk = lorn .
2
Q(l)
44
(eO4 + h4 ell)
4
+ d451) (eO5 + h4 ell)
5
--
--,
0
Q~~) (e 1+ :2 eiI) + Q~~) (eg + :2 e~I) = 0,
QW (eg + :2 e1I) + Q~1) (e1+ :2 eiI) = 0,

2 2
Q(l)
55
(eO5
+ h
4 ell)
5
+ d451) (eO4 + h4 ell)
4
= 0
2 2
===} eO+ h_ell = 0
44 4 '
eO
5
h
+ _ell
45
= 0
In view of the fact that for Co = 1 follows
dW 2
C/J2 = 0/2 -- ~
oX2
=> e4 = 0/2 -- X3 3c1X2,
5.5 Problems 179
°+ h
£4
2
4£4
11 h
= 0 =} 0/2 = 43clX2
2
If 3Cl = 4/h 2 =} X2 = 0/2, Analogously follow with 3Cl = 4/h 2 that

Xl = 0/1,i.e
°+ -31cl 1I = 0/2 -
£4 £4 0/2 = 0, °+ -3
£5 1 1I = 0/1 -
Cl
£5 0/1 = 0
The condition 1/3cl = h 2/4, 2
i.e. CI = 4/3h is sufficient to make the
transverse shear stresse s 0"4 and 0"5 zero at the top and the bottom of the
laminate .
2. A symmetric cross-ply laminate [0°/90°]5 has the properties h = 1 mm, E~ =
141 GPa, E; = 9,4 GPa, E~ == G;3 = 3,2 GPa, E; == Gb = E~ == G~2 =
4,3 GPa, v~2 = 0,3.
a) Using the simplified equations (5.2.8) to calculate the shear stresses
0"5(X3),0"4(X3) and sketch their distribution across the laminate thickness
h for given transverse force resultants Ql = aMI/aXl, Q2 = aM2/aX2
and M, == O.
b) Compare the average shear stiffness with the improved corrected stiffness
values .
Solution :
a) The reduced stiffness matrix Q and the shear stiffness matrix C == G must
be calculated for the four layers
0°-layers, v;l = V12E;/E~ :
E~
(1 - V~2 V;1)
v~2E;
E'6
141, 85 2, 84 0 ]
2,84 9,46 0 GPa,
[ o 0 4,3
G [0°] -= G' = [G~3 0]

0 G;3 =
[4,3 0 ] GP
0 3,2 a
90°-layers:
Q[900] =
9, 46 2,84
2,84141,85 0
0] GPa,
[ o 0 4,3
G[900] = [3 02 4~3] GPa

The bending stiffness matrix follows with (4.2 .15)
4
0ij = L Q~) [(.x\k)f + (h(k))2 112] h(k),
k=l
9, 654 0, 207 0 ]
D = 0,2071,379 0 GPamm 3
[ o 0 0,314
The corrected flexural stiffness matrix V* (5.2.6) is identical D for sym-
metric laminates, i.e. 0* = 0, and the F(x3)-matrix in (5.2.12) can be
simplified
F(X3) = -B(X3)D- 1
The inversion of the matrix D yields with ,1 = 22,572 the elements OJ}
of the inverse matrix D-1
0 1/ = 022/,1,Oi} = 0 11/,1, OIl = 012/,1,0"6l = (0 66 ) - 1
0,104 -0,016 0 ]
D- 1 = -0,016 0,727 0 [GPamm 3 ] - 1
[ o 0 3,185
Using (5.2.6) the shearing coupling stiffness B(X3) for the layers of the
laminate can be calculated
70, 93 1, 42 0 ] [17,730,36 0 ]
B[oo] (X3) = 1,42 4,73 0 GPa x~ - 0,36 1,18 0 kN,
[ o 0 2, 30 0 0 0, 58
4, 73 1,42 0] [13,600,36 0 ]
B[900] (X3) = 1,4270,93 0 x~- 0,365,320 kN
[ o 0 2,30 0 0 0,57
and with F(X3) = -B(X3)D-1
[~:~~~n = [;~~ ;~~] [§~],

6, 79 0 ] 2 [1,70 0] -1
F[oo] = - [ 0 2,17 x3 + 0 0,54 mm ,
0, 44 0 ] 2 [1,30 0] -1
F[900] =- [ 0 32,80 x3 + 0 2,46 mm
(/5[00J(X3) = F11[ooj(X3)Q1 = (-6,79x~+I,70)Q1'
(/5[900j(X3) = Fll[900J(X3)Q1 = (-O,44x~+I,30)Q1'
(/4 [OOj (X3) = F22[00J(X3)Q2 = (-2,17x~+O,54)Q2'
(/4[900] (X3) = F22[900] (X3)Q2 = (-32, 80x~ + 2,46)Q2
The distribution of the shear stresses through the laminate thickness h is
sketched in Fig. 5.2.
b) A simplified calculation of the average shear stiffness AJj yields (4.2.15)
A- s.
IJ
= ~ C(k)h(k)
L. IJ ===>
A-S = [3,75 0 ] GP
0 3 75 amm
k=l '
5.5 Problem s 181
• X3 • x3
0.5 0.5
0.25 0.25
1.30 XI X2
o ------ 0
1.28 -0.25
-0.25
U4( X3)/ Q 2
-0.5 -0.5
Fi g. 5.2. Distribution of the shear stresses US(X3)/Q] and 174 (X3 )/Q2 across the laminate
thickness
An improved shear stiffness matrix which include the transverse shear

stress distribution follows with the help of the complementary strain en-
ergy W*
W* = ~I UST G,- I US d x3
(h)
= iQ[£ T
FT G,-l FdX3] Q = iQA, - IQ
T
With
° °]
0,5
I
0,25
F lo°jG , - IF[00]d x 3 = ( [ 2, 000
0,295 x3
5
1, 667 ° ]
[ ° 0, 246 x3
3
0, 625 ° ] ) OP
+ [ ° 0,092
-1
X3 a,
0,25
( [ 0, 012 ° ]
T G,-IF
1F[900]
o
[90°]
d
x3 = ° 46,69 x3 5
0, 119 ° ]
[ ° 11,68 x3
3
0, 529 ° ])
+ [ ° 1, 314 x3 OPa
- 1
follows by the sum up over the four layers the improved matrix AS
A S=[3/01
a a
2/54
]GPa
The comparison of A S and A S can be carried out in the form
kSAs = A S
which yields the shear correction vector
kS = [0/7718]
0/6513
6. Failure Mechanisms and Criteria
Failure of structural elements can be defined in a different manner. As in the case of

buckling, a structural element may be considered failure though the material is still
intact, but there are excessive deformations. In Chap. 6 failure will be considered to
be the loss of integrity of the composite material itself.
The failure analysis procedures for metallic structures were well established a
long time ago. In the case of monolithic materials stress concentrations, e.g. around
notches and holes, cause localized failures. For brittle materials local failures may
lead to fracture and therefore to a total loss of load-carrying capability. For ductile
materials local failure may be in the form of yielding and remains localized , i.e., it
is tolerated better than brittle failure. The fail-safe philosophy has been employed
in the design of metallic structures and is standard in engineering applications. Sim-
ilar procedures for composite materials are not well defined and are the object of
intensive scientific research up to now. Failure of fibre-reinforced materials is a very
complex topic. While it is important to understand the principal mechanisms of fail-
ure, for many applications it is impossible to detail each step of the failure process.
Main causes of failure are design errors, fabrication and processing errors or unex-
pected service condition s. Design errors can be made in both material and structure.
The stress level carried by each lamina in a laminate depends on the elastic mod-
uli. This may cause large stress gradients between laminae which are oriented at
considerably large angles to each other (e.g. 90° ). If the stress gradients are close
to a limit value, fracture may occur. Such high levels of internal stresses in adja-
cent laminae may develop a result of external applied loads but also by temper ature
and moisture changes. Though manufacturing control and material inspection tests
are carried out, structural composites with abnormalities can be produced. The me-
chanical properties of composites may be significantly reduced by high temperature
variations, impact damage, etc. Service anomalies can include improper operation,
faulty maintenance, overloads or environmental incurred damage.
If structural loadings produce local discontinuities inside the material we speak
of a crack. Micro-cracking is considered as the nucleation of micro-cracks at the
microscopic level starting from defects and may cause the initiation of material
fracture. Macro-cracking is the propagation of a fracture by the creation of new
fracture surfaces at the macroscopic level. For composite materials the fraction ini-
tiation is generally well developed before a change in the macroscopic behavior can
be observed .
184 6. Failure Mechanisms and Criteria
If in a laminate macro-cracks occur, it may not be catastrophic , for it is possible

that some layers fail first and the composite continues to take more loads until all
laminae fail. Failed laminae may still contribute to the stiffness and strength of the
laminate . Laminate failure estimations are based on procedures for finding the suc-
cessive loads between the first and the last ply failure of the laminate. The failure of
a single layer plays a central function in failure analysis of laminates.
In this section the elastic behavior of laminae is primarily discussed from a
macroscopic point of view. But in the case of failure estimations and strength anal-
ysis of a lamina it is important to understand the underlying failure mechanisms
within the constituents of the composites and their effect to the ultimate macro-
scopic behavior. For this reason some considerations on micro-mechanic failure
mechanisms are made first and then failure criteria are discussed more in detail.
Summarizing one can say that the ability of failure prediction is a key aspect in
design of engineering structures . The first step is to consider what is meant by fail-
ure. Material failure of metallic structures is mostly related with material yielding
or rupture, but with composites it is more complex . Therefore research is ongoing in
developing failure mechanisms and failure criteria for unidirectional fibre laminae
and their laminates and in evaluating the accuracy of the failure criteria .
6.1 Fracture Modes of Laminae
Composite fracture mechanisms are rather complex because of their anisotropic na-
ture. The failure modes depend on the applied loads and on the distribution of rein-
forcements in the composites. In continuous fibre reinforced composites the types
of fracture may be classified by these basic forms:
• Intralaminar fracture,
• interlaminar fracture,
• translaminar fracture .
Intralaminar fracture is located inside a lamina, interlaminar fracture shows the fail-
ure developed between laminae and translaminar fracture is oriented transverse to
the laminate plane. Inter- and intralaminar fractures occur in a plane parallel to that
of the fibre reinforcement.
Composite failure is a gradual process. The degradation of a layer results in a
redistribution of stresses in the laminate. It is characterized by different local failure
modes
• The failure is dominated by fiber degradation, e.g. rupture, microbuckling, etc.
• The failure is dominated by matrix degradation, e.g. crazing.
• The failure is dominated by singularities at the fiber-matrix interface , e.g. crack
propagation, delamination, etc.
Failure modes of sandwich material may be characterized by
• Tensile failure of the sandwich faces
3
a
2' = T
UT <a
b
Fig. 6.1. Fracture modes of a single layer in the case of elementary load states.a Fibre fracture
by pure tension (JL > 0 or compressio n u L < 0 (micro-buckling), b Matrix fracture by pure
tension u T > 0, pure shearing (JLT and pure compression (JT < 0
• Wrinkling failure of the faces due to compressive stresses. Wrinkling is charac-

terized by the eigenmodes of buckling faces.
• Shear failure of core or adhesive failure between core and face.
• Crushing failure of the face and core at a support or tensile respectively shear
failure at fasteners.
The following considerations are restricted to the strength of an unidirectional layer
and to the development of reliable criteria for the predicting of the failure of lam-
inae and laminates. The failure criteria in engineering applications are mainly of a
phenomenological character, i.e. analytical approxima tions of experimental result s,
e.g. by curve fitting.
The fracture of a UD-Iamina is the result of the accumulation of various elemen-
tary fracture mechanisms:
• Fibre fracture,
• transverse matrix fracture ,
• longitudinal matrix fracture
• fracture of the fibre-matrix interface .
Figure 6.1 illustrates various fracture modes of a single layer. In the fibre direc-
tion, as a tensile load is applied, Fig. 6.la, failure is due to fibre tensile fractur e.
One fibre breaks and the load is transferred through the matrix to the neighboring
fibres which are overloaded and fail too. The failure propagates rapidly with small
increasing load. Otherwise a tensile fracture perpendicular to the fibres, Fig. 6.1b,
UL >a UL >a UL <a UL <a

a b
material property: Uu material property: ULe
UT >a UT <a
c d
UT> a UT <a
material property: UTI material property: UTe
__ ULT
ULT -
material property: TS
Fig. 6.2. Basic strength parameters . a Longitudinal tensile strength uLI> b Longitud inal com-
pressive strength Ute, c Transverse tensile strength uTI , d Transverse compressive strength
UTe' e In-plane (intralaminar) shear strength TS
due a combination of different micromechanical failure mechanisms : tensile failure

of matrix material , tensile failure of fibres across the diameters , failure of the inter-
face between fibre and matrix. The shear strength, Fig. 6.lb, is limited by the shear
strength of the matrix material, the shear strength between the fibre and the ma-
trix, etc. Figure 6.2 shows the basic strength parameters of a unidirectional lamina
referred to the principal material axes. For in-plane loading of a lamina 5 strength
parameters are necessary, but it is important to have in mind that for composite ma-
terials different strength parameters are measured for tensile and for compression
tests. If the shear stresses act parallel or transverse to the fibre orientation there is
no influence of the load direction (Fig. 6.3a). Otherwise the positive shear stress
0"6 > 0 causes tensile in L-direction and compression in T-direction and vice versa
for 0"6 < 0 and other strength parameters are standard. The required experimen-
a - I7LT >a
! ~t =
- I7LT <a
I ~J =
b 176> a
J ~I 2
- 176 <a
t~!
-
Fig. 6.3. In-plane shear. a Positive and negative shear stresses along the principal material
axes, b Positive and negative shear stresses at 45° with the principal material axis
tal characterization is relatively simple for the parameters (Tu and (TTl, but more
complicated for the strength parameters (TLe, (TTe and TS.
In the case of laminates, besides the basic failure mechanisms for a single
layer, such as fibre fracture, longitudinal and transverse matrix fraction, fibre-matrix
debond ing, etc. described above, another new fracture mode occurs . This mode is
called delamination and consists of separation of layers from one another. Through-
the-thickne ss variation of stresses may be caused even if a laminate is loaded by
uniform in-plane loads. Generally, the matrix material that holds the laminae of a
laminate together has substantially smaller strength than the in-plane strength of the
layers. Stresses perpendicul ar to the interface between laminae may cause breaking
of the bond between the layers in mostly locali zed, small regions. However, even if
the size of such delaminations is small they may affect the integrity of a laminate
and can degrade their in-plane load-carrying capability. Therefore, in practical en-
gineering applications it is important to calculate the interlaminar normal and shear

stresses 0'3, 0'4 and 0'5 and to check interlaminar failure too.
The definition of failure may change from case to case and depends on the com-
posite material and the kind of loads . For composite material, such as UD-Iaminates ,
the end of the elastic domain is associated with the development of micro-cracking .
But in the first stage, the initiated cracks do not propagate and their development
changes the stiffness of the material very gradually but the degradation is irre-
versible. In the following section failure criteria for laminae will be discussed first
to allow the designer to have an evaluation of the mechanical strength of laminae.
Secondly, concepts for laminate failure are considered.
6.2 Failure Criteria

Failure criteria for composite s are many and varied . In their simplest form they are
similar, in principle, to those used for isotropic materials, e.g. maximum stress/strain
and distortional energy theories. The major difference between isotropic materials
and unidirectional fibrous composite materials is the directional dependence of the
strength on a macrosopic scale . It is important to realize that failure criteria are
purely empirical. Their purpose is to define a failure envelope by using a minimum
number of test data. Generally, these experimental data are obtained from relatively
simple uniaxial and pure shear tests. Combined stress tests are more difficult to per-
form and should be, if possible, not included in the determination failure envelopes.
We shall start by considering a single lamina before moving on to discuss fail-
ure of lamin ates. Longitudinal tension or pressure, transverse tension or pressure
and shear are the five basic modes of failure of a lamina . Generally the strength
in the principal material axes are regarded as the fundamental parameters defining
failure . When the lamina is loaded at an angle to the fibres one has to determine the
stresses in the principal directions and compare them with the fundamental strength
parameters. Failure criteria usually grouped in literature into three different classes:
limit criteria, interactive criteria and hybrid criteria which combine selected aspects
of limit and interactive method s. In the following we only discuss selected criteria
of the first two classes.
Failure criteria for homogeneous isotropic material s are well established.
Macro-mechanical failure theories for composite materials have been developed
by extending and adapting isotropic failure theorie s to account for anisotropy in
stiffness and strength of the composite. All theories can be expressed as functions
of the basic strength parameters referred to the principal material axes (Fig. 6.2).
Some criteria do not account for interaction of stress components while others do.
Some interaction criteria require additional strength parameters obtained by more
expended biaxial experimental tests.
Laminate failure criteria are applied on a ply-by-ply basis and the load-carrying
capability of the entire compos ite is predicted by the laminate or sandwich theories
given in Chaps. 4 and 5. A laminate may be assumed to have failed when the strength
criterion of anyone of its laminae is reached (first-ply failure). However, the failure
of a single layer not necessarily leads to a total fracture of the laminate structure .
Criteria of an on-axis lamina can be determined with relative easily. Off-axis criteria
can be obtained by coordinate transformations of stresses or strains. Based on the
ply-by-ply analysis first-ply failure and last-ply failure concepts can be developed.
Failure criteria have been established in the case of a layer. Of all failure criteria
available, the following four are considered representative and more widely used:
• Maximum stress theory
• Maximum strain theory
• Deviatoric or distorsion strain energy criteria of Tsai-Hill
• Interactive tensor polynomial criterion of Tsai- Wu
Maximum stress and maximum strain criteria assume no stress interaction while
the other both include full stress interaction. In the maximum stress theory, failure
occurs when at least one stress component along one of the principal material axes
exceeds the corresponding strength parameter in that direction
(TL = ou. (TL > 0,
(TT = (Tn, (TT > 0,
(TL = (TLC! (TL < 0, (6.2.1)
(TT = (TTC! (TT < 0,
!(TLTI = TS,
Note that failure can occur for more than one reason. A layer failure does not occur
if
-(TLc < (TL < ou.
-(TTc < (TT < an. (6.2.2)
-TS < (TLT < TS
For a two-dimensional state of normal stresses, i.e. (TL :F 0, (TT :F 0, (TLT = 0,
the failure envelope, Fig. 6.4, takes the form of a rectangle. In the case of off-axis
tension or compression of a UD-lamina, Fig. 6.5, the transformed stresses are
(TL =
2
(TI cos e = (TI c2 (TI = (TL/ c
2
(TT =
2
(Tlsin e = (TIS2 ~(TI= (TT/S 2 (6.2.3)
(TLT = -(TI sin ecos e= -(TI SC (TI = -(TLT / SC
and the maximum stress criteria is expressed as follows
-(TLc < (TI c2 < (TU,
-(TTc < (TIS2 < (Tn, (6.2.4)
-TS < (TISC < TS
The ultimate strength for (TI corresponds to the smallest of the following six values
(Tlt = (Tu/c2, (Tlt = (Tn/s2, (Tlt = TS/SC, (TI > 0, (6.2.5)
2,
(TIc = (TLc!C (TIc = (TTc/ s 2, (TIc = TS/SC, (TI <0
The failure modes depend on the corresponding ultimate strength (Tlu
190 6. Failure Mecha nisms and Criteria
T 1- - - -1 (JL
(JTI
(JU
Lc (JL
(JTe
Fig. 6.4. Failure envelope for UD-Iamina under biaxial normal loading (max. stress criterion)
x2
--
Fig . 6.5. Off-axis unidirectional loading
2
(Tlu = (TLt /c fibre failure,
(Tlu = (TTI/ s2 transverse normal stress failure,
(Tlu = TS /SC in-plane shear failure
In the more genera l case of off-axis loading, the stress transformation rule, Table
4.1, is used
2
(T~
(T~
=
= (TL ]
(TT =
[C s22
s2 c
2sc ]
- 2sc
[ (Tl ]
(T2 (6.2.6)
[
(T~ = (TLT - s c SC c2 - s2 (T6
Because of the orthotropic symmetry, shear strength is independent of the sign of

(TLT (Fig. 6.3) and there are five independent failure modes in the maximum stress
criterion. There is no interaction among the modes although in reality the failure
processes are highly interacting . The maximum stress theory may be applicable
for brittle modes of failure of material, e.g. follow from transverse or longitudinal
tension ((TL > 0, (TT > 0).
The maximum strain theory is quite similar to the maximum stress theory. Now
the strains are limited instead of the stresses. Failure of a lamina occurs when at
least one of the strain components along the principal material axes exceeds the
corresponding ultimate strain in that direction
EL = ELl EL > 0,
ET = En ET > 0,
EL = ELc EL < 0, (6.2.7)
ET = ETc ET < 0,
IEnl = E5
The lamina failure does not occur if
-ELc < EL < ELl,
-ETc < ET < En, (6.2.8)
-E5 < ELT < E5
In the case of unidirectional off-axis tension or compression (Fig. 6.5), the stress
relations are given by (6.2.3). For the in-plane stress state strains in the principal
material axes are
EL ]
ET =
[5~1 5~2 0
5~2 5~2 0,
] [tTL]
tTT (6.2.9)
[
En 0 0 566 tTLT
By associating (6.2.3) and (6.2.6) and expressing the compliance constants 5;j as
functions of the engineering moduli in the principal directions, E L, E T, GLT, VLT,
VTL, it follows that
1 2- 2
EL=Y::;-(C viie ) tT1,
LL
1 2 2
ET= E (s - VTLC )tTl, (6.2.10)
T
1
ELT=- - - SCtT1
GLT
The maximum strain and the maximum stress criteria must lead to identical values
in the cases of longitudinal loading and e = 0° or transverse unidirectional loading
e
and = 90° . The identity of the shear equations is given in both cases. This implies
that
~t ~c ~t ~ ~
ELl = E L' ELc =- E
L'
En = ET' ETc =- E
T'
E5 = GLT (6.2.11)
and the maximum strain criterion may be rewritten as follows

-tTLc < tTl (c2 - vns2) < tTLl,
2)
-tTTc < tTl (s2 - VTLC < tTn, (6.2.12)
-Ts < tTlSC < Ts
By comparing Eqs. (6.2.4) and (6.2.12) we establish that the two criteria differ by
the introduction of the Poisson 's ratio vLT in the strain criterion. In practice these
O"T
Fig. 6.6. Failure envelope for UD-lamina under biaxial normal loading (max. strain criterion)
terms modify the numerical results slightly. In the special case of a two-dimensional
stress state CTL ~ 0, CTT ~ 0, CTLT = 0, compare Fig. 6.4, the failure envelope takes
the form of a parallelogram for the maximum strain criterion, Fig. 6.6.
One of the first interactive criteria applied to anisotropic materials was intro-
duced by Hill. For a two-dimensional state of stress referred to the principal stress
directions, von Mises developed a deviatoric or distortional energy criterion for
isotropic ductile metals
CTT + CTTI - CTICTI I = CTeq
or in a general reference system
2
CTI + CT22 - CTI CT2 + 3CT62 = CTeq
are principal stresses, CTeq the equivalent stress. This criterion was modified
CTI, CTIl
for the case of anisotropic ductile materials by Hill
ACTl + BCT? + CCT}CT2 + OCTi = 1 (6.2.13)
A, B, C, 0 are material parameters. Equation (6.2.13) cannot be defined as distor-
sion energy, since in anisotropy distorsion and dilatation energies are not separated.
The criterion (6.2.13) was applied to UD-laminae by Tsai et al.
ACTE + BCT'f + CCTL CTT + OCTET = 1 (6.2.14)
The material parameters A, B, C, 0 can be identified by tests with acting basic load-
ings
1
CTL = CTLU, CTT = 0, CTLT =0 ~ A = -2-'
CT LU
1
CTL = 0, CTT = CTTU, CTLT = 0 ~ B = -2-'
CT
(6.2.15)
TU
1
CTL = 0, CTT = 0, CTLT = TU ~ 0 =-
Tfr
In dependence on the failure mode , the superscript U must be substituted by t, c or
s and denotes the ultimate value of stress at failure.
6.2 FailureCriteria 193
The remaining parameter C must be determined by a biaxial test. The C-tenn

yields the interaction between the normal stresses. Under equal biaxial normal load-
ing (TL = (Ty :F 0/ (TLY = 0 it can be assumed that the failure follows the max-
imum stress criterion , i.e failure will occur when the transverse stress reache s the
transverse strength (TYU which is much lower than the longitudin al strength (TLU.
Equation (6.2.14) yields
(
(TL ) 2
~u
+( (Ty ) 2
~u
+ C (T'j:. = 1/ (Ty = (TTU ~ C = _+
~u
(6.2.16)
The Tsai-Hill criterion in the case of plane stress state and on-axis loading may be
written
(TL ) 2 +( (Ty ) 2 _ (TL(Ty + ((TLT) 2 = 1 (6.2.17)

(
(TLU (TYU (Tru TU
In the case of tension or compre ssion off the principal material directions, Fig. 6.5,
the Tsai-Hill criterion becomes
2 2 2 2 2
(TI C )
( (TL U
+ ((TI S2) _ ((TI CS) + ((TI SC) = 1 (6.2.18)
(TY U (TLU TU
and the strength parameter (TIU in xl -direction is
1 ) 2=
( (TlU
(~) 2 + (~) 2 + (~ _ _
1 ) c2 s 2
(TLU (TTU TQ (Tru
,,(::J (::J (;5)

(6.2.19)
+ + 2
The approximated form presumes (TL U » TU.

The Tsai-Hill criterion is a single criterion instead of the three subcriteria re-
quired in maximum stress and strain theories. It allows considerable interaction
among the strain components and for ductile material the failure estimation agree s
well with experimental results.
Goldenblatt and Kopnov proposed a tensor polynomial criterion. Tsai and Wu
modified this criterion by assuming the existence of a failure surface in stress space.
They postulated that fracture of an anisotropic material occurs when the following
equation is satisfied
ai j (Tij + aij kW ijeTkl = 1 (6.2.20)

a. a, + aijeTi(Tj = 1 (6.2.21)
We are interested in the case of an orthotropic composite material, i.e. a unidire c-
tional lamina, subjected to plane stress state, and the Tsai-Wu criterion may be ex-
pressed as
aL(TL + aT(TT + as(TS + aLL(TE + aTT(Tf + (6.2.22)

aSS(T~ + 2aLT(Tt(TT + 2aLS(TL(TS + 2aTS(TT(TS = 1
Equation (6.2.22) is written in the on-axis system and VLT == as .
The linear terms take account the actual differences between composite material
behavior under tension and compression . The term a LT(TL(TT represents independent
interaction among the stresses (TL and (TT and the remaining quadratic terms describe
an ellipsoid in stress space. Since the strength of a lamina loaded under pure shear
stress TS in the on-axis system is independent of the sign of the shear stress, all
linear terms in (Ts must vanish
as = aLS = aTS = a (6.2.23)
Then the Tsai- Wu criterion for a single layer in on-axis system has the form
aL(TL + aT(TT + aLL(TE + aTT(Tf + a SS(T~ + 2aLT(TL(TT = 1 (6.2.24)
The four quadratic terms in (6.2.24) correspond to the four independent elastic char-
acteristics of orthotropic materials, the linear terms allow the distinction between
tensile and compressive strength . The coefficients of the quadratic Tsai-Wu crite-
rion are obtained by applying elementary basic loading conditions to the lamina
1 1
«i. = - - -
(TL = (TU, (TT = (TS = a aL(TU + aLL(TEt = 1 (Tu (TLc
~ ~
(TL = -(TLc, (TT = (Ts = a - aL(TLc + a LL (T2 - 1
Lc- aLL = ---
1
(TU(TLc
1 1
aT= - - -
(TTl (TTc
1
aTT = ---
(TTl(TTc
1
(Ts = TS, (TL = (TT = a~ aSST~ = 1 ~ ass = 2
TS
(6.2.25)
The remaining coefficient a LT must be obtained by biaxial testing

(TL = (TT = (Tu,(Ts = a~ (6.2.26)
(aL + aT)(TU + (aLL + aTT + 2aLT)(TfI = 1
ou is the experimentally measured strength under equal biaxial tensile loading (TL =
(TT·
In many cases the interaction coefficient is not critical and is given approxi-
mately. A sufficient approximation is in this case
1
aLT ~ -"2.Va L LaTT (6 .2.27)
The Tsai-Wu criterion may also be formulated in strain space.

Summarizing the considerations on interactive failure criteria lead: The Tsai-
Hill and the Tsai-Wu failure criteria are quadratic interaction criteria which have
the general form
FijO"Wj + FWi = 1, i, j = L, T, S (6.2.28)

Fij and Fi are strength parameters and CTi, CTj the on axis stress components.
For plane stress state six strength parameters FLL, FTT, Fss, Fir. h, FT are re-
quired for implementation of the failure criterion, Pis = FTS = Fs = 0, see Eq.
(6.2.23). Five of these strength parameters are conventional tensile, compressive or
shear strength terms which can be measured in a conventional experimental test pro-
gramme . The strength parameter Fir is more difficult to obtain, since a biaxial test
is necessary and such test is not easy to perform. The two-dimensional representa-
tion of the general quadratic criterion (6.2.28) in the stress space can be given in the
equation below
CT2 2
CT 2CT
- L- + - T- + - LT
2 + 2hTCTLCTT
CT(UCTLC CTT)tCTTC (TS ) (6.2.29)
+ ~- ~ CTL + ~- ~ CTT = 1
CTU CTLc CTTI CTTc
Equation (6.2.29) reduces, e.g., for
1
CTU = CTLc, CTTI = CTTCt FLT = - -2-
2CT U
to the Tsai-Hill criterion, for
1
CTU "f:. CTLCt CTTI "f:. CTTc, hT = - -2--
CTUCTLc
to the Hoffman criterion, and for
1
CTU "f:. CTLCt CTTI "f:. CTTc, FLT = - ;:;-2--':::===:=======
VCTUCTLcCTTlCTTC
to the Tsai-Wu criterion. Hoffman's criterion is a simple generalization of the Hill
criterion that allows different tensile and compressive strength parameters.
If one defines dimensionless stresses as
CTL = j"FZZCTL, CTy = JFrTCTT , CTLT = ..j"F;SCTLT
and normalized strength coefficients as
Fi = h i j"FZZ, Fj, = FT! VF;,FiT = Fir] JhLFrT

Equation (6.2.29) can be rewritten as
CTL
2
+ CTy2 + CTa + 2 FiTCTL CTy2 + Fi CTi 2 + FyCTf = 1 (6.2.30)
Note that in the case of isotropic materials with CTU = CTLc = CTTI = CTTc follow
Fi = F y = O. There the principal stress state will have CTLT = CTLT = O. Equation
(6.2.30) reduces with FiT = - ~ to the known von Mises criterion .
Using the above failure criteria the possibility of a lamina failing can be deter-
mined, for example . In the maximum stress criterion, the lamina failes if any of the
inequalities (6.2.4) are violated. However, the criterion does not give information
about how much the load can be increased by if the lamina is safe or how much it
can be decreased if the lamina has failed. To overcome this problem, strength ratios
are defined as
= maximum load which can be applied 623
R ( . . 1)
load applied
This definition is applicable to all failure criteria. If R > 1, then the lamina is safe
and the applied load can be increased by a factor of R. If R < 1 the lamina is unsafe
and the applied load needs to be reduced. A value of R = 1 implies the failure load.
The stress ratio factor assumes that the material is linear elastic, for each state of
stress there is a corresponding state of strain and all components of stress and strain
increase by the same proportion.
Summarizing the discussion above, the strength ratio for the four criteria can be
formulated:
Maximum stress criterion
R uCT = CTU / CTL, CTL > 0 Strength factor fibre fracture,
R TlCT = CTTI / CTT, CTT > 0 Strength factor matrix fracture ,
RLcCT = CTLc/ICTL!, CTL < 0 Strength factor micro-buckling, (6.2.32)
RTcCT = CTTc/ICTTI, CTT < 0 Strength factor matrix fracture,
RSCT = Ts/ICTLTI, Strength factor matrix fracture
Maximum strain criterion
RUE =
EU/EL, EL > 0,
RTiE = ETt/ET, ET > 0,
RLcE = ELc/IELI, EL < 0, (6.2.33)
RTcE =
ETc/IETI, ET < 0,
RSE = Es/IELTI
Tsai-Hill-criterion
Only one strength ratio can be introduced
THCT)2
_ _CT
R TH _L) 2 + (R T _ RTHCTLRTH(TT + (R T HCT)2
LT =1 (6.2.34)
(
CTLU CTTU CTEu TU
With the ultimate strength CTLU, CTTU for tension and compression the strength ratio
R TH follows from
1 ( CTL )2 + ( )2 _ CTT CTLCTT + (CTLT)

2
(RTH)2 - CTW CTTU CTEu TU
Tsai- Wu-criterion
The Tsai-Hill and the Tsai-Wu criterion define only one strength ratio R TW
(aLCTL + aTCTT )R T W + (auCTE + aTTCTf + assCTl + 2aLTCTLCTT )R TW 2 = 1

or in symbolic notation
AR TW + B(R TW)2 = 1 => (R T W)2 + A RTW = !

B B
6.2 FailureCriteria 197
with the solutions

2
TW 1A . /1 A 1 1 ( ./ 2 )
R l / 2=-2.B±V4B2+Jj=2B -A±vA +4B
RTW must be positive
R TW = VA2+4B-A/2B (6.2.35)
The procedure for laminate failure estimation on the concept of first ply and last
ply failure is given as follows :
1. Use laminate analysis to find the midplane strains and curvatures depending on
the applied mechanical and hygrothermicalloads.
2. Calculate the local stresses and strains in each lamina under the assumed load .
3. Use the ply-by-ply stresses and strains in lamina failure theory to find the
strength ratios. Multiplying the strength ratio to the applied load gives the load
level of the failure of the first lamina. This load may be called the first ply fail-
ure load. Using the conservative first-ply-failure concept stop here, otherwise
go to step 4.
4. Degrade approximately fully the stiffness of damaged plies . Apply the actual
load level of previous failure.
5. Start again with step 3. to find the strength ratios in the undamaged laminae. If
R > 1 multiply the applied load by the strength ratio to find the load level of
the next ply failure. If R < 1, degrade the stiffness and strength characteristics
of all damaged lamina .
6. Repeat the steps above until all plies have failed . That is the last-ply-failure
concept.
The laminate failure analysis can be subdivided into the following four parts . The
first-ply-failure concept demands only one run through, the last-ply-failure requires
several iterations with degradation of lamina stiffness.
Failure analysis of laminates in stress space :
Step 1
Calculate the stiffnesses
k
Q'( ) = [Q;l Q~2 a0]
Q;2
Q;2
=:
[QLL QLT
QLT QTT
a]
a
a a Q~6 a a Qss
of all k single layers in on-axis system with help of the layer moduli
Elk) E~k) v~ki,
I I c?i
and the layer thicknesses h(k)
Transformation of the reduced stiffnesses Q'(k) of single layers in on-axis
system to the reduced stiffnesses Q(k) of single layers in off-axis system
Q(k) = (p')TQ/(k)p'
Calculate the laminate stiffnesses A, Band D
- W
n Q(k)h(k) B.. __
.. - '\'
A IJ ij
1 '\'
IJ - 2 W
I
n Q(k)
ij
(2
x
(k) _
3
(k-l)
x3
2) -
n Q(k)h(k)-(k)
_ '\'
w ij x3 I
k=l k=l k=l

D .. =
IJ
f. Q(k ) ( x 3(k)3 _
!3 c: IJ
(k-I) 3) =
x3
f. Q(k )h(k) (_(x 3k)2 + ~h(k)2)
i: If 12 '
k=1 k=1
-(k) _
x3 - 2
I ( (k)
x3
+ x (k-I»)
3
Inversion of the matrices A, Band D
Calculate the compliance matrices a, b, c and d of the laminate
a = A * - B*D* - IC*, b = B*D*-I , C = -D*-IC*, d = D *-I,
A* = A-I, B* = -A-IB, C* = BA- I, D * = D - BA-IB
Step 2
Calculation of the laminate stress resultants Nand M
by structural analysis of beam or plate structures
Step 3.
Calculate the laminate strains £ = E + X31C
[:] f::] [:]

and the strains for all lam inae at lamina interfaces
£(k) = EO + x~k)1C, k = 0,1,2, . .. , n
Calculate the stresses for all interface surfaces of single layers
U(k)- = Q(k)£(k-I), bottom surface oflamina k
k)+ Q (k ) k . , k = 0,1,2, . . . ,n
a( = e, top surface of lamina k
Transformation of the interface stresses u (k) -, u (k)+
to the on-axis system of layer k k = 0, 1,2, . .. , n
Step 4
Failure analysis based on a selected failure cri terion in stress space
Summarizing the strength ratios concept to the general quadratic interaction criteria
Eq. (6 .2.28) we formulate with the maximum values of stresses
FIf·u'maxu'max
I J
+ Fu'max
I I
= 1
Substituting Ru;ap plied for u;max yield the quadratic equation for the strength ratio
R
(FIf·u I·uJ·)R 2 + (Fu·)R
I I - 1 -- °
or
2
aR + bR - 1 = 0, a = FijUiUj, b = FWi (6.2.36)
Th e strength ratio R is equal to the positive quadratic root
( ~) 2 +!
b
R=--+
2a 2a a
As considered above this approach is easy to use because the resulting ratio provides
a linear scaling factor, i.e.
if R :::; 1 failure occurs,
if R > 1, e.g. R = 2, the safety factor is 2 and the load can be doubled or the
laminate thickness reduced by 0.5 before failure occurs.
The same strength ratio can be determined from the equivalent quadratic crite-
rion in the strain space. With (J" = QE follows, e.g. with Eqs. (6.2.24) - (6.2.27) the
Tsai-Wu criterion in the strain space as
bL£L + bT£T + bLLEI + bTT£} + bss£~ + 2bLTELfT = 1 (6.2.37)
with
b: = aLQLL + aTQLTI
bT = aTQTT + aLQLTI
bLL = aLLQh + aTTQh + 2aLTQLLQLTI (6.2.38)
bTT = aTTQh + aLLQh + 2aLTQTTQLTI
bLT = aLLQLLQLT + aTTQTTQLT + aLT(Qh + QLLQTT)
In the more general form analogous to the strength ratio equation is
(Gij£i£j)R2 + (Gi£i)R - 1 = 0,
cR 2 + dR - 1 = 0,
(6.2.39)
R= _~c + /( 2cd ) + ~c
To determine R from this equivalent quadratic criterion the strain space may be
preferred, because laminae strains are either uniform or vary linearly across each
lamina thickness .
As considered above, the most widely used interlaminar failure criteria are the
maximum stress criterion, the maximum strain criterion and the quadratic failure
criteria as a generalization of the von Mises yield criterion, in particular the Tsai-
Hill and the Tsai-Wu criterion. The interlaminar failure modes can be fibre breaking,
fibre buckling, fibre pullout, fibre-matrix debonding or matrix cracking. The predic-
tion of the First-Ply Failure with one of the above mentioned criteria is included in
nearly all available analysis tools for layered fibre reinforced composites.
Interlaminar failure, i.e. failure of the interface between adjacent plies, is a de-
lamination mode. Delamination failure can have different causes . Weakly bonded
areas impact initial delamination in the inner region of a laminate, whereas delam-
ination along free edges is a result of high interlaminar stresses . Free edges delam-
ination is one of the most important failure modes in layered composite structures .
Along a free edge a tri-axial stress state is present and must be considered. Free
edge delamination is subject of actual intensive research .
The strength analysis of laminate presupposes experimental measured ultimate
stresses or strains for the laminae and realistic or approximate assumptions for stiff-
ness degradation of damaged layers. Strength under longitudinal tensile and com-
pression stresses is usually determined with unidirectional plane specimen, strength
under transverse tension and compression is measured with plane specimen or cir-
cumferentially reinforced tubes and shear strength is determined in torsion test of
such tubes. Note that compression testing is much more difficult than tension testing
since there is a tendency of premature failure due to crushing or buckling.
Summarizing the discussion above on failure analysis one can say that for deter-
mination of safety factors of fibre reinforced laminated structural elements there is
a strong need for fracture criteria and degradation models which are simple enough
for engineering applications but being also in sufficient agreement with the physical
reality. In spite of many efforts were made during recent years strength analysis of
laminates is still underdeveloped in comparison to the stress and strain analysis.
Essential for recent success in failure analysis was to distinguish between fibre
failure and inter-fibre failure by separate failure criteria introduced by Puck. The
theory and application of Puck's criteria are detailed described in special literature
and are not considered here.
6.3 Problems
1. A UD lamina is loaded by biaxial tension (TL = 13(TT, (TLT = O. The material is

a glass-fibre epoxy composite with E L = 46 GPa, ET = 10 GPa, GLT = 4,6
GPa, VLT = 0,31. The basic strength parameters are (TU = 1400 MPa, (Tn =
35 MPa, r, = 70 MPa. Compare the maximum stress and the maximum strain
criteria .
Solution:
Maximum stress criterion «(TL < (Tu , (TT < (Tn)
13(TT = (TL < (Tu (TT < 107,69 MPa
(TT = (Tn < ou ==> (TT < 35 MPa
The ultimate stress is determined by the smallest of the two values, i.e. failure
occurs by transverse fracture . The stress state is then
(TT = 35 MPa, (TL = 13 x 35 = 455 MPa < 1400 MPa
Maximum strain criterion (fL < fLl, fT < fn)
To determine the ultimate strains we assume approximately a linear stress-strain
relation up to fracture. Then follows the ultimate strains
fLl = (TuIEL en = (Tn/ET
The strains caused by the biaxial tension state are

1 VLT 1
ei, = SLL(TL + SLT(TT = E (TL - EZ(TT = E ((TL - VLT(TT) < eu.
L L
VTL 1 1
fT = SLT(TL + STT(TT = - ET (TL+ E (TT = E ((TT - vriat.) < en
T T
The maximum strain criterion can be written
6.3 Problems 201
Since (TL = 13(TT follows

(TT < (Tu/(13 - VLT) = 110,32 MPa,
(TT < (Tn/(I-13vLTET/Ed = 282,72 MPa
The ultimate stress is given by the lowest of both values, i.e. failure occurs by
longitudinal fracture and the stress state is then
(TL = 13 x 110,32 = 1434,16 MPa, (TT = 110,32 MPa
The values of both criteria differ significantly and the fracture mode is reversed
from transverse to longitudinal fracture. Because linear elastic response is as-
sumed to fail, the criterion can predict strength also in terms of stresses. In
reality the relation between ultimate stress and strain is more complex.
2. Consider an off-axis unidirectional tension of a glass fibre/polyster resin lami-
nate (Fig. 6.5), (T1 = 3,5 MPa, e = 60° . Estimate the state of stress with the
help of the maximum stress, the maximum strain and the Tsai-Hill failure cri-
terion. The lamina properties are E~ = 30 GPa, E2= 4 GPa, Gb = 1,2 GPa,
v~2 = 0,28, v21 = 0,037, (Tu = 1200 MPa, (Tn = 45 MPa, TS = 35 MPa,
eu = 0,033, fn = 0,002, fS = 0,0078.
Solution:
a) Maximum stress criterion
Using (6.2.6) the stresses in the principal material axes can be calculated
(Tr = (T1 cos 2 e = 0,875 MPa < ou.
(T~ = (T1 sin 2 e = 2,625 MPa < (Tn,
(T6 = (T1sinecose = -1,515MPa < TS
The off-axis ultimate tensile strength (T1/ is the smallest of the following
stresses
(T1 = vu/ cos 2 e = 4800 MPa,
(T1 = (Tn/ sin2 e = 60 MPa,
(T1 = Ts/sinecose = 80,8MPa
i.e. (T1/ = 60 MPa. All stresses (Tf are allowable, the lamina does not fail.
b) Maximum strain criterion
From the Hooke's law for orthotropic materials follows
f; = (TUE~ - V21(TYE2 = (TUE~ - Vb(T~/E~,
f~ = -V~2(TU E~ + (Ty E2,
f~ = (T6/ E~
The transformation for (Tf yields
f'l = ~, [cos 2 e - vb sin 2 e](T1 = 0,0000047 < s U,
1 ,
f ,2 = F! . 2 e - V12F! COS 2 e] (T1 = 0,0006
1 [Sin ,E2 < en.
1 1
f~ = G' sine cos e(T1 = 0,0013 < es
12
All strains are allowed. The composite does not fail.

c) Tsai-Hill criterion
Using (6.2.18) the criterion can be written
2
cos ()) 2+ (Sin2 ()) 2_ (Sin ()cos
( ou
e) e e) 2< ~,
2+ (Sin cos
O'TI O'u TS O'f
[ (~;~~) 2 + (0~~5) 2 _ (O;;~~) 2 + (O'3~3) 2] MPa- 2

< O,00043MPa- 2,
1 -2
"2 = O,0816MPa
0'1
The left-hand side is smaller than the right-hand side, therefore the com-
posite does not fail.
3. The plane stress state of a UD-Iamina is defined by 0'1 = 20', 0'2 = -30',
0'6 = 40', 0' > O. The material properties are E~ = 181 GPa, E~ = 10,3
GPa, vb = 0,28, Gb = 7,17 GPa, v~1 = a, 01593, ou = 1500 MPa,
O'Lc = 1500 MPa, O'TI = 40 MPa, O'Tc = 246 MPa, TS = 68 MPa. The fibre
angle is e = 60°. Calculate the maximum value for 0' by using the different
failure criteria.
Solution :
a) Maximum stress criterion
Transformation of the stresses from the off-axis to on-axis reference system
yields (Table 4.1)
[
O'~ ] [0,250 0,750 0,866 ] [ 20' ] 1,714 ]
O'~ = 0,750 0,250 -0,866 -30' = -2,714 0'
O'~ -0,433 0,433 -0,500 40' [ -4,165
Using (6.2.2) we find the inequalities
-1500MPa < 1,7140' < 1500MPa,
-246MPa < -2,7140' < 40MPa,
-68MPa < -4,1650' < 68MPa,
-875, 1MPa < 0' < 875 , 1MPa,
===> -14, 73MPa < 0' < 90, 64MPa,
- 16, 33MPa < 0' < 16,33MPa
The three inequalities are satisfied if 0 < 0' < 16.33 MPa. The maximum
stress state which can be applied before failure is
0'1 = 32,66 MPa,0'2 = 48,99 MPa, 0'6 = 65,32 MPa
The mode of failure is shear.
b) Maximum strain criterion
Using the transformation rule (4.1.5) for strains e~ follows with 5~1
l/E~ = 0,552510- 11 Pa-I, 5~2 = l/E~ = 9,70910- 11 Pa- 1, 5~6 =
1/G~2 = 13,9510- 11 Pa- 1, 5~2 = -v~2/E~ = -0,154710- 11 Pa- 1
[ :~] = [~~~a ~~~ ?] [~~] = [~2~~~;]

10 6 0 566 0'6 -5,809
1
10- °0' [~::]
6.3 Problems 203
Assuming a linear relationship between the stresses and the strains until
failure, we can calculate the ultimate strains in a simple way
ELt = CTLt/E~ = 8,28710- , ELc = CTLclE~ = 8,28710- ,
3 3
ETt = CTTt/E~ = 3,88310- , ETc = CTTclE~ = 23,8810- ,

3 3
ES = Ts/Gb = 9,48310-
3
and the inequalities (6.2.8) yield
-8,28710- 3 < 0, 136710- 10 CT < 8,28710- 3 ,
-23,8810- 3 < -2,662 lO- IOCT < 3,88310- 3,
-9,48310- 3 < -5,8091O- 10CT < 9,48310- 3
or
-606,210 6 < CT < 606,2106 ,
-14,5810 6 < CT < 89,7110 6 ,
-16,3310 6 < CT < 16,33106
The inequalities are satisfied if 0 < CT < 16,33 MPa, i.e. there is the
same maximum value like using the maximum stress criterion, because the
mode of failure is shear. For other failure modes there can be significant
differences, see example 1.
c) Tsai-Hill criterion
Using (6.2.17) we have
1, 714 ) 2 (-2,714)2 _ (1,714) (-2,714)
[( 1500 + 40 1500 1500
+ (-4~~65) 2] 1~~2 < 1

i.e. CT < 10,94.
The Tsai-Hill criterion is an interactive criterion which cannot distinguish
the failure modes . In the form used above it also does not distinguish be-
tween compression and tensile strength which can result in an underesti-
mation of the allowable loading in compression with other failure criteria.
Generally the transverse tensile strength of a UD-lamina is much less than
the transverse compressive strength. Therefore the criteria can be modified.
In dependence of the sign of the CT[ the corresponding tensile or compres-
sive strength is substituted. For our example follows .
1, 714 ) 2 (-2,714)2 _ (1,714) (-2,714)
[( 1500 + 246 1500 1500
+ (-4~~65) 2] 1~~2 <1

i.e. CT < 16,06 MPa .
d) Tsai- Wu criterion
Now (6.2.24) must be applied. The coefficients can be calculated
204 6. FailureMechanisms and Criteria
«i. = (~ - ~) = 0,
ou O"Lc
1
«rr = - - = l,01621O- 16 pa- 2 ,
O"TlO"Yc
ay = (~ - ~) = 2,0931O- 8 Pa- 1 ,
O"TI O"Yc
ass = 21 = 2,16261O- 16 pa- 2 ,

TTl
aLL = (_1_) = 4,444411O- 19 pa- 2 ,

O"UO"Lc
1
aLT ~ -"2v'a LLa yy = -3,360 1O- 18 pa- 2
Substituting the values of the coefficients in the criterion it yields the fol-
lowing equation
O· (1,714)0" + 2,093(10- 8 ) ( -2,714)0" + 4,4444(10- 19)(1, 7140")2
+ 1,0162(10- 16)(-2,7140")2 + 2, 1626(10- 16 ) ( -4,1650")2
+ 2( -3,360)(10- 18)(1,714)( -2,714)0"2 < 1
The solution of the quadratic equation for 0" yields 0" < 22,39 MPa.
Summarizing the results of the four failure criteria we have
Max. stress criterion: 0" = 16,33iT (iT == RsO")
Max. strain criterion: 0" = 16,33iT (iT == RSE)
Tsai-Hill criterion: 0" = 10,94iT (iT == R y H )
Mod. Tsai-Hill criterion: 0" = 16,06iT (iT == RYHm)
Tsai -Wu criterion: 0" = 22, 39iT (iT == R YW )
The values iT == 0" are identical with the strength ratios (6.2.32) - (6.2.35).
A summary of the examples demonstrates that different failure criteria can lead to
different results . Unfortunately, there is no one universal criterion which works well
for all situations of loading and all materials. For each special class of problems
a careful proof of test data and predicted failure limits must be conducted before
generalizations can be made . In general, it may be recommended that more than
one criterion is used and the results are compared.
7. Modelling and Analysis of Beams
In Chap. 1 the classification of composite materials, the significance, advantages

and limitations of composite materials and structures and the material characteris-
tics of the constituents of composite materials were considered. Chapter 2 gave a
short introduction to the governing equations of the linear theory of anisotropic ma-
terial behavior. Chapter 3 defined effective material moduli of composite s including
elementary mixture rules and improved formulas. Chapter 4 developed in detail the
modelling of the mechanical behavior of laminates and sandwiches in the frame of
classical theories including thermal and hygroscopic effects. The constitutive equa-
tions, describing the relationships between stress resultants and in-plane strains and
mid-surface curvatures were developed for unidirectional laminae, laminates and
sandwiches with the assumptions of the classical laminate theory. Further the calcu-
lation of in-plane and through-the-thickness stresses was considered . Chapter 5 gave
an introduction to classical and refined laminate theories. In Chap. 6 selected failure
mechanisms and criteria were briefly discussed . These parts of the book give the
basic knowledge, how the design engineer can tailor composite materials to obtain
the desired properties by the appropriate choice of the fibre and matrix constituents,
a laminate or a sandwich material, the stacking sequence of layers, etc. This ba-
sic knowledge can be utilized to develop the modelling and analysis of structural
elements and structures composed of composite materials .
7.1 Introduction
The analysis of structural elements can be performed by analytical and semi-

analytical approaches or by numerical methods. The advantage of analytical so-
lutions is their generality allowing the designer to take into account various design
parameters. Analytical solutions may be either closed form solutions or infinite se-
ries and may be exact solutions of the governing equation s or variational approaches.
However, analytical solutions are restricted to the analysis of simple structural el-
ements such as beams, plates and shells with simple geometry. Otherwise numer-
ical methods have to be applied more general for structural analysis. Chapter 7 to
10 describe analytical solutions for one- and two-dimensional structural elements.
Chapter 11 gives an insight into numerical solutions based on the finite element
method.
206 7. Modelling and Analysis of Beams
axi s
XI
Fig. 7.1. Rod/column/beam
In the following sections of Chap. 7 we consider rods, columns and beams.

These are one-dimensional structural elements with a thickness h and a width b
which are small relative to the element length I, i.e. h, b « 1. When this element
is loaded by an axial force only one speaks of a rod if the loading is tensile, and
of columns if the load is compressive . One calls this element a beam when it is
acted upon by lateral loads. In general a combination of lateral and axial loadings is
possible and so we shall speak of beams under lateral and axial loadings. The other
type of one-dimensional structural elements, so called plate strips under cylindrical
bending, are discussed in Chap . 8. The modelling and analysis of generalized beams
based a thin-walled folded structure are considered in Chap . 10 (generalized Vlasov
beam theory).
The elementary or classical beam theory assumes that the transverse shear
strain s are negligible and plane cross-sections before bending remain plane and nor-
mal to the axis of the beam after bending (Bernoulli-Euler beam theory, Sect. 7.2).
The assumption of neglecting shear strains is valid if the thickness h is small relative
to the length 1(h]! < 1/20). In the Bernoulli-Euler beam theory the transverse de-
flection U3 is assumed to be independent of coordinates X2, x3 of the cross-section
(Fig. 7.1), i.e . u3 == w = w(xd . In Sect. 7.2 the governing equations of the classi-
cal beam theory for composite beams are considered. The differential equations and
variational formulation s will be developed in detail for bending only, the equations
for vibration and buckling are briefly summarized.
In the case of sandwich beams or moderately thick laminate beams, the results
derived from the Bernoulli-Euler theory can show significant differences with the
actual mechanical behavior, i.e. the deflection, stress distribution, etc. An improve-
ment is possible by introducing the effect of transverse shear deformation, i.e. we
apply Timoshenko beam theory (Sect. 7.3). The assumptions of the classical theory
have then to be relaxed in the following way: the transverse normals do not remain
perpendicular to the deformed axis of the beam after straining . Section 7.4 discuss
some special aspects of sandwich beams.
Laminate or sandwich beams with simple or double symmetric cross-sections

are most important in engineering applications. The derivations in Sects 7.2 - 7.5 are
therefore limited to straight beams with simple or double symmetric constant cross-
sections which are predominantly rectangular. The bending moments act in a plane
of symmetry. Also cross-sections consisting of partition walls in and orthogonal to
the plane of bending, e.g. 1- or box beams, are considered.
7.2 Classical Beam Theory
Frequently, as engineers try to optimize the use of materials, they design compos-
ite beams made from two or more materials . The design rationale is quite straight
forward. For bending loading, stiff, strong, heavy or expensive material must be far
away from the neutral axis at places where its effect will be greatest. The weaker,
lighter or less expensive material will be placed in the central part of the beam . At
one extreme is a steel-reinforced concrete beam, where weight is not a major con-
cern, but strength and cost are. At the other extreme is a sandwich beam used e.g. in
an aircraft with fibre-reinforced laminate cover sheets and a foam core. In that case,
stiffness and weight are essential but cost not.
First we consider elementary beam equations: The cross-section area A can have
various geometries but must be symmetric to the X3-axis. The fibre reinforcement
of the beam is parallel to the xl-axis and the volume fraction is a function of the
cross-sectional coordinates X2,X3, i.e. vf = Vf(X2,X3). The symmetry condition
yieldsvf(X2,X3) = Vf(-X2,X3) and El(X2,X3) = El(-X2,X3).
With the known equations for the strain £1 and the stress 0"1 at Xl = const
£1 (X3) = €l + X3 Kl, 0"1 (X2, X3) = €lE l (X2, X3) + X3 Kl El (X2, X3) (7.2.1)
follow the stress resultants N(Xl), M(Xl) of a beam
N = €l / El (X2, x3)dA + Kl / X3El (X2, x3)dA,

(A) (A) (7.2.2)
M = €l / X3El (X2, x3)dA + Kl / X~El (X2, x3)dA
(A) (A)
The effective longitudinal modulus of elasticity is (3.1.8)
El = Efvf + Emvm = Em + <P(X2,X3)(Ef - Em) (7.2.3)
and with Ef = const, Em = const, <P(X2, X3) = <P( -X2, X3) it follows that
a = EmA + (Ej - Em) ! <P(X2, x3)dA,

(A)
b = (Ef - Em) !
(A)
<P(X2,X3)X3dA, (7.2.4)
I = ! x~dA,
(A)
d = EmI + (Ef - Em) !
(A)
<P(X2, x3)x~dA
The inverse of the stress resultants , (7.2.4), are

dN -bM aM - bN
tl = ad _ b2' Xl = ad _ b2 (7.2.5)
and the stress equation (7.2.1) has the form

dN - bM + (aM - bN)X3
171 (X2 , X3) = ad _ b2 El (X2, X3) (7.2.6)
Taking into consideration the different moduli Ej and Em, the fibre and matrix
stresses are
_ dN - bM + (aM - bN)X3 E
17f ( x3 ) - ad _ b2 j'
(7.2.7)
_ dN - bM + (aM - bN)X3 E
17m( X3 ) - ad _ b2 m
In the case of a double symmetric geometry and fibre volume fraction function <p,
b = 0 and the equations can be simplified
tl = N] a, Xl = Mjd,
(7.2.8)
17f(X3) = (Nja+X3Mjd)Ej' 17m(X3) = (Nja+x3 Mjd)E m
For a uniform fibre distribut ion, <P(X2, X3) = canst, (7.2.3) - (7.2.4) give
a = EmA + (E j - Em)<PA = ElA,
b = 0, (7.2.9)
d = EmI + (Ef - Em)<PI = Ell
and the stress relations for fibre and matrix, (7.2.8), are transformed to
17j(X3) = (~ + X3 7)( ~~), 17m(X3) = (~ + X37)( ~7 ) (7.2.10)
If Ej = Em and E l = E, (7.2.10) becomes the classical stress formula for isotropic

beam with axial and lateral loadings
(7.2.11)
Now we consider laminate beams loaded by axial and lateral loading . For simplicity,
thermal and hygrothermal effects are ignored. The derivation of the beam equations
presume the classical laminate theory (Sects 4.1 and 4.2). There are two different
cases of simple laminated beams with rectangular cross-section:
I. The beam is loaded orthogonally to the plane of lamination.

2. The beam is loaded in the plane of lamination .
In the first case, we start from the constitutive equations (4.2.18) . The beam theory
makes the assumption that in the case of bending and stretching in the (Xl - X3)-
plane of symmetry, i.e. no unsymmetrical or skew bending, N2 = N6 = 0,
M 2 = M6 = 0 and that all Poisson's effects are neglected. With these assumptions
(4.2.18) is reduced to
[~1] [:1\1 ~lllJ [:~]

= (7.2.12)
and from (4.2.14)
Ql = Ass€s (7.2.13)
If the beam has a midplane symmetry, there is no bending-stretching coupling, so
that B11 = 0 and (7.2.12) becomes
(7.2.14)
Note that in the classical theory, the transverse shear strain will be ignored, i.e
ES = 0, and there is no constitutive equation for resultant shear forces .
The starting point for derivation of structural equations for beams is the equilib-
rium equations for stress resultants N, M and Q at the undeformed beam element,
Fig. 7.2. The in-plane and transverse stress resultants N« , Ql
and the resultant mo-
ment M l in (7.2.12)-(7.2.13) are loads per unit length and must be multiplied by
the beam width b, i.e. the beam resultants are N = liN«, Q = bQl, M = bMl .
The differential relations for laminate beams loaded orthogonally to the plane of
lamination are summarized in Table 7.1. Note that when N is a compressive load,
we have to consider additional stability conditions.
The stresses O'y)
(Xl, X3) in the kth layer are given by
2W(Xl)]
(k) Q(k)( + ) Q(k) [dU(Xl) d
0'1 = Q(k) (k)
11 E l = 11 €l X3 Kl = 11 -d-- -
Xl
X3 2
dX l
(7.2.15)
Q Q + dQ
2Li ~+dN _ Xt,

, ~
M
1L- ---:......:.:.. ----J I ..J
M +' dM
Fig. 7.2. Stress resultants N,Q and M of the infinite beam element, q(xt),n(xl) are line
forces, m(Xt) is a line moment
Table 7.1. Differential relations for laminate beams based on the classical beam theory
(€l = U'(XI) ,KI = -W"(XI))
Relations between stress resultants and loading

N'(xd = -n(xI), Q'(xd = -q(xd,
M'(XI) = Q(XI) - m(xI) , M"(xd = -q(XI) - m'(xI)
Relations between stress resultants and strains

= bA l1u'(XI) -
N bBl1w"(XI) ¢=:::> [N(XI)] =
M = bBl1U'(XI) - bDl1w"(xd M(xd
Differential equations for the displacements
General case
(bAl1U')" - (bBl1W")" = -n'
(bBl1u')" - (bD l1w")" = -q - m'
(...)' = -dd
xl
Constant stiffness
bA l1 bBl1 ] [ u"'] [ -n' ]
[ bBl1 bDl1 -w"" = -q - m'
Midplane symmetric laminates (B l1 = 0)

(bAl1U')' = -n bA l1u" = -n
(bDl1w")" = q + m' bDl1w"" = q + m'
Special cases
u
"(
xl
) __ n(xd
- bAl1 '
W""(XI) = q(XI)
bDl1
N'(XI) = -n(XI), Q'(xd = -q(XI),

M'(xI) = Q(XI) - m(XI)
u'( Xl) N = canst,

= - bAll
m(XI) = O,n(x d = 0:
or with
D l1N - Bl1M
€l = 2 '
AuD u - Bu
one get
6
5
S 4
3
11 2
I
10 1 (TIM .1."3 KI (T18
Fig . 7.3. Qualitative distribution of the stresses and strains through the beam thickness h
. (I) (6) (3) (4) (2) (5)
assuming Q lI = Q lI > Q lI = Q lI > Q lI = Q lI
(k) _ Q(k) 1 ( Du N - BuM AuM - BUN )

(T1 - 11 - 2 + X3 2 (7.2.16)
b AuDu - Bu AuD u - Bu
In the most usual case of midplane symmetric beams the stress equations (7.2.15),
(7.2.16) can be simplified to
(k) ( ) Q(k) dU(X1)
<TIM Xl = 11 - d- -
Xl
(7.2.17)
2W(X1)
(k)( ) _ Q(k) [ d ] _ Q(k) M(X1)
(T1B Xl - U -X3 2 - U X3 -bD
dX1 u
(Tl~ are the layerwise constant stretching or membrane stresses produced by N(X1)
and <Tl~ the layerwise linear distributed flexural or bending stresses produced by
M(xd . The strain =
k
£1 £1
+ x3K1 is continuous and linear through the total beam
thickness h. The stresses <Tl ) are continuous and linear through each single layer
and have stress jumps at the layer interfaces (Fig. 7.3) With the help of effective
moduli E;jf and E:Jf for stretching and flexural loading we can compare the stress
equations of a laminate beam with the stress equation of a single layer beam .
With N :I 0, M = 0 Eq. (7.2.12) becomes
[~1 ] = b [:1\1~\\] [~~ ] (7.2.18)
and with
Bu
0 = bBue1 +bDuK11 K1 = - -e1 (7.2.19)
Du
follows the equations for N = bN1 and e1
Du - Btl
N = bA u e1 + bBu K1 = eib Au D 1
U
e1 = Du N _ Duh N N
(7.2.20)
(AuDu - Bt1)b - (AuD u - Btl) bh E;jfA
with
EN = AuO u - Bil
ef f ».» A = bh
The strain €l on the beam axis of a single layer isotropic, homogeneou s beam is
€l = N lEA. Replacing E by E~f gives the strain equation for the laminate beam.
The stresses oy) in the k layers are then

(k) _ (k) _ (k) ( Bu )
J1 - Qu (€l + X3 Kl) - Qu €l 1- x3 Ou
= dnk) (1 _x 3 Ou
Bu ) dU,
d x, (7.2.21)
J~k) = Q~l
(k) N ( 1_ x3 Bu ) =~
(k) N ( 1_ x3 Bu )
Eef f bh Ou E~f bh Ou
or for midplane symmetric beams with Bu = 0
J(k) _ E~k) N _ E~k) N EN _ Au

1 - EN bh - EN A ' eff - h (7.2.22)
eff ef f
In an analogous manner it follows from (7.2.12) with N = 0, M f. 0 that
AuO u - Bil
M = bBu€l + bOUKl = K1b A '
ii
3 (7.2.23)
Kl = Au M _ A uh M
(AuO u - Bil)b - 12(A uO u - Bil) bh3
12
with
3
EM _ 12(A uOu - Bil) 1= bh
(7.2.24)
eff - A uh 3 ' 12
For an isotropic homogeneous single layer beam of width b and thickness hone
get Kl = MIEI = 12Mlbh 3 , I = bh3/12 . Replacing now E by E~f' the stress
equations are
(7.2.25)
(k) _ E~k) M EM _ 12D11

crI - ----x1T
E
X3, eff - h3 (7.2.26)
ef f
If both in-plane and lateral loads occur simultaneously, the stress in each lamina of
the beam is as for symmetric case
crI(k) (Xl, X3) -_ Q 11 du

(k) ( d
xl
- d
2W)
X3--2
dX I
-_ EI(k) (N + M)
-N-
EeffA
~X3
Eefl
, (7.2 .27)
3/12,
A = bh, 1= bh E;Jf = A11/h, E:-lJ = 12D11/h3
Summarizing the equations for symmetric laminated beams, one can say that the
equations for U(XI) and W(XI) are identical inform to those of elementary theory
for homogeneous, isotropic beams. Hence all solutions available, e.g.for deflections
ofisotropic beams under various boundary conditions, can be used by replacing the
modulus E with E;Jf or E~f' respectively. The calculation ofthe stresses illustrates
that constant in-plane layer stresses produced by N are proportional to the layer
modulus E~k) (7.2.22). N I AE;Jf isfor a cross-se ction Xl = const a constant value.
Analogous are the flexural layer stresses proportional to Elk) X3 (7.2.26). In general,
the maximum stress does not occur at the top or the bottom of a laminated beam,
but the maximum stress location through the thickness depends on the lamination
scheme.
From the bending moment-curvature relation (N = 0)
(7.2.28)
it follows that
2W)
= w-
M max
Klmax
11
= - (dd2
X max
'
and the maximum stress can be calculated for each lamina
(k) _ (k) _ (k) d 2 W ) _ E(k)
I M max
crl max - Q 11 Klmax X3 - -Q u (\ dx2 X3 - EM - I - X3 (7.2.29)
max eff
cri~ax must be compared with the allowable strength value.

The calculation of the transverse shear stress cr~k) (Xl, X3) is analogous as in the
elementary beam theory . We restrict our calculation to midplane symmetric beams
and therefore all derivations can be given for the upper part of the beam element
(X3 2: 0). The equilibrium equations in the Xl-direction lead with crij) + dcry) ~
cry) + (dcry) IdxI)dxI (Fig. 7.4) and no edge shear stresses on the upper and lower
faces
(7.2.30)
X3
at!- N _ (N ) + d (N )
- --
(Tl (Tl
(T}JJ _ j (TU) + d(TU)

xU
3
ffY)
-
(k+ ll..--
k+l
-
_
1
(k+ l)
(Tl
1
+ d (Tl(k+ l )
• (k)
(j - l (k)
X3 (Ts
3
d Xl Xl
Fig. 7.4. Beam element b(x~N) - x~k) ) dxl with flexural normal stresses (Tp and the inter-
laminar stress (T~ k)
or
With Q = dM/ dXl it follows that

x(i)
I
3
(T~k)(Xl 'X3) = ~~l} ._

f EF)X 3 d x 3
ef f ]-k+l (i -I)
X3
_ Q(Xl) ~ E(j) ~ (xU)2 _ xU-1 )2) (7.2.31)

- EM I L.J 1 2 3 3
eff j=k+l
- Q~l)
Eef l j=k+l
f Eij)hU)xY)
For a single layer homogeneous, isotropic beam (7.2.31) yields the known parabolic
shear stress distribution through h
With an increasing number of equal thickness layers , the transverse shear stress
distribution (7.2.31) approaches the parabolic function of the single layer beam.
All stress equations presume that the Poisson's effects can be completely ne-
glected, i.e. Q~) = o; = 0, i ::j:. j , i, j = 1,2,6. They are summarized for symmet-
ric laminated beams (N ::j:. 0, M ::j:. 0) in Table 7.2. For symmetric laminated beams
Table 7.2. Stress formulas for symmetric laminated beams, classical theory
A = bh, I = bh3/12,
E~t = An/h, E:}t = 120n/h3, :xU) = ~(X~) + x~-I))
loaded orthogonally to the plane of lamination, the classical laminate theory yields
identical differential equations for U(Xl) and W(Xl) with to Bernoulli's beam theory
of single layer homogeneous isotropic beams , if one substitutes bA 11 by EA = Ebh
and bOn by EI = Ebh3/12 . An equal state is valid for beam vibration and beam
buckling .
The following equations are given without a special derivation (b, A, On, pare
constant values):
Differential equation offlexure (N = 0)
(7.2.33)
Forced or free vibrations
so d4w(Xl, t) ' A d 2w(Xl, t) _ ( )

u dx 4 +P dt2-QX1,t, (7.2.34)
1
Rotational inertia terms are neglected . For free vibration with q = 0 the solution is
assumed periodic : W(Xl' t) = W(Xl) exp(iwt) .
Buckling equation
(7.2.35)
or with N(Xl) = -F
2M(Xl) 4w(Xl)
d _ F d2W(xd = 0 bD d F d2w(xd = 0
dX 12 dX2 ' 11
dX41 + dx21
1
All solutions of the elementary beam theory for single layer isotropic beams can
transferred to laminate beams . Note that laminate composites are stronger shear
deformable than metallic materials and the classical beam theory is only acceptable
when the ratio l/h > 20.
The equations for flexure, vibration and buckling can also be given in a vari-
ational formulation (Sect. 2.2.2). With the elastic potential for a flexural beam
(N = 0, M =I 0)
II(w) = ~ Jio., ( d';;l') ) dx, -J

o
2
0
qdx, (7.2.36)
and the kinetic energy
T(w) = 2:1 II p (dd~2 )2 dx, (7.2.37)

o
the Lagrange function is given by L(w) = T(w) - II(w) (Sect. 2.2.2).
The variational formulation for a symmetric laminated beam without bending-
stretching coupling subjected to a lateral load q in x3-direction (N = 0, M =I
0, £5 ~ 0, Vij ~ 0) based on the theorem of minimum of total potential energy is
given in the form
(7.2.38)
The variational formulation for the buckling of a symmetric laminate beam

(N(Xl)) = -F) is
I 2 I
II[W(Xl)] =~ I »o« ( ;;i

o
d
2
1
)) dx, - ~ I F (d~~~l))
0
2 dXl, (7 .2.39)
SII[w(xd] = 0
The variational formulation for free flexural beam vibration (additional to ap-
proaches noted above the rotatory inertia effects are neglected) can be given by
the Hamilton's principle
I
12
H[W(Xl, t)] = L[W(Xl' t)]dt, SH[W(Xl, t)] =0 (7.2.40)

11
Xl
Fig. 7.5. Laminate beam loaded in the plane of lamination
The variational formulations can be used for approximate analytical solution with
the Rayleigh-Ritz procedure or numerical solutions.
In the second case of laminate beams , the loading is in the plane of lamin ation .
We restrict our considerations to symmetric layered beams and neglect all Poisson's
ratio effects. The beam is illustrated in Fig. 7.5. For a symmetric layer stacking there
is no bending-stretching coupling and we have the constitutive equations
b3
MI = 12h AUKI
or for the beam resultants N = hNI, M = hM I
b3 N
N = hAuel , M = l2AUKI, Au = L Q~~)h(k) (7.2.41)
k=l
The differential equations of flexure (N = 0) are
2w(XI) 3 4w(xd
d = M(XI) b l2A u d _ ( )
(7.2.42)
dXI -~ 12' b3 dXf - q Xl
and the additional equation for the case N :P 0 is
hA udU(XI)
-- - = N( Xl ) (7.2.43)
d Xl
The calculation of stresses is analogous to case I of layered beams.
II
Xl
II
Fig. 7.6. Laminated box-beam with identical top and bottom panels I and vertical walls II
When beam profiles consist of partition-walls in the plane of loading and orthog-
onal to the plane of loading, e.g. I-profiles or box-beams, the bending differential
equations can be written in the form, given above. The bending stiffness is obtained
by combining the results of orthogonal to plane loading and in-plane loading .
As an example for a box-beam, we consider the beam as shown in Fig. 7.6,
which may be subjected to axial loads in Xl "direction, a bending moment with
respect to the X2-axis and a twisting moment with respect to the Xl-axis. For an
isotropic beam the stiffness needed are the extensional stiffness, EA, the flexural
stiffness, EI, and the torsional stiffness, GIt.
The axial force resultant (per unit width) in Xl-direction is N, = All tl and the
axial load carried by the whole section is then
N(Xl) = 2N{b + 2Nflh = 2[(A u)rb + (Au)nh]tl (7.2.44)
The extensional stiffness for the box cross-section is given by
(EA)eff = 2(A u)rb + 2(A u)rlh (7.2.45)
The box beam is bent in the (Xl - X3) plane, and the moment curvature relation is
M = [2(DU)Ib+2(AU)Ib (~)2 +2(Au)n~;] Kl

(7.2.46)
~ [2(AU)rb (~) 2 + ~(AU)rlh3] Kl
Since the top and bottom panels are thin relative to the height of the box profile, i.e.
t « h, (D u ) I can be neglected and the bending stiffness of the box cross-section
is
Fig. 7.7. I-profile with uniform thickness t
(7.2.47)
If the box-beam is acted by a torsional moment M T this is equivalent to the moment

of the shear flows with respect to the xl -axis and we have
MT = 2NJb(hj2 ) + 2NJlh (bj2 ), NJ = A~6t~ , NJI = A~~t~I (7.2.48)
In the elementary theory of strength of materials the equation for the angle of twist
of a box-beam is given by
e= ~
2A
f q(s) d
Gt S
(7.2.49)
q(s) is the shear flow. In our case, Fig. 4.6, the displacement s of the cont ours of the
walls of the box beam are denoted by t5 1 and t5 I1 and the angle of twist becomes
t5 1 t5Il . t51 I t5
T = t6,t5- ZIl = t 6
II
e = (hj 2) = (bj 2) with (7.2.50)
From (7.2.48) - (7.2.50) we have

bh I II
M T = T[(A 66)h + (A 66)b]e (7.2.51)
and the torsional stiffness of the cross-section is
bh I II
(Glt )eff = T[(A 66)h + (A 66)b] (7.2.52)
For the I-profile in Fig. 7.7 the calculation for bending is analogous. The bending
stiffness is
(EI) eff = [2 (D ll )b + 2(A ll )b (~) 2 + (All) ~~]

(7.2.53)
6h 2 b + h 3
~ All 12
if 0 11 ~ O. Note that for a one-dimensional thin structural element which is sym-

metric with respect to all mid-planes and Poisson's effect is neglected, we have the
simple relationships
M
KI = -:-=::---
(EI)eff
Summarizing the classical beam equations it must be noted that the effect of Pois-
son's ratio is negligible only if the length-to-with ratio lib is large (l » b), other-
wise the structure behavior is more like a plate strip than a beam (Sect. 8.2). This
is of particular importance for angle-ply laminates, i.e. orthotropic axes of mate-
rial symmetry in each ply are not parallel to the beam edges and anisotropic shear
coupling is displayed.
7.3 Shear Deformation Theory
The structural behavior of many usual beams may be satisfactorily approximated by

the classical Euler-Bernoulli theory . But short and moderately thick beams or lami-
nated composite beams which llh ratios are not rather large cannot be well treated
in the frame of the classical theory . To overcome this shortcoming Timoshenko ex-
tended the classical theory by including the effect of transverse shear deformation.
However, since Timoshenko's beam theory assumed constant shear strains through
the thickness h a shear correction factor is required to correct the shear strain energy.
In this section we study the influence of transverse shear deformation upon the
bending of laminated beams. The similarity of elastic behavior of laminate and sand-
wich beams with transverse shear effects included allows us generally to transpose
the results from laminate to sandwich beams. When applied to beams, the first order
shear deformation theory is known as Timoshenko's beam theory. Figure 7.8 illus-
trates the cross-section kinematics for the Bernoulli's and the Timoshenko's bending
beam. When all Poisson's effects are neglected the constitutive equations are identi-
cal with (7.2.12) - (7.2.13), but from Sect. 5.1 the strains of the Timoshenko's beam
are
aUt
aXt
(7.3.1)
aUt aw
€s=-+-=
aX3 aXt
i.e. we only have one longitudinal and one shear strain
£t(Xt,X3) = €t(Xt) +X3 Kt(Xt), £S(Xt,X3) = o/t(xd +w'(Xt),
du (7.3.2)
€t(xd = -d '
Xt
When the transverse shear strain are neglected it follows with £s ~ 0 that the rela-
tionship is o/t (xd = -w'(xd and that is the Bernoulli's kinematics.
7.3 Shear Deformation Theo ry 221
A tp(Xl )
< .... Tirnoshenko kinematics
w'( xd
~ / ( flexure curve
A"
A' B" t-
• w' (xd
B' ·
A A' '(
w(xd
A
)( i j,mooIU kinematics
B.
'(
>
X2 a xl
1I \ (xd
-c >
lI(xd
< >
dXl
-c >
Fig. 7.8. Kinematics of a bent Timoshenko- and Bernoulli -beam in the (Xl - X3) plane
In the general case of an unsymmetric laminated Timoshenko's beam loaded

orthogonally to the lamina ted plane and N :j:. 0, M :j:. 0, the constitutive equations
(stress resultan ts - strain relations) are given by
(7.3.3)
k S is the shear correction factor (Sect. 5.3).

In the static case , the equilibrium equations for the undeformed beam element
(Fig. 7.2) yield again for lateral loading q ::p 0
dM dQ
dX1 - Q = 0, dX1 +q=0 (7.3.4)
When considerations are limited to symmetric laminated beams the coupling stiff-
ness B11 is zero and from (7.3.3) it follows that
M = 0 11 ~~~, S
Q = k Ass (t/J1 + :~) (7.3.5)
Substituting the relations (7.3.5) into (7.3.4) leads to the differential equations of
flexure
S
[011t/J~ (xd], - k A SS[t/J1(xd + W'(X1)] = 0,
S (7.3.6)
k Ass [t/J1(X1) +W'(X1)]' +q(X1) = 0
Derivation of the first equation of (7.3.6) and setting in the second equation yields a
differential equation of 3rd order for t/J1 (xd
[0 11 t/J' (x)]" = -q(x) (7.3.7)
and with
dM = [-
Q = -d ,
°11t/J1(X1) l' (7.3.8)
Xl
and
Q = kSA + w'(xdJ
SS[t/J1(X1)
follows an equation for w' (Xl)
w'(x ) t/J~ (xd],

= _,,,'1"'1 (X1) + [0 11kSA (7.3.9)
1 ss
Summarizing the derivations above, the equations for a bent Timoshenko's beam
are:
[0 11 t/J~ (Xl)]" = -q(xd,
M(xd =011t/J~(X1),
Q(X1) =[Ol1t/J~(xd]" (7.3.10)
W'(X1) = -,,, (X ) + [011t/J~(X1)]'
'1"'1 1 ss
kSA
When the laminated beam problem allows to write the bending moment M and the
transverse force Q in terms of the known applied lateral loads q, like in statically
determined beam problems, (7.3.5) can be utilized to determine first t/J1 (xd and
then W(X1)' Otherwise (7.3.6) or (7.3.10) are used to determine w(xd and t/J1 (xd.
Integrating the second Eq. (7.3.6) with respect to Xl, we obtain
kSAss[w'(xd +t/J1(xdJ = - J q(xd dx1 +C1

Substituting the result into the first equation of (7.3.6) and integrating again with
respect to xl yields
Dno/~(Xl) = -II q(Xl) d xl dx l +ClXl +C2,

(7.3.11)
= -III
2
Dno/l(Xl) q(xddxldxldxl +Cl ~l +C2 Xl +C3
Substituting 0/1 (Xl) and o/~ (Xl) in (7.3.9), considering (7.3.7) and integrating once
more with respect to Xl we obtain
W(X l) = DIn [1111 q(xl)dxldxldxldxl + cl :f + C2 ~t + c3Xl + C4]

1
- ---=-
kSAss
[hr q(Xl) dxl dx l + ClXl
] (7.3.12)
= wB(xd + WS(Xl)
The transverse deflection consists of two parts. The bending part wB(xd is the
same as derived in the classical theory. When the transverse stiffness goes to in-
finity, the shear deflection w S (Xl) goes to zero, 0/1 (Xl) goes to -W' (Xl) and the
Timoshenko 's beam theory reduces to the classical Bernoulli's beam theory.
The relations for the stresses (71 are the same as in the classical theory. The trans-
verse shear stress can be computed via a constitutive equation in the Timoshenko
theory
(7~k) (Xl, X3) = Q~~ Q(Xl) (7.3.13)

kSA ss
The variational formulation for a lateral loaded symmetric laminated beam is given
by
II(w,o/d = IIi + IIa (7.3.14)
with
IIi = 2"1l[ Dn ( dXl) 2 + k Ass (0/1 +

1 - do/I 5- dw
dXl)
j dx-;
o (7.3.15)
I
IIa = -I o
q(Xdwdxl
In the more general case of unsymmetric laminated beams and axial and lateral
loadings we have II(u, w, 0/1) ' The IIi expression can be expanded to
IIi = -IL[ 2
1
2
o
- du - du do/I - do/I
An ( - ) +2Bn - - + D n ( - )
dXl dXl dXl dXl
2
(7.3.16)
+ 0 Ass (0/ + :~) 2] dx,

and ITa has to include axial and lateral loads.

Since the transverse shear strains are represented as constant through the lam-
inate thickness, it follows that the transverse stresses will also be constant. In the
elementary beam theory of homogeneous beams, the transverse shear stress varies
parabolically through the beam thickness and in the classical laminate theory the
transverse shear stresses vary quadratically throug h layer thickness. This discrep-
ancy betwee n the stress state compatible with the equilibrium equations and the
constant stress state of the first order shear deformation theory can be overcome
approximately by introducing a shear correc tion factor (Sect. 5.3).
The shear correction factor kS can be computed such that the strain energy WI
due to the classical transverse shear stress equals the strain energy W2 due to the first
order shear deformation theory. Consider, for example, a homogeneous beam with a
rectangular cross-section A = bh. The classica l shear stress distribution following
from the course of elementary strength of materials is given by
0"1 3 = T1 = ~2 bh
Q [1 _(2 X3) 2]
h'
h
- -2 <
- X3 <
h
- + -2
(7.3.17)
The transverse stress in the first order shear deformation theory is consta nt through
the thickness h
Q Q
0"13 = T2 = bh' /2 = kSG (7.3 .18)
With WI = W2 it follows that
1
2:
Jd T
2
dA =
1
2:
Jks~ dA,
y,2
(A) (A)
3 Q2 1 Q2 5
5 Gbh = k S 2Gbh ===} ~ = 6" (7.3.19)
The shear correc tion factor for a general laminate depends on lamina properties and
lamina stacking and is given here without a special derivation by
1
kS = Assb ~
N J X
(k)
3
g(k) 2 (X3)
G(k) dX3, (7.3.20)
k- 1 (k- l)
X3
g(k )(Z) = d11 {-Cl~) Z; + i: [cW- cg- 1

)] Z(j~1)2 }, Cl~) =0
1= 1
d11 = 1 / D 11 is the beam compliance, Cl~) = Elk) .

Summarizing the beam equations for the first order shear deformation theory
for symmetrically laminated cross-sections, including vibration and buckling, the
following relations are valid for constant values of h, b, A, D 11 , p:
Flexure equations (N = 0, M =P 0)
kS A ss [0/1 (Xl) +w'(xd], +q(xd = 0, (7.3.21)
[D11o/~(Xl)]'-kS Ass [0/1 (Xl) +W'(Xl)] = a
or Eqs. (7.3.10).
Forced or free vibrations equations
kS Ass [0/1 (Xl, t) + W'(Xl, t)]' - POW(Xl, t) + q(Xl' t) = 0,
(7.3.22)
[D11o/~ (Xl, t)]' - kS Ass [0/1 (Xl, t) + W'(Xl, t)]-P21P! (Xl, t) = 0,
_ b f. (k) ( (k) _ (k-l)) _ b f.!3P (k) ( X3(k)3 _ (k-l) 3)

Po - LJ P X3 X3 ,P2 - LJ X3
k=l k=l
The terms involving Po and P2 are called translatory or rotatory inertia terms. For
free vibrations we assume that the transverse load q is zero and the motion is peri-
odic:
Buckling equations
kS Ass [0/1 (Xl) + W'(Xl)]' - N(Xl)W"(Xl) = 0,
(7.3.23)
[D11o/~ (Xl)]' - kS Ass [0/1 (xd + w' (xi)] = 0
or with N(Xl) = -F
D [1- F ] w""(x ) + Fw"(x ) = 0
11 kSAss 1 1
The variational formulation for the symmetric bending beam is given by Eq.
(7.3.15).
For vibrations the Lagrange function L(w, 0/1) = T(w, 0/1) - II(W,o/l) yields
the Hamilton 's principle
12
H[W(Xl,t),o/l(Xl,t)) = ( L[W(Xl,t),o/l(Xl,t) ]dt,

J
11
bH[w(Xl, t), 0/1 (Xl, t)] = 0
with
I
II[W(Xl, t), 0/1 (Xl, t)) !

= ~ [D11o/~ 2 + kSA SS(o/l + W'f)dxl
o
I
-! o
q(Xl' t)WdXl, (7.3.24)
= 2!
I
T[W(Xl, t), 0/1 (Xl, t)] 1 [Pow 2 + P20/l)

' 2 d xl
o
For buckling problems with N(X1) = -F it follows that

I
n[W(X1, t), 1/'1 (Xl, t)] =

o
!
~ [0111/'~ 2 + k A ss (1/'1 + w')2]dx1
S
(7.3.25)
- 2:I!
I
Fw ,2 dX1
o
Equations (7.3.21) to (7.3.25) summarize the bending, buckling and vibration dif-
ferential and variational statements for laminated beams based on the shear defor-
mation theory.
7.4 Sandwich Beams
The similarity of the elastic behavior between symmetric laminates and symmetric
sandwich beams in the first order shear deformation theory (Sects 4.3 and 5.3) al-
lows us to transpose the results derived above to the bending of sandwich beams. In
addition to the differences between the expressions for the flexural and transverse
shear stiffness 011 and Ass the essential difference is at the level of stress distri-
bution. The model assumptions for sandwich composites with thin and thick cover
sheets are considered in detail in Sects 4.3.1 to 4.3.3. There one can find the stiffness
values All, 0 11 , Ass . With these values, all differential and variational formulation
of the theory of laminated beams including transverse shear deformation can be
transposed .
In the case of a symmetric sandwich beam with thin cover sheets we have, for
example, the stiffness values
n
All = 2A{1 =2L Q~~)h(k),
k=l
n (7.4.1)
0 11 = 2hcC{1 = hC L Q~~)h(k)x(k),
k=l
A~s = hCGb
n is the number of the face layers.
The coefficient A~s can be corrected by a shear correction factor k", In addition
to the calculation of k", derived for a laminated beam an approximate formula was
developed by Reuss, for sandwich beams with thin cover sheets. With the inverse
effective shear stiffness GR1 , given by the Reuss-model, and the effective shear
stiffness Gv , given by the Voigt-medel , we have
G = ~ G(k) h(k) = Ass (7.4.2)

v LJ h bh '
k=l
The use of sandwich structures is growing very rapidly. Sandwich beams has
a high ratio of flexural stiffness to weight and in comparison to other beam struc-
tures they have lower lateral deformations, higher buckling resistance and higher
natural frequencies. As a result sandwich constructions quite often provide a lower
structural weight than other structural elements for a given set of mechanical and
environmental loads.
The elas tic behavior of sandwich beams was modelled by the laminate theory ,
Sect. 4.3, but it is appropriately to distinguish thin and thick sandwich faces . The
differential equations or variational statements describing the structural behavior of
sandwich beams generally based in the first order shear deformation theory Sect.
5.3, and only if very flexible cores are used a higher order theory may be needed.
Because of the continuing popularity of sandwich structures Sect. 7.4 intends to
recall and summarizes the results of Sects 4.3 and 5.3 to cover some of the most
important aspects of sandwich beam applications.
7.4.1 Stresses and Strains for symmetrical cross-sections
Figure 7.9 shows a sandwich beam with a symmetrical lay up, i.e. the faces have the
same thickness hi and are of the same material. As derived in Sect. 4.3 and 4.4 the
flexural rigidy is (0 11 == 0rf, Q11 == E1 = E)
2 C(hC)3
bO 11 = 0 = b [ Ef (hi
6 + 2 + 12 ] = 20t + 0
)3 Ethid E
0 + OC (7.4 .3)
and both, 20t and OC are less than 1% of 0 0 if djh t > 5,77 and
(6Efht d2)jEC(hC)3 > 100 . Thus, for a sandwich with thin faces hi « hC and
a weak core, E C « Ef, the flexural rigidity is approximately
Efhtd 2
o~0 0 = b 2 (7.4.4)
It can be noted that in most engineering applications using structural sandwich

beam elements, the dominating term in flexural rigidity is that of the faces bending
about the neutral axes of the beam, i.e. the dominating part 0 0 of the total rigidity
D originating from a direct tension -compression of the cover sheets. But is there
X3
, 3 Q E3 = EI
hI
I
I I
" XI N E2 = E
I
2
I' M
d = hC + hi E3 = EI hC
.L l
I
hI
b
Fig. 7.9. Symmetrical sandwich beam: N = bNt, Q = bQI, M = bMI are the beam stress
resultants
no monolithic bonding between the faces and the core the flexural rigidity will be
nearly lost.
The following derivations assume in-plane- , bending- and shear stiffness for all
layers, i.e. for the faces and the core. Therefore we use the laminate theory including
transverse shear, Sects 4.3.3 and 5.3. All calculations are first restricted to midplane
symmetric beams.
The bending strains vary linearly with x3 over the cross-section:
(7.4 .5)
Unlike the bending strains, which vary linearly with x3 over the whole cross-section,
the bending stresses vary linearly within each material constituent, but there is a
jump in the stresses at the face/core interfaces :
(7.4.6)
With Eq. (7.2.12) follows

M h3 M M
M = bDllK1, K1 = -- = ----
3 - = --
(7.4 .7)
bD ll 12D ll bh / 12 E:Jl'
with
and the stress equations can be written as

(k) _ E(k) M
171 - ----x:f T X3 (k = 1,2,3) (7.4.8)
E ef f
The strains due to in-plane loading are:

N_ N N N h N
£1 - = (7.4 .9)
L
3
Q(k)h(k)
3
L E(k)h(k)
bh All E~fA
k=l k=l
with
A 3 3
E~f = ~1, All L Q~;)h(k) = L E(k)h(k), A = bh
k=l k=l
£~ is the strain of the neutral axis . The in-plane stresses follow to
al = E~) N = E~) N
E A E A
ef f ef f
(k=l ,2,3) (7.4 .10)
E(2) N
(T e = ---r:r--
E A
ef f
The strains and stresses due to in-plane loads and bending can be superimposed.
In the same manner as outli ned above a general definition can be found for shear
strains and shear stresses. Consider the beam element b (x~3) - x3) d xJ, Fig . 7.10.
The upper edge of the sandwich, i.e. x3 = (d + hi) /2, Fig. 7.9, is stress free and
we have r [(d + hI)/2] = O.
Since we restrict on calcu lations to midplane symmetric beams all derivation
can be given for the upper part of the beam element ( X3 2: 0) . The equilibrium
equation in the xl-direction yield with O"ldO"l ~ 0"1 + (dO"I/dXl)dxl and no edge
shear stresses on the upper face
(d+ hf)/2
r(x3) bd xl - I
x3
[(0"1+ ~~~ dXl) - 0"1] bdx3 = 0
(7.4 .11)
Using the relations dM(Xl)/dxl = Q(Xl) and 0"1 = M(E(X3)/D)X3 we have
dO"l -
dXl _ 0 E()
Q(xd X3 X3 , r (X3
) = bD
Q I
(d+h!/2 )
Q S( x3) (74
E( X3 ) x3 bd x3 = bD . . 12)
X3
S( X3) is the first moment of the area (x~3) - x3)b. For a single layer homogeneous
and isotropic beam we have the well-known formula
For sandwich beam s we have a more generalized definition for the first moment of
area:
X3
I ( X~3) - X3)
aI -- _- a J + du J Us + dus.
- - , -- if
+ dif XI
T(X3)
3
Fig. 7.10. Sandwich beam element b(X1 ) - X3)dxl : u(3) (X3)
if(x3),us( x3) =T(X3)
b[ E/~I d + ~C (~ _ x3 ) (~ + x3 ) ] ,
(d+hf)/2 hC
J E(X3)X3 bd x3 =
IX 31::; 2 (7.4.13)
b [E: (~ + hi - x (~ + hi + x
3) 3) ] ,
hC hC
-2 <
- I 31-< -2 + hi
X
The shear stresses for the core and the faces are
(7.4.14)
The maximum shear stress appears at the neutral axes :
(7.4.15)
The shear stress in the core/face interface is
C
Tmin
_ I -_T (h2 -
= Tmax
C
) _ Q (Efhfd)
0 -2- (7.4.16)
There is no jump in the shear stresses at the interfaces and the shear stresses are zero
at the outer fibres of the faces. If we have
4Elhfd
EC(hC)2 > 100 (7.4.17)
the shear stresses in the core are nearly constant. The difference between T~ax and
<; is less than 1%. As it was outlined in Sect. 4.3, the stress equation in sandwich
beams very often can be simplified.
Summarizing the stress estimations due to bending and shear for symmetrical
sandwich beams we have the following equations:
1. The core is weak, EC « EI, but the faces can be thick
EI
of (X3) ~ M IX3,
0 0+20
(TC(X3) ~ 0,
C
TI(x ) ~ Q EI ((h )2 + hChl + (hl)2 _ x2)
3 0 0 + 201 2 4 3 '
(7.4 .18)
TC(X ) '" QElhfd
3 '" 2(0 0 + 20/)
2. The core is weak, EC « EI, and the faces are thin, hi « hC
crl (X3) ~ ± b~d' cr

C(X3)
~ 0, r l (X3) ~ 0, r
C(x3)
~~ (7.4.19)
This approximation can be formulated as: The faces of the sandwich beam carry
bending moments as constant tensile and compressive stresses and the core
carries the transverse forces as constant shear stresses .
7.4.2 Stresses and strains for non-symmetrical cross-sections
In engineering applications also sandwich beams with dissimilar faces are used, Fig .
7.11. The first moment of area is zero when integrated over the entire cross-section
•
e
11' = J,(2)~ X3
£ (2)
d x2 N.A.
• 11(1 )
•
b
Fig. 7.11. Definition of the neutral axis (N.A.) of an unsymmetrical sandwich: X3 = x; + e
and X3 is the coordinate from the neutral axes
! E(X3)X3bdx3 = 0 (7.4.20)
The location of neutral axis is unknown . With the coordinate transformation x 3 =

X3 - e from a known axis of the cross-section the equation above becomes
S(X3) = ! E(X3)X3bdx3 = ! E(x3 + e)bdx3 = 0, e! Edx3 = - ! EX3dx3
For the sandwich cross-section, Fig. 7.11, follows

e (E(1)h(l) + E(2)h(2) + E(3)h(3))
= E(1)h(l) (~h(l) + h(2) + ~h(3)) + ~ E(2)h(2) (h(2) + h(3))
and we get an equation for the unknown value e
E(1)h(l) (h(l) + 2h(2) + h(3)) + E(2)h(2) (h(2) + h(3))
e= (7.4.21)
2 (E(1)h(1) + E(2)h(2) + E(3)h(3))
Ifthe core is weak, E(2) « (E(1), E(3») we have approximately

E(l)h(1)d E(3)h(3)d
e=
E(1)h(1) + E(3)h(3) or d - e = E(1)h(1) + E(3)h(3)' (7.4.22)
where d = !h(l) + h(2) + !h(3) .

The bending stiffness 0 = f E(X3)X~bdx3 yields in the general case
0= -.!-. [E(1)(h(1»)3 + E(2)(h(2»)3 + E(3)(h(3»)3]

12
+ E(l)h(l)(d - e)2 + E(3 )h(3)e2 + E(2)h(2)
["2. 1+ ] 2
(h(2) h(3») - e
(7.4.23)
and can be simplified for E(2) « (E(1), E(3») but thick faces as
E(1)(h(1))3 E(3)(h(3»)3 E(1)h(1)E(3)h(3)d 2
D >=:;j 12 + 12 + E(1)h(l) + E(3)h(3) (7.4.24)
For thin faces the first two terms vanish

E(1) h(l) E(3) h(3)d 2
D >=:;j 0 0
= E(1)h(1) + E(3)h(3) (7.4.25)
Now the bending and shearing stresses can be calculated in the usual way
(7.4.26)
For sandwich beams with weak core and thin but dissimilar faces the stress formulas
are approximately
(T(3) == (Til >=:;j M ElI e = ~

1 1 0 bhild'
(1) _ h Eh M (7.4.27)
(T1 = (T1 >=:;j -MV(d - e) = - bhh d'
T(2) == TC >=:;j ~, T(3) = T(l) a>=:;j
7.4.3 Governing Sandwich beam equations
The following derivations assumed, as generally in Chap. 7, straight beams with at

least single symmetric constant cross-sections which are rectangular, i.e we consider
single core sandwich beams. The faces can be thin or thick and symmetrical or non-
symmetrical. The bending moment's and axial forces act in the plane of symmetry
(Xl - X3) . The influence of transverse shear deformation is included, because the
core of sandwich beams has a low transverse modulus of rigidity Gl3 . The shear
correction factor kS is determined approximately for sandwich beams with thin cover
sheets with the Reuss formula (7.4.1), or more generally using equivalent shear
strain energy, i.e the potential energy of the applied load equals the strain energy
of the beam to account for the nonuniform shear distribution through the thickness .
The shear deformation theory (Sect. 7.3) is valid and we can adapt the equations of
this section to the special case of sandwich beams.
The strains £1 and £s == l' are given, (7.3.2), as
du d~ dw
£1 = -d + X3 - r 'Y = -d +~
xl d Xl Xl
With
All = A, 1311 = B, 0 11 = 0, J<S A ss = 5 (7.4.28)
the constitutive equations (7.2.12), (7.2.13) yield
[ ~] = [~ ~~] [ ~;
Q 005 w'+~
] (7.4.29)
For static loading q(X1) :F O,n(xI) == a the equilibrium equation s are as in the
classical beam theory, Table 7.1,
N' = 0, Q' +q = 0, M'- Q =a (7.4.30)
If N == a the neutral axes position x~· A . is constant along the length of the beam
and is given by
£1(x~·A .) = U' + x~.A. ~' = 0, N = Au' + B~' = a
x3N .A . -
u' = AB
- -~,
(7.4.31)
Thus, if the stiffness A, B, 0, 5 are constant, the substitution of Eq. (7.4.29) into
(7.4.30) yields the following two governing differential equations for sandwich
beams
OR~"(xd - 5[W'(Xl) + ~ ( xd ] = 0,
(7.4.32)
5[W"(Xl) + ~'( XI)] = -q(xd
with OR = 0 - (B 2/ A) . Derivation of the first equation and setting in the second
equation yield
OR~III(Xl) = - q(X1) (7.4.33)
and with
M' = Q = S(w' +~), M = Bu' + OR~', M ' = BU" + OR~"
fol1ow
1
W'(XI) = -~(Xl) + _(BU"
S
+ OR~")
For symmetrical cross-sections is B = 0, OR = O. In the general case, if all stiff-
ness are constant and unequal zero the substitution of (7.4.4) into (7.4.5) yields the
governing simultaneous differential equations for unsymmetrical sandwich beams
DRt/J"(X1) - S[w'(xt} + t/J(X1)] = 0, DR = D - (~)

S(w"(xt} + t/J'(xt}) = -q(xt} (7.4.34)
u'(xt} = - ~ t/J'(X1)
Derivation of the first equation and setting in the second equation yield one uncou-
pled equation for t/J(XI)
D Rt/JIII(X1) = -q(XI) (7.4.35)
The constitutive equations (7.4.4) give the relations

M(X1) = Bu'(xt} + Dt/J'(XI), Q(XI) = S[W'(XI) + t/J(XI)] (7.4.36)
and with
M'(xt} = Q(xt} = Bu"(xt} + Dt/J"(XI), u'(xt} = - ~ t/J'(XI)

follow
W'(X1) = -t/J(X1) + ~[BU"(X1) + DRt/J"(Xt}] = -t/J(xt} + ~Rt/J"(XI) (7.4 .37)
Thus we have three uncoupled differential equations:

DRt/J III(X 1) = -q(XI),
w'(xd = -t/J(XI) + ~Rt/J"(xt}, (7.4.38)
B
u'(xt} = A t/J'(XI)
For symmetrically cross-sections is B == 0, DR == D and the differential equations
reduce to
Dt/J"'(xt} = -q(xd,
W'(X1) = -t/J(XI) + ~ t/J"(XI)),
(7.4.39)
M(X1) = Dt/J'( xd or t/J ' (
Xl
) M(XI)
=----;;vr-
Eefl
Q(xd = Dt/J"(xt} or M'(XI) = S(W'(XI) + t/J(xt})
The equations (7.4.39) correspond to the equations (7.3.10) of the laminated beam
and the analytical solutions (7.3.11), (7.3.12) can be transposed with D l l = D,
k S Ass = S. In dependence of the calculation of the stiffness D and 5 the equation
are valid for sandwich beams with thin or thick faces .
The stresses 0"1 and T can be calculated with the help of the stress formulas
derived in Sects 7.4.1 and 7.4.2. For statically determinate structures, M(xt} and
Q(XI) can be calculated with the equilibrium equations and the last two equations
(7.4 .39) can directly used for static calculations.
We consider as an example the cantilever beam, Fig. 7.12, then:
X3
F
II!
:;
~ T
~
/ J,J " : ~ d XI
/ /1
r
Fig. 7.12. Symmetrical cantilever beam with thin faces
we have
E!hfd 2
D = Do = b 2 ' S = kSGcbd
and the stresses are
! _ E! d _ M _ F(l - xd C Q F !
er - ±M D"2 - ± bdh! - ± bdh! T = bd = - bd' erc =T =0
Consider w(l) = wB(l) + wS(I) it can be seen that the shear deformation strongly
depends on I and S. It is important for short and shear weak beams and negligible
for slender shear stiff beams.
Summarizing the aspects of sandwich beams it could be demonstrated in the
static case that the shear deformation theory for laminated beams is valid for sand-
wich beams, if the stiffness A 11,1311 and D 11 of a laminated beam are replaced by
the stiffness A, B, 0 and S, Eq. (7.4.3), of the sandwich beam . The same conclusion
is valid not only for bending but also for buckling and vibration and for differential
and variational formulations. In this way all formulas (7.3.19) to (7.3.23) can easy
transposed to symmetrically sandwich beams.
In the considerations above we have assumed that the effect of core transverse
deformabi1ity is negligible on the bending, vibration and the overall buckling of
sandwich beams. But in a special case of buckling, called face wrinkling the trans-
verse normal stiffness of the core has an important influence. Wrinkling is a form
of local instability of thin faces associated with short buckling waves. This phe-
nomenon was not discussed here.
7.5 Hygrothermo-Elastic Effects on Beams
In Sects 7.2 and 7.4 the effect of mechanical loads acting upon fibre reinforced
beams with E1(X21 X3) = E1(-X21 X3) and laminated or sandwich beams was con-
sidered. The considerations for laminated beams as derived are valid in the frame-
work of the classical laminate theory, Sect. 7.2, and of the first order shear deforma-
tion theory, Sect. 7.3. Sect. 7.4 considered some special aspects of sandwich beams
with thin or thick cover sheets and different stiffness of the core.
In the present section the effects of hygrothermally induced strains, stresses and
displacements are examined. We assume a moderate hygrothermalloading such that
the mechanical properties remain unchanged for the temperature and moisture dif-
ferences considered.
With Eqs. (4.2.62) to (4.2.67) the beam equations (7.2.1) have additional terms
0"1 (X21 X3)
£1 (X3) = t1 + X3 K1 = E1 ( X2, X3 ) (7.5.1)
+ [a th(X21 x3)T(X21X3) + a mo(X21 x3)M* (X21 X3)],
0"1 (X21 X3) = E1(X21 X3)[t1 + X3 K1 (7.5.2)
- ath(X2IX3)T(X2IX3) -a mo(X2I X3)M*(X2I X3)]
a th a mo are the thermal and moisture expansion coefficients, T the temperature

I
change and M* the weight of moisture absorption per unit weight. Equations (7.2.4)
have now additional terms Nth I N moIM thI M mo, the so-called fictitious hygrother-
mal resultants, (4.2.66), and with
N=N+Nth+Nmo, M=M+Mth+M mo (7 .5.3)
the extended hygrothermal constitutive equation for the composite beam are
(7.5.4)
The stress formula (7.2.6) yields with Eq. (7.2.5)

(dN - bM) + (aM - bN)X3
0"1 (X21 X3) = ad _ b2 E1(X21 X3)
(7.5.5)
- E1(X21 X3) [athT + a moM*]
For double symmetric cross-sectional geometry the coupling coefficient is zero and
the stress equation can be simplified.
For uniform fibre distribution, i.e. 4J = canst, (7.2.9) follow for a, b, d and the
stress relations for fibres and matrices material are
rTf(x3) = (N / A + X3M/ I) (Ef / EI ) - Ef(a:thT + a: moM*),
(7.5.6)
rTm(X3 ) = (N/A+X3M/I)(E m/E I) -Em(a:thT+a:moM*)
With Ef = Em = EI = E comes the stress equation for isotropic beams with
mechanical and hygrothermalloadings
N M
rT(X3) = - + X3- - E(a:thT + a: moM*) (7.5.7)
A I
For laminate or sandwich beam s the developments are similar. All problems are
linear and the principle of superposition is valid and can be used to calculate the
hygrothermal effects . Consider for example a symmetric laminate beam in the frame
of the classical laminate theory and include hygrothermalloads, (7.2.27 yield
,....(k) = E(k)
VI I
---.!!-
EN A
+ x M _ E(k) (N th(k)T(k) + Nmo (k )M*(k))
3 EM I I "- "- (7.5.8)
eff eff
The differential equations for deflection and midplane displacement of a symmetric
laminated beam are
[Dllw"(xdJ" = q(XI) - Mth(xd' - Mmo(xd',
(7.5.9)
[Allu'xdJ' = -n(xI) + Nth(xd - N mo(xd
In an analogous manner the differential equations including shear deformation can
be found. The differenti al equation for a symmetric Timoshenko's beam with lateral
loading and hygrothermal effects follow s with (7.3.10)
[Dll1/J~ (xdl" = -q(XI ) + M th(xd' + Mmo(xd' (7.5.10)
k
The relation for the layer stresses rTi ) are identical to the classical theory. The trans-
verse shear stresses rT~k) are not changed by hygrothermal effects.
7.6 Analytical Solutions

The differential equations for bending, vibration and buckling of symmetric lam-
inated beams loaded orthogonally to the plane of lamination are summarized by
(7.2.33) to (7.2.35) for the classical Bernoulli 's beam theory and by (7.3.21) to
(7.3.23) for the Timoshenko's beam theory including transverse shear deformation.
All stiffness and material parameters are constant values .
The simplest problem is the analysis of bending. The general solution of the
differential equation of 4th order (7.2.33) for any load q(Xl) is given by
bDllw(Xl) == bDllWB(xd
= C16 xf + Cz2xi + C3Xl + C4 + fff! q(xddxl dXl dXl dx, (7.6.1)
The general solution of the Timo shenko 's beam is given by (7.3.12) in the form
w(xd = wB(xd + wS(xd. The correction term WS(Xl ) describes the influence of
the shear deformation and it decreases with increasing shear stiffness k S Ass.
The free vibration of Bernoulli's beams is modelled by (7.2.34), rotatory inertia
term s are neglected. The parti al differential equation
a4W(Xl , t) + pA a2 W(Xl , t) = 0 (7.6.2 )

axi bOll at2
can be separated with W(Xl' t) = W(xl)T(t) and yield s
WIII/(xdT(t) = - :O~l W(xdt(t) (7.6.3)
or
t(t) pA Wf/f/(xd 2
--=--- =-w (7.6.4)
T(t) »o..
W(Xl)
We get two differential equations
t(t) + wT(t) = 0, (7.6.5)
with the solutions

T (t ) = Acoswt +Bsin wt,
W(xd = Cl cos ~Xl + C2 sin ~Xl

(7.6.6)
+ C3 cosh ~Xl + C4 sinh ~XI,
( TA)4= pA
bOll w
2
The vibration mode is periodic, and w is called the natural circul ar frequency. The
mode shapes depend on the boundary conditions of the beam. Consider, for exam-
ple, a simply supported beam , we have W(O) = Wf/(O) = W(l) = Wf/(l) = 0 and
therefore Cl = C3 = C4 = 0 and C2 sin(A/I)1 = C2 sin A = 0, which implies
that
A = ntt,
Wrz
= (nrr)2
1 Vrw;;
fJA (7.6 .7)
For each n there is a different natural frequency and a different mode shape. The
lowest natural frequenc y, corre sponding to n = 1, is termed the fundamental fre-
quen cy. If the laminate beam is unsymmetric to the middle surface, i.e. Bll :f. 0,
then 0 11 in Eq. (7.6.7) can be appro ximatel y replaced by (A ll 0 11 - BIl )/A ll ,
the so called reduced or apparent flexural stiffness .
Including shear deformation effects, i.e. using the Timoshenko vibration equa-
tion (7.3 .22), involves considerable analytical complications. To prove whether
7.7 Problems 239
the transverse shear deformation can be important for the natural frequencies,
we compare the natural frequencies for a simply supported Bernoulli and Timo-
shenko beam . Using (7.3.22) the boundary conditions for the Timoshenko beam are
w(O, t) = w(1, t) = lPI (0, t) = 0/1 (1, t) = 0 and by introducing
. . nnx1 . nnx1
w = Asmwtsm -1-' 0/1 = Bsmwtcos -1-'
in Eqs . (7.3.22) we can calculate the natural frequencies
wn
2 = n
4n4
pA
bOn j
14
(1 + n20nn2)
12ks Ass '
pA == Po (7.6.8)
i.e.
W n -- wBernoulli
n
Transverse shear deformation reduces the values of vibration frequencies. As in

the case of static bending the influence of shear on the values of vibration frequen-
cies depends on the ratio EdG 13 == EdEs and the ratio l jh, i.e the span length
between the supports to the total thickness of the laminate. For more general bound-
ary conditions we can develop a mode shape function similar to (7.6.6).
In an analogous way, one can show that the buckling loads for a simply sup-
ported Bernoulli and Timoshenko beam with a compression load F follow from
(7.2.35) and (7.3.23) and are
_ n 2 b0 11
F.cr - [2
(Minimum Euler load, Bernoulli beam)
1 (7.6.9)
1 + n2011
12ks Ass
(Minimum buckling load, Timoshenko beam)
The buckling loads for clamped beams or beams with more general boundary con-
ditions can be calculated analytically analogous to eigenfrequencies of vibration
problems.
For non constant cross-section, stiffness or material parameters there are no ex-
act analytical solutions. Approximate analytical solutions can be found with the
help of the Rayleigh-Ritz procedure. In Sect. 7.7 exact and approximate analytical
solution procedures are illustrated for selected beam problems.
7.7 Problems
1. A reinforced concrete beam is loaded by a bending moment M (Fig. 7.13). It is

assumed that the concrete has zero strength in tension so that the entire tensile
xi ermmax -1 cI.!,axbaJz b
2 m
Xl
h
A A
all
---.
•
+-
Ac == Am
r
(II - aJz)
M
(Jz - a;, )
I
" ••••••
Fig. 7.13. Reinforced concrete beam loaded by pure bending
load associated with the bending momen t is carried by the steel reinforcement.
Calculate the stresses O"m(X3) and O"f(X 3) in the concrete part (Am, Em) and the
steel reinforcements (A I: E f)'
Solution:
The neutral axis xl of the beam is in an unknown distance IXh from the top,
A c == A m is the effective area of the concrete above the xl -axis. The strains
will vary linearly from the xl-axis and the stresses will equal strain times the
respective moduli. The stress resultant N (x I) must be zero
1
O"fA f - "2O"m(lXh)blXh = 0, O"m(lXh) = O";::ax
With (7.2.1) follows
O"f = (h - IXh)KIE j, O"m(lXh) = IXhKIE m
t .e ,
or
1
1X= -( -1+Vl+2m) ,
m
Now the bending moment is with
1 2 2
O"fA f = "2O"mbh IX
M= (O"fA f) (h - a;) = O"fAfh (1 - ~ )

= KIEfAj(h-~h) (h-~)
The maximal stress in the concrete is
7.7 Problems 241
.l .l
..::IM
..::: ..::..,
I
I
, , ..:: IM
L
....
Fig. 7.14. Simply supported cross-ply laminated beam [0/90/0]
EmlXh
CTm(lXh) = -K1 1XhEm = M Ef Af (h -lXh)(h _ IXhj3)
and the reinforcement stress is
M
CTf = K1(h -lXh)Ef = Af(h -lXhj3)
2. A symmetric cross-ply laminate beam is shown in Fig. 7.14. The material prop-
erties and the geometry are defined by
E~ = 17, 2410 4 MPa, E~ = 0,689510 4 MPa,
Gb = Gb = 0,3448 10 4 MPa, G~3 = 0,1379 10 4 MPa, = 0,25, vb
L = 240 mm, b = 10 mm, h(1) = h(Z) = h(3) = 8 mm, h = 24 mm,
qo = 0,6895 N/mm
Calculate a approximative solution using the Timoshenko beam model and two
one-term Ritz procedures.
Solution:
x1°]= - 12 mm, x11] = -4 mm, x1Z] = 4 mm, x1 3
] = 12 mm
The shear correction factor can be calculated with Eq. (7.3.20) to kS = 0,569 .
The bending stiffness D11 and the shear stiffness k S Ass follow with Eq. (7.3.3)
D11 = ~[E1 (( _4)3 - (-12)3) + Ez(4 3 - (_4)3) + E1 (12 3 - 4 3)]
= 1,92 109 Nmmz,
kSAss = kSb[G128 + GZ38 + G128] = 3,76 lOsN
The variational formulation for a lateral loaded symmetric laminate beam is
given with (7.3.15)
-I o
qo sin C )w
T2
dXI
The essential boundary conditi ons are

W(Xl = 0) = 0, W(XI = L) = 0, tp'(XI = 0) = 0, tp'(XI = L) = 0
The approx imate function s are
W(XI) = al sin
r
C2),
and it follows
-
tu«, - = 2
tp) 1 I L
[-
0 11 (
». IIT) 2 s in 2 IlTXl
o
+ - (
JcS A ss bl cos IlTXl + al IIT cos IlTXI ) 2] d XI
L
-I o
qo sin (
lT
2)( al sin lT~1 ) dXI = fI (al , h)
With (2.2.41) must be er: /aal = 0, ett /abl = 0 which yields the two equa-
tions
( kSD~ l ~ + ~) bl +
Ass L IT
al = 0,
IT qaL
bl + I al = kS A sslT
and the solution for the unknown parameters aI , bl
4 2)
qOL ( 011 lT
a l = 011 lT4 1+ ksA L2 '
ss
qoL 3
h = - - - - -3
°lllT
The approximate solutions are now
4 - 2
_ qoL ( 0 11 IT ) . lTXI
w(xd = 011 lT4 1 + ks A L2 sm I '
s5
_ qoL3 lTXI
tp(xd = -----cos -
0 11 lT3 L
Note that
7.7 Problems 243
lOmax = lO (Xl =~) = J~~~ (1 + k~l~5 ~:)

The transverse deflection consists of two parts
-B qoL4 . nXl . .
W (x d = D n4 Sin L (bendmg deflections),
11 4 - 2
lOS(Xl) = 30L D~l ~ sin nXl
D 11 n4 kSA55 L2 L
For k A55 -t 00 follows lOs -t 0, i.e. lOB(Xl) is the solution of the Bernoulli
S
beam model and we found
wTimoshenko = k l wBernoulli
with
Dll n 2
kl = 1 + k s A L2 = 1,875
55
For the laminate beam with hfl: = 1/10 the Bernoulli model cannot be ac-
cepted, the relative error for the maximum value of the deflection is 46,7 %.
Equations (7.3.10) lead
-
M max =M -( = 2"L) = --:;[2
xl
qo = L
2
12,64Nm,
- -
Qmax = Q(XI = 0) = -qoL
tt
= 52,67N
The strains £1 follow from Eqs. (7.3.1) or (7.3.2) and (7.3.10)
£l(Xl) = x3tjJ'(xd = x3Kl = X3M(Xl)/D ll
£1 (xd is linear distributed across h and we calculate the following values for
the cross-section Xl = L/2
£~3) (Xl = ~,x~31) = 2,5110- 5, £~3) (Xl = ~,x~21) = 0,8410- 5

The bending stresses tTl (Xl, X3) in the 3 layers are for Xl = L/2 and x3 = x~k)
oP) (x~3») = £1 (x~3»)E~ = 4,327 MPa,

oP)(xf») = £1(x~2»)E~ = 1,448 MPa,
of)(x~2)) = £l(xf»)E~ = 0,579 MPa,
iT~2)(0) = £l(O)E~ = 0 MPa
3. Find the analytical solution for the natural vibrations of a simply supported
symmetric laminate or sandwich beam. Test the influence of the transverse
shear deformation and the rotatory inertia upon the natural frequencies.
Solution:
Starting point are the (7.3.22) with q(Xl, t) = 0 and the boundary conditions
w(O, t) = w(l, t) = 0, 1//(0, t) = 1//(1, t) = 0
For a simply supported beam we can assume the periodic motion in the form
W(Xl, t) = W(Xl) sinwt, t/Jl(Xl, t) = If(xd sinwt
These functions are substituted in (7.3.22)
kS Ass[W"(xd + If'(xd] + POWZW(Xl) = 0,
.011 If''(Xl) - kS AsS[W'(Xl) + If(Xl)] + PZWZlf(Xl) = 0
Now we can substitute
i.e.
Z
If'(Xl) = -kPoA~ W(Xl) - W"(Xl)
S ss
into the derivative of the second equation and we find
.0
11
W""(x)
1
+ (Dl~PO
k S Ass
+ PZ) wZW"(x )
1
WZjYZ)
(1- k POWZW(Xl) = 0
sAss
or
aW"" (Xl) + bW" (xd - cW(xd = 0
with the coefficients
b = ( kS Ass
.011 Pz)
+ Po PoW,
Z c= (1- -kSA-Z)
W PZ
- Pow
ss
Z
The linear differential equation of 4th order has constant coefficients and the
general solutions follow with the solutions Ai of the bi-quadratic characteristic
equation
aA4 - bAZ - c = 0
i.e. (2aAz - b)z = bZ + 4ac
Al - 4 . / ~(b ± Vb Z + 4ac)
=±V 2a
W(Xl) = Cl sin AlXl + Cz cos AZXl + C3sinh A3Xl + C4 cosh A4Xl
For a simply supported beam the boundary conditions are
W(O) = 0, W(L) = 0, If'(O) = 0, If'(L) = 0
or the equivalent equations
7.7 Problems 245
W(O) = 0, W(L) = 0, W"(O) = 0, W"(L) = 0

The boundary conditions lead to the result C2 C3 = C4 = 0 and
C1 sin AIL = 0 which implies
nn
A1n = L = An
The bi-quadratic equation can be written alternatively in terms of W
Aw 4 - Bw 2 + C =0
with
P2
A= -_-,
kSAss
°
B= [1 + ( kSA21ss + Po
P2) A2] ,
i.e. the roots of the equation are
(w2h /2 = 2~ (B ± VB2 - 4AC)
It can be shown that B2 - 4AC > O. Therefore the frequency given by

-..J B2 - 4A C is the smaller of the two roots .
When the rotatory inertia is neglected follows A == 0 and the frequency is given
by
W
2 C
=-
B
with
B = 1+ °21
kSA ss A
2
,
and for ASAss -+ 00 follow with B -+ 1 the natural frequency for the Bernoulli
beam model. Substitute An = nnf l. for the simply supported beam we obtain
the results:
General case
2 _
Wn -
k8 Ass
~
[1 + (° 11 P2) (nn)2
JC2A; + P; L
[
1+ °
( S 21 + P2) (nn)2] 2 _ 4~
k Ass Po L
0 11 (nn)4
kSAss Po L
Rotatory inertia neglected (P2 == 0)

Classical beam theory (kS Ass -+ 00, PZ = 0)
Z (nn)4 ['hI
w =
n L Po
Conclusion : (wJimoshenko)Z < (w~emoulli)z, i.e. the shear deformation
decreases the frequencies of natural vibration. In the case of classical beam
theory with rotatory inertia (k S Ass -+ 0, Pz f:. 0) we have A = 0, B =
1 + ;"zpz/Po, C = ;..4[)11/ Po, i.e.
~
w; (";)' ~:' (1+ (~)' ~)
and we see that also the rotatory inertia decreases the eigenfrequencies. All for-
mulas can be used for computing natural frequencies for all symmetric laminate
and sandwich beams . The values for L, Po, PZ, k", [)111 Ass correspond to the
special beam model. Note that the classical laminate theory and the neglecting
of rotatory inertia lead to a overestimation of the natural frequencies .
4. Calculate the buckling load of a simply supported and a clamped symmetric
laminate or sandwich beam. Compare the results for the classical beam theory
and the beam theory including shear deformation .
Solution :
Staring point are Eqs. (7.3.23) with N(Xl) = -F, i.e.
[) (1 - --!-)
11 k Ass w""(x ) + Fw"(x ) 0
S 1 1
=
or
kZ = F
[)11 (1 - --!-)
kSA
ss
,
The linear differential equation with constant coefficients has the characteristic
equation
;..4 +kZ;"Z = 0 => ;..Z(;..Z +kZ) = 0
with the four roots
;"1/Z = 0, ;"3/4 = ±ik
and the general solution is

W(Xl) = C1sinkx1 +Czcoskx 1 +C3Xl +C4
a) Simply supported beam
Boundary conditions are w(O) = w(L) = 0, w" (0) = to" (L) = 0, which
leads the constants Cz = C3 = C4 = 0 and for C1 f:. 0 follows sin kL = 0
7.7 Problems 247
implie s kL = n rt, k = n n / L. Substituting k into the equation for F we

obtain
F = (nn)2
L 0 11 [ JcS Ass
nit 2
]
k S
Ass + ( L) 0 11
_ (nn)2 0_11 [1-

- L
0 11 c;) 2 /JcS Ass ]
2
1 + 0 11 (n;)
/ks Ass
The critic al buckling load Fer is given for the minimum (n = 1)
F= (I)2 0 11 [ - - - ; : ; - - /- ]
1+ (I)
011/ JcS Ass
For the classical beam model is kS Ass -+ 00 and we obtain
F= (I) 2 1511
b) At both ends fixed beam (clamped beam)
Now we have the boundary conditions
w(O) = w(L) = 0, 0/(0) = o/(L) = 0
From (7.3.23) follows
kSA sS[W"(Xl) + tp'(Xl))- Fw"(Xl) = 0,
011tp"(Xl) - kSAsS[W'(Xl) + tp(XI)) =0
The first equation yields
kSAsstp' (xd = -(k5 Ass - F)w" (Xl),
kSA sstp(xd = _(kSAss - F)w'(xd + KI
The boundary conditions lead the equations
C2 + C4 = 0, C1 sinkL + C2 coskL + C3L + C4 = 0,
- (1 - 2-)
kSAss
kC I - C3 = 0,
- (1- ksAss
~ )\ (kCI coskL - kC2sinkL) - C3 = 0.
Note that
F 15 11
k2 - 1 +k2 15!1 =
(
1- ksAss
F) 0-11 ,
kSAss
i.e.
l __F ) _ 1
( Sk Ass - 1 + k2 O! 1 '
kSAss
expressing C4 and C3 in terms of CI and C2 and setting the determinant of
the remaining homogeneous algebraic equations zero we obtain the buck-
ling equation
2(coskL -1) (1 + ~:~;;) +kLsinkL = 0

With kS Ass ---+ 0 follows the buckling equation for the classical beam
ALsinkL + 2coskL - 2 = 0
Conclusion : Transverse shear deformation has the effect of decreasing the
buckling loads, i.e. the classical laminate theory overestimates buckling
loads. The buckling equations can be applied to all symmetric laminate
and sandwich beams if the corresponded material and stiffness values are
calculated and substituted.
5. A sandwich beam is modelled by the laminated beam version and the shear de-
formation theory. Consider the variational formulation for applied distributed
transverse loading and calculate the Euler differential equation and the bound-
ary conditions.
Solution :
The elastic potential IT(u, w, tp) for unsymmetrical laminated beams is given
by Eq. (7.3.16). Using the notations for the stiffness of sandwich beams, Sect.
7.4, we have
I I
II(u, w, tp) = ~ f [Au'2 + 2Bu'tf/ + Dtp,2 + S(w' + tp)2] dxl - f qwdxl

o 0
Taking the variation i5IT = 0 one can write the following equation
I
i5IT = f {Au'i5u' + B(u'i5tp' + tp'i5u') + Dtp'i5tp'

o
I
+ S[(w' + tp)i5w' + (w' + tp)i5tp]} d Xl - f qi5wd xl = 0

o
Integrating by parts, i.e
I I
fo j'g'dx = [j'g]b - f
0
f"gdx
yield
I
f {(Au" + Btp")i5u + [Bu" + Dtp" - S(w' + tp)]i5tp

o
+S[(w" + tp') + q]i5W}dXl - [(Au' + Btp')i5u]b
-[(Bu' + Dtp')i5tp]b - S[(w' + tp)i5w]b = 0
and the associated differential equations and boundary conditions are
Au" + Btp" = 0, Bu" + Dtp" - S(w' + tp) = 0, S(w" + tp') + q = 0
7.7 Problems 249
Putting in u" = -(B/ A)tjJ" into the second equation yield
(D- ~) tjJ" - S (w' + tjJ) =0

and we obtain the differential equations (7.4.32)
DRtjJ" - Sew' + tjJ) = 0, S(w" + tjJ) = -q
The boundary conditions for xl = 0, I are
u=O or Au' + BtjJ' = N = 0
tjJ=O or Bu' + DtjJ' = M = 0
w=O or Sew' +tjJ) = Q = 0
u, tjJ, w represent the essential and N, M, Q the natural boundary conditions of
the problem . For symmetric sandwich beams the equations can be simplified:
B = O,DR = D.
6. A sandwich beam is modelled by the differential equations and boundary con-
ditions of problem 5. Calculate the exact solution for a simply supported beam
with q(xd = qo, N(Xl) = O.
Solution:
The boundary conditions are:
w(O) = w(l) = 0, M(O) = M(l) = 0
Using the equations (7.4.38)
DRtjJlI/(Xl) = -qo,
tjJ
"()
Xl
qoxl
= - DR + C1, tjJ
'()
Xl
qoxi
= - 2DR + clXl + c2,
qox3 x 12
tjJ(Xl) = - 6D~ + Cl 2 + C2 Xl + C3,
tjJ'(O) = 0::;. C2 = o,tjJ'(l) = 0::;. Cl = 2q~~,
, DR" qoXf qoIxi qo ( I\
w (Xl) = -tjJ(Xl) + stjJ = 6DR - 4D
R
+ C3 - 5 Xl - 2) ,
W(Xl) = 2:~R (xi - 2Ixf) + C3 Xl - i~ (xi - IXl) ,
qoI3
w(l)= 0::;. C3 = 24DR'
w(xd = 2:~R (xi - 2Ixf + I3Xl) + i~ (Ix 1 - xi) ,
U
'(Xl
)= - A
B tjJ ' ( ) B qo (xl2 - IXI ) ,
Xl = A 2D
R
B qo 3
u(xd = A 12D (2x l - 3Ixl) + C4,
R
u(O) = 0 ::;. C4 = 0
For symmetrical beams the solution simplified with B = 0, DR = D to
[4 [2
qo (-4 2-3 qo (- -2)
W(
Xl) = 240 xl - Xl + -)
Xl + 2S Xl - Xl
= wB(xd + WS(XI),
qO[3 -2-3
t/J(XI) = 240(-1+ 6x l - 4x I )
U(XI) == 0, Xl = x]!
8. Modelling and Analysis of Plates
The modelling and analysis of plates constituted of laminate or sandwich material is

a problem of more complexity than that of beams, con sidered in Chap. 7. Gener ally,
plates are two-dimen sional thin structure elements with a plane middle surface. The
thickne ss h is small relatively to the two other dimen sions a, b (Fig. 8.1). In Chap . 8
all derivatives are as a matter of priority restricted to rectangular plates including the
special case of a plate strip, i.e. a rectangular plate element which is very long, for
instance in the x2-direction and has finite dimension in the x l -direction. When the
transverse plate loading , the plate stiffness, and the boundary conditions for the plate
edges xl = const are independent of the coordinate x2, the plate strip modelling
can be reduced to a one-dimensional problem . The analysi s is nearly the same as
in the beam theory. Chapter 8 gives a first introduction to the classical plate theory
and the plate theory including transverse shear deformations. The derivations of the
principal equations for plates relies upon the basic considerations of Chap. 5.
a b
X2
>
X2
Fig. 8.1. Rectangular plate. a Geometry, b force resultants N il N z, N6' Q}, Qz and moment
resultants M} , M2, M6 . N n, N« , Qn and M n, M nt are force and moment resultants for an
oblique edge
252 8. Modelling and Analysis of Plates
8.1 Introduction
In the theory of plate bending the most complex problem is the modelling and anal-
ysis of laminate plates with an arbitrary stacking of the layers. These plates present
couplings of stretching and bending, stretching and twisting and bending and twist-
ing and the design engineer has to look for simplifications .
The first and most important simplification is to design symmetric laminates
for which no coupling exists between in-plane forces and flexural moments. The
coupling terms Bij of the constitutive equations vanish. An additional simplifica-
tion occurs when no bending-twisting coupling exist, i.e the terms D16 and D 26 are
zero. As we discussed in Sect. 4.2, in some cases of layer stacking these coupling
terms decrease with an increasing number of layers . Symmetric laminates for which
no bending-twisting coupling exists are referred to as specially orthotropic lami-
nates. These laminates are considered in detail in this chapter, because analytical
solutions exist for various loadings and boundary conditions . Specially orthotropic
plates are obtained for single layer plates with orthotropic material behavior or sym-
metric cross-ply laminates . Symmetric balanced laminates with a great number of
layers have approximately a specially orthotropic behavior. This class of laminates
is greatly simplified and will be used to gain a basic understanding of laminate plate
response. Like in Chap. 7 for beams , we consider the plates in the framework of the
classical and the first order shear deformation theory. For a better understanding the
assumptions of both plate theories given in Sects 5.1 and 5.2 are reviewed.
The first order shear deformation theory accounted for a constant state of trans-
verse shear stresses, but the transverse normal stress is often neglected . In the frame-
work of this plate theory, the computation of interlaminar shear stresses through
constitutive equations is possible , which is simpler than deriving them through equi-
librium equations .
The most significant difference between the classical and first-order shear defor-
mation theory is the effect of including transverse shear deformation in the predic-
tion of deflections, frequencies or buckling loads . It can be noted that the classical
laminate theory underestimates deflections and overestimates frequencies as well as
buckling loads when the plate side-to-thickness ratio is of the order 20 or less. For
this reason it is necessary to include shear deform ation for moderately thick plates.
In general, moderately thick plates must be computed by numerical methods , ap-
plication of analytical methods are much more restricted than in the classical plate
theory.
8.2 Classical Laminate Theory
In the classical laminate theory one presumes that the Kirchhoff hypotheses of the
classical plate theory remains valid:
• Transverse normals before deformation remain straight after deformation and ro-
tate such that they remain normal to the middle surface.
-<
a)
Fig. 8.2. Stress resultants applied to a plateelement
• Transverse normals are inextensible, i.e. they have no elongation.

These assumptions imply that the transverse displacement w is independent of the
thickness coordinate X3 , the strains £3, £4 and £5 are zero and the curvatures x, are
given by
a2w a2w a2w ]

[Kl K2 K6] = -- - - -2-- (8.2.1)
[ ax? ax~ aXl aX2
Figure 8.1 shows the plate geometry and the plate stress resultants. The equilibrium
equations will be formulated for a plate element dx, dX2 (Fig . 8.2) and yield three
force and two moments equations
/ aNI + aN6 = -PI,

aXl aX2
aN6 aN2
-+ - + - = -P2,
aXl aX2
t aQl + aQ2 = - P3, .

(8.2.2)
aXl aX2
aMI aM6 _ Q
-+ a Xl + a
X2
-I,
/ aM 6 + aM2 = Q2
aXl aX2
The transverse shear force resultants Ql, Q2 can be eliminated and the five equa-
tions (8.2.2) reduce to three equations . The in-plane force resultants N l , N2 and N6
are uncoupled with the moment resultants M l, M 2 and M6
aNI aN6 aN6 aN2

- + - = -PI, - + - = - P 2 ,
aXI aX2 aXI aX2
2M 2M 2M (8.2.3)
a I +2 a 6 + a 2 = -P3
aXfaXIaX2 ax~
The equations are independent of material laws and present the static equations for
the undeformed plate element. The further considerations neglect the in-plane plate
loads PI and P2, i.e. PI = P2 = 0, P3 f:. O. In-plane reactions can be caused by
coupling effects of unsymmetric laminates or sandwich plates.
Putting the constitutive equations
[:] = [::J • (8.2.4)
(8.2.5)
(8.2.6)
Equations (8.2.6) are three coupled partial differential equations for the displace-
ments U(XI' X2), V(XI' X2), W(Xl 1 X2). Equation (8.2.6) can be formulated in matrix
form as
[~~~ ~~~ t~] [~]

L31 L32 L33 W
= [.
P
,~] (8.2.7)
The differential operators are given in App. C.

The differential operators L11, L12 and L22 are of second order, L 13 and L23 of
third order and L33 of fourth order. The homogeneous part of the coupled partial
differential equations (8.2.7) can be reduced to one partial equation of eight order
[(L11L2Z - LIz)L33 - (L11L~3 - 2L 12 L13 L23 + LI3L22)]W = 0 (8.2.8)
Consistent with the eight order set of differential equations four boundary conditions
must be prescribed for each edge of the plate. The classical boundary conditions are:
Either
dw dM nt
N n or u, N nt or v, is; or dn' Vn == Qn + ----at or w(8.2.9)
must be specified. The subscripts nand t in the boundary conditions above denote
the coordinates normal and tangential to the boundary . It is well known that in the
classical plate theory the boundary cannot responded separately to the shear force
resultant Qn and the twisting moment M nt but only to the effective or Kirchhoff
shear force resultant
dM nt
Vn == Qn + ----at (8.2.10)
Equations (8.2.9) may be used to represent any form of simple edge conditions, e.g.
clamped , simply supported and free.
The boundary conditions (8.2.9) represent pairs of response variables . One com-
ponent of these pairs involve a force or a moment resultant, the other a displace-
ment or a rotation. Take into account that in addition to the edge conditions it can
be necessary to fulfil the point comer conditions, e.g. for a free comer. Sometimes
more general boundary conditions, which are applicable to edges having elastic con-
straints, are used, e.g. the transverse and/or rotatory plate conditions
dw
Vn ±CTW = 0; Mn ± cR dn = 0 (8.2.11)
CT and cR denote the spring stiffness of the constraints.

In applying the boundary conditions (8.2.9) it is useful to have explicit expres-
sions for the stress resultants in a displacement formulation. According to Eqs .
(8.2.5) and (8.2.4) the stress resultants can be written as
du dV (dU dV)
N 1 = A11::;- + A 12::;- + A 16 ::;- +::;- ,
oX1 oxz oXz oX1
dZW dZW dZW
- B11- - B12- - 2B16---
dXI dX~ dX1dX2
dU dv
Nz = A 12::;- + Azz::;-
Ox! oXz
+ AZ6 (dU dV)
::;- +::;- ,
oXz Ox!
(8.2.12)
a 2v a 3W a 3W a 3W a 3W
+B22 - -20 16 - - (0 12 +40 66 ) - 2 - - 40 26 - - - 0 22 -
2
a X2 3
a X1 a X 1 a X2 2
aX 1a X2 a X 32
The coupled system of three partial differential equations (8.2.6) or (8.2.7), respec-
tively, can be simplified for special layer stacking, Sect. 4.2.3. The differential op-
erators L ij for some special cases are given in Appendix C.
Because all coupling stiffness B ij are zero the in-plane and the out-of-plane
displacement response are uncoupled. With L 13 = L 31 = 0, L 23 = L 32 = 0
Eq. (8.2.7) simplifies to
[ z~~o t~ ~ ] [~]
0 L 33 W
= [ ~
P3
] (8.2.13)
The plate equation reduces to (L 33)W = P3 and corresponds to the plate equa-
tion of an anisotropic homogeneous plate.
The in-plane and the transverse part of Eq. (8.2.7) are coupled, but with A 16 =
A 26 = 0 ,0 16 = 0 26 = 0 the differential operators L ll , L 22 , L 33 and L12 are
reduced. It is no in-plane tension/shearing coupling and no bending/twisting
coupling.
3. Balanced laminates
For general balanced laminates with A 16 = A 26 only the in-plane ten-
sion/shearing coupling is zero, for an antisymmetric balanced laminate we have
A 16 = A 26 = 0 ,0 16 = 0 26 = 0 and for symmetric balanced laminates follow
A 16 = A26 = 0, B ij = O. The last case yields the equations
[t~o Z~~ ~ ] [ ~] ~
0 L 33 W
= [
P3
]
with simplified differential operators L 11 and L 22 . Only the in-plane equations

correspond to an orthotropic stiffness behavior.
The stacking can be unsymmetrical, i.e. A 16 = A 26 = 0,0 16 = 0 26 = 0,
B 16 = B 26 = 0, antisymmetrical, i.e. A 16 = A 26 = 0,0 16 = 0 26 = 0,
B12 = B 16 = B 26 = B66 = 0, B22 = -Bll or symmetrical with A 16 =
A 26 = 0, 0 16 = 0 26 = 0, B ij = O. Cross-ply laminates have an orthotropic
response to both in-plane and bending and no in-plane/bending coupling. The
plate equation ( L 33)W = P3 corresponds to the equation of an homogeneou s
orthotropic plate.
Summarizing the mathematical structures of the differential equations in depen -
dence on the layer stacking the following conclusions can be drawn:
• The mathematical structure of a general balanced laminate is not much simpler
as for a general unsymmetric, unbalanced laminate
• Compared to the general case the mathematical structure of the symmetric cross-
ply laminate is nearly trivial. A symmetric cross-ply is orthotropic with respect
to both in-plane and bending behavior, and both are uncoupled .
• The most simple mathematical structure yields the laminate with symmetrical
arranged isotropic layers. With All = A22, 0 11 = 0 22 , A 16 = A26 = 0,0 16 =
026 = 0, B ij = 0, it corresponds to a single layer isotropic plate with in-plane
and transverse loading.
• For special layer stacking also the force and moment resultant Eqs. (8.2.12) are
reduced to more simple equations.
The following developments are restricted to general symmetric plates and
plates with specially orthotropic behavior. The equations will be significant sim-
plified, for example in the general case all Bij = 0 and for specially orthotropic
plates there are additional 0 16 = 0 26 = O. The in-plane and the flexural equations
are uncoupled. Table 8.1 summarizes the most important plate equations. In Table
8.1 standard boundary conditions are also expressed . The necessary and sufficient
number of boundary conditions for plates considered here are two at each of the
boundaries. The standard conditions for the free edge reduce the three static condi-
tions M n = 0, Qn = 0 and M nt = 0 to two conditions M n = 0, V n = 0, where
Vn = Qn + aMnt/at = 0 is as discussed above the Kirchhoff effective shear re-
sultant. In order to avoid mistakes in the application the equations of Table 8.1, a
summary of plate stiffness is given. Table 8.2 contains the plate stiffness for single
layer plates. The plate stiffness for symmetric laminates are given in Table 8.3. In
all equations the hygrothermal effects are neglected, but it is no problem to include
thermal or moisture changes. In this case (4.2.62), (4.2.63) must be used instead of
(8.2.4) to put into the equilibrium equations. This will be considered in Sect. 8.5.
The classical laminate theory can be used also for modelling and analysis of
vibration and buckling of laminated plates. We restrict the consideration to sym-
metric plates . In the case of forced transversal vibration the momentum equilibrium
equation (8.2.3) has an additional inertial term
a 2M1 a2M 6 a2M2 a2w
axt + 2 aXlaX2 + ax~ = - P3 + ph at 2 (8.2.14)
M I , M2, M 6 , wand P3 are functions of Xl , x2 and the time t, h is the total thickness
of the plate and p the mass density
n
h =L h(k), P-
f. P(k) ( x 3(k) _
_ ! LJ x3
(k-l») _
-
f. P(k)h(k)
! LJ (8.2.15)
k=l h k=l h k=1
The rotatory inertia is neglected. The Eqs. (8.2.14), (8.2.4) and (8.2.5) yield the plate
equations for force vibration. For the both layer stacking discussed above we obtain:
1. General case ofsymmetric plates
( L33 + ph :t) w = P3
or explicitly
Table 8.1. Plate equation, boundary conditions and stress resultants of symmetric laminates
Typical boundary conditions :

1. Simply supported edge: w = 0, M n = 0
2. Clamped edge: w = o,aw/an = 0
3. Free edge: M n = 0, Vn = Qn + aMnt!at =0
Stress resultants :
1. General case
M1] [011 0 12 016]

M2
[ M6
= 012 022 026
0 16 026 066
2. Specially orthotropic
M 1]
M2 = [011012
012 022 0
0] [-a2w/ax~
-a 2w/aX 2
]
[ M6 0 0 066 -2a2w/aX1aX2
3. Isotropic layers (like 2. with 011 = 022)
Table 8.2. Plate stiffness for single layer
Anisotropic single layer

_ (k) h 3
O ij - Q ij 12
Speciall y orthotropic single layer (on-axis)

h3 h3 h3 h3
0 11 = Q 11 0 12 = Q 12 , 022 = Q22 , 0 66 = Q 66 12 ,
12, 12 12
= 1 - E~ ) E; ) b E 1)
Q11
I (
v' v'
12 21
' Q 22
I
= (
1 - v' v'
12 21
I
' Q12 = ( 1V- V 12
i Vi
21
'
Q~6 = G~2 = E~
Isotropic single layer

Eh 3 vEh 3
011 = 0 22 = 12(1 _ v 2) = 0 , 0 12 = v O = -I - 2'
- v
1- v Eh 3
0 66 = -2- 0 = 24 (1 + v)'
2. Specially orthotropic plates

a 4w a 4w a 4w a 2w
0 1 ax 4 + 20 3 ax 2ax2 + 0 2 ax 4 = P3 - ph at 2 (8.2. 16)
1 1 2 2
The equation of symmetric laminate plates with isotropic layers follows from
(8.2.16) with 0 1 = 02 , the plate stiffness are taken from Table 8.2 (single layer
plates) or Table 8.3 (laminates). In the case of the computation of natural or eigen-
vibrations, the forcing function P3( XI, X2, t) is taken to be zero and the time depen-
dent motion is a harmoni c oscillation. The differenti al equation is homogeneous,
leading an eigenvalue problem for the eigenvalue s (natural frequencies) and the
eigenfunctions (mode shapes).
To predict the buckling for plates, in-plane force resultant s must be included .
For a coupling of in-plane loads and lateral deflection, the equilibrium (8.2.2) will
be formulated for the deformed plate elem ent with PI = P2 = P3 = 0 and modified
to
2 2 2 2 2 2
-a M- 1 + 2 -a -M6
- +a-- M 2 N a w N a w 2N a w
= 1-+ 2- + 6- - -,
ax ? aXla X2 ax~ ax? ax~ aXla X2 (8.2.17)
aNI + aN = 0
6 z
aN6 + aN = 0
aXl aX2 ' aXl aX2
In the general case of a symmetric laminate, the plate equation can be expressed by
Table 8.3. Plate stiffness for symmetric laminates
Symmetric angle ply laminate
Dij = t Q~k) (x~k)3

k=l
_ x~k-1)3) = t Q~k)h(k) (x~k) + h~k~2)
k=l
,
x~k) = ~ (x~k) + x~k-1)), the Q;;) follow from Table 4.2.
Symmetric balanced laminates

D ..
I)
~ Q(k)h(k)
= L. I)
(x(k)
3
+ h(k)2)
12
k=l
The Q~) follow from Table 4.2.
Symmetric cross-ply laminate (specially orthotropic)

D .=
I)
~ Q(k)h(k) (x(k)
L. I) 3
+ h(k)2)
12'
k=l
D 16 = D26 =0
(k) _ ( E1 )(k) (k) _ ( E2 )(k)
Q11 1 - v12V21
- ' Q 22 - 1 - v12v21 '
dk) _ ( V12 E1 ) (k) d k) _ d k )
12 - 1 _ V12V21 ' 66 - 12
Symmetric laminate with isotropic layers (Xl -direction equal fibre direction)
D .. = ~ Q(k)h(k) (x(k) + h(k)2)
I) L. I) 3 12'
k=l
D16 = D26 = 0, D11 = D22,
(k) _ Q(k) _
Q 11 - 22 -
(_E_)
1-v2
(k)
'
Q(k) _
12 -
(~) (k)
1 _ v2 '
(k) _ ( E )(k)
Q66 - 2(1 +v)
(8.2.18)
a4 w a4 W a4 W
0 1 :;-;r + 203 :\ 2:\ 2 +0 2 :;-;r
uX l OX l uX 2 uX 2 (82 19)
2w a
2w 2w a a ..
=Nl~+N2~+2N6~
uX l oX
2
UXlUx2
The special case ofsymmetric laminates with isotropic layers follows from (8.2.19)
with 0 1 = O 2 . The buckling load is like the natural vibration independent of the
lateral load and P3 is taken to be zero. The classical bifurcation buckling requires to
satisfy the governing differential equations derived above and the boundary equa-
tions. Both sets of equations are again homogeneous and represent an eigenvalue
problem for the buckling modes (eigenvalues) and the mode shapes (eigenfunc-
tions).
To calculate the in-plane stress resultants NIl N21 N 6 it is usually convenient to
represent they by the Airy stress function F(XI X2) I
a 2F a 2F a 2F
N, = uX
:\ 2' N2 = oX
:\ 2' N6 = -~
UXlOX2
(8.2.20)
2 l
If Eqs. (8.2.19) are substituted into the first two equilibrium equations (8.2.3) it is
seen that these equations are identicall y satisfied. Using Eq. (4.2.22)
M = BA-lN - (BA- 1B - D)"
and substitute N with help of the Airy's stress function and" by the derivatives of
w the third equilibrium equation (8.2.3) yields one coupled partial differential equa-
tion for F and w. The necessary second equation yields the in-plane compatibility
condition (Sect. 2.2)
2£1 2£2 2£6
a a a
-+-=--
ax~ ax? aXl aX2
together with Eq. (4.2.25) to substitute the strains by the stress resultants. Suppress-
ing the derivations and restricting to symmetric problems yield the following in-
plane equations which are summarized in Table 8.4. The stiffness A * B* C * D*
I I I
follow with Eq. (4.2.23) as A * = A-I , B* = -A-lB, C* = BA-l ,

D * = D - BA -1 B. One can see from Table 8.4 that in the general case the math-
ematical structure of the partial differential equation corresponds to an anisotropic
and in the special orthotropic case to an orthotropic in-plane behavior of a single
layer homogeneous anisotropic or orthotropic plate. A summary of the in-plane
stiffness is given in Table 8.5. The Q~) for angle-ply laminates are calculated in
Table 4.2 .
Similar to the beam theory the plate equations for flexure, vibration and buck-
ling can be given in a variational formulation (Sect. 2.2). This formulation provides
the basis for the development of approximate solutions . We restrict the variational
formulation to symmetric laminated plates and to the classical energy principle s.
From (2.2.24) it follows with £3 = £4 = £5 ~ a that the elastic potential Tl is
Table 8.4. In-plane equations, boundary conditions and stress resultants for symmetric lami-
nates

A'1* -- A*2 = A*3 -- 1,
a4 F a4 F a4 F
-+ 2 -2ax2
-+-= 0
ax 4
1 ax 1 2 ax 4
2
Typical boundary conditions

Edge Xl = canst
a2 F =
-2
a2 F
N 1(X1 = canst,X2), -:;-:;-- = N 6(X1 = canst,X2),
aX2 uX1ux2
For an unloaded edge follow N 1 = 0, N 6 = 0
Stress resultants
~F ~F ~F
N1 = ax~' N2 = axi' N6 = - aX1 aX2
II = ~ J (TIEl + (T2 E2 + (T6 E6)dV - J P3(X1, X2)W(X1, x2)dA

V A
Table 8.5. In-plane stiffness for symmetric laminates
1. Angle-ply laminates
n n
A ij = L Q~) (x1k) - x1k- 1») = L Q~)h(k), i, j = 1,2,6
k=1 k=1
n
.. --
A If "Q(k)h(k)
L.J ij i J'-
" 1,
- , 2 ,
6 A 16 -- A 26 -- a,
k=1
(k) _ ( E1 ) (k) (k) _ ( E2 ) (k)
Qu - 1- V12v21 ' Q 22 - 1- v12v21
Q(k) = ( V12El ) (k) Q(k) = d k)

12 1_ v12 v21 ' 66 12

n
.. --
A If "Q(k)h(k)
L.J ij i J'-
" 1,
- , 2 ,
6 A 16 -- A 26 -- a, A 11 -- A 22
k=1
(k) = Q(k) = (_E_) (k) Q(k) =
Q 11
(~) (k)
22 1 _ v2 ' 12 1 _ v2 '
d k) = ( E ) (k) = C<k)
66 2(1 + v)
4. Single layer
For anisotropic and orthotropic single layers the A ij followed by 1. and 2.
For an isotropic single layer is
Eh vEh
Au = A 22 = A = I_v 2,A12 = vA = I - v 2'
A - (1 - v) A _ Eh = G
66 - 2 - 2(1 + v)
x 3(k)
= ~ tJ J
k-l A (k-l)
(£T?)El + £TY)E2 + £T~k)E6)dx3dA (8.2.21)
x3
-J A
P3(Xl,X2)W(Xl,X2)dA
With
e(x11 X2, X3) = E(X11 X2) + X3 IC(X11 X2) (8.2.22)
E
T
= [:~ : 2 (::2 ::J]
+ 1
iJ2w iPw d2w ]

IC T = 2
[ - dXi - dX~ - dX1 dX2
and the constitutive equations for the strains and the stress resultants
(8.2.23)
one obtains the elastic potential for the general case of symmetric plates and for the
special cases of orthotropic or isotropic structure behavior.
Bending of plates , classical laminate theory:

Angle-ply laminates
(8.2.24)
Cross-ply laminates
016 = 026 = 0
Laminates with isotropic layers
0 16 = 026 = 0 , 0 11 = 0 22
The principle of minimum of the total potential yields
bII[w(X11X2)] =0
as the basis to derive the differential equation and boundary conditions or to apply
the direct variational methods of Ritz, Galerkin or Kantorovich for approximate
solutions.
Vibration of plates, classical laminate theory:

The kinetic energy of a plate is (rotatory energy is neglected)
T = !2 J P
h (aW)
at 2 dA
I
(8.2.25)
A
The Hamilton principle for vibrations yields
bH(X1Ix2It) = 0
with
t2 t2
H = J
t1
(T - II)dt = J
t1
Ldt (8.2.26)
Buckling of plates, classical laminate theory:

To calculate buckling loads, the in-plane stress resultants NIl N21 N6 must be in-
cluded into the potential II. These in-plane stress resultants are computed in a first
step or are known a priori. With the known N 11N 21N 6 the potential II can be for-
mulated for angle-ply laminates with bending in-plane forces
II(w) = "21 J{[ 011

(a
2w)
axi
2
2w) 2wa2w
+ 022 (aax~ 2 + 20 12 aaxi ax~
+4:66 (/; )' +4 ( D j6~'~ + D" ~'~) aa'w ] (8.2.27)

[Nj (:~j)~: N, (::)'+ :~6 G;, x~:'P3 dA i:)] W}
The buckling formulation one get with P3 == O. With 0 16 = 0 26 = 0 or 0 16 =

0 26 = 0, 0 11 = 0 22 follows the equations for cross-ply laminates plates and for
plates with isotropic layers. The plate stiffness can be taken from Tables 8.2 or 8.3.
The variational principle bII = 0 applied to (8.2.24) and (8.2.27) yield solutions
for bending and bending with in-plane forces. Hamilton's principle and P3 :j:. 0 is
valid to calculate forced vibrations. With P3(X11 X2, t) = 0 in vibration equations
or P3(Xll X2) = 0 in (8.2.27), we have formulated eigenvalue problems to compute
natural frequencies or buckling loads.
Summarizing the derivations of governing plate equations in the frame of clas-
sicallaminate theory there are varying degrees of complexity:
• An important simplification of the classical two-dimensional plate equations is
the behavior of cylindrical bending. In this case one considers a laminated plate
strip with a very high length-to-width ratio. The transverse load and all displace-
ments are functions of only Xl and all derivatives with respect to x2 are zero.
The laminated beams, Chap. 7, and the laminated strips under cylindrical bend-
ing are the two cases of laminated plates that can be treated as one-dimensional
problems. In Sect. 8.6 we discuss some applications of cylindrical bending
• In the case of two-dimensional plate equations the first degree of simplification

for plates is to be symmetric. Symmetric laminates can be broken into cross-
ply laminates (specially orthotropic plates) with uncoupling in-plane and bend-
ing response (Bij = 0) and vanishing bending-twisting terms (0 16 = 026 = 0)
and angle-ply laminates (only Bij = 0). The governing equations of symmetric
cross-ply laminates have the mathematical structure of homogeneous orthotropic
plates, symmetric angle-ply laminates of homogeneous anisotropic plates. For
special boundary conditions symmetric cross-ply laminated rectangular plates
can be solved analytically. The solutions were obtained in the same manner as
for homogeneous isotropic plates, Sect. 8.6.
• Laminates with all coupling effects are more complicated to analyze. Generally,
approximate analytical or numerical methods are used.

In Sect. 8.2 we have neglected the transverse shear deformations effects. The anal-
ysis and results of the classical laminate theory are sufficiently accurate for thin
plates, i.e. a/ h, b/ h > 20. Such plates are often used in civil engineering. For mod-
erately thick plates we have to take into account the shear deformation effects, at
least approximately. The theory of laminate or sandwich plates corresponds then
with the Reissner or Mindlin plate theory. In the Reissner-Mindlin theory the as-
sumptions of the Kirchhoff's plate theory are relaxed only in one point. The trans-
verse normals do not remain perpendicular to the middle surface after deformation,
i.e. a linear element extending through the thickness of the plate and perpendicular
to the mid-surface prior to loading, upon the load application undergoes at most a
translation and a rotation. Plate theories based upon this assumption are called first
order shear deformation theories and are most used in the analysis of moderate thick
laminated plates and of sandwich plates. Higher order theories which do not require
normals to remain straight are considerably more complicated .
Based upon that kinematical assumption of the first order shear deformation
theory the displacements of the plate have the form (5.1.2)
ul (Xl, X2, X3) = U(Xl, X2) + X3t/Jl (Xl, X2),
U2(Xl, X2, X3) = V(Xl, X2) + X3t/J2(Xl, X2), (8 .3.1)
U3(Xl,X2,X3) = W(Xl,X2)
and with (5.1.3) are the strains
ci(Xl, X2, X3) = €i(Xl, X2) + X3Ki(Xl, X2), i = 1,2,6,
T [OU ov e« ov ] T [ot/Jl Ot/J2 Ot/Jl Ot/J2 ]

(8.3.2)
€ = OXI OX2 OX2 + OXI ' K = OXI OX2 OX2 + OXI '
c4(Xl, X2)
ow ow
= :;- + t/J2, cS(Xl, X2) = :;- + t/Jl
aX2 OXl
One can see that a constant state of transverse shear stresses is accounted for. The
stresses for the kth layer are formulated in (5.3.2) to
--
'P I
Fig. 8.3. Positive definition of t/Ji
(8.3.3)
0"1,0"2,0"6 vary linearly and 0"4,0"5 constant through the thickness h of the plate. With
the stress resultants N , M, QS and stiffness coefficients Aij, Bij, Dij , AIj for lami-
nates or sandwiches given in Eqs. (4.2.13) - (4.2.15) or (4.3.8) - (4.3.22), respec-
tively, the constitutive equation can be formulated in a hypermatrix form, (4.2.16).
The stiffness coefficients A ij, B ij , Dij stay unchanged in comparison to the classical
theory and the A Ij are defined in (5.3.4) and can be improved with the help of shear
correction factors kIj of plates similar to beams (7.3.19) - (7.3.20). The definition
of the positive rotations 0/1,0/2 is illustrated in Fig. 8.3. The equilibrium equations
(8.2.2) - (8.2.3) stay unchanged .
Substituting the kinematic relations (5.3.1) into the constitutive equations (5.3.3)
and then these equations into the five equilibrium equations (8.2.2) one obtains the
governing plate equations for the shear deformation theory in a matrix form as
[ 11 [12 [13 [14 0 U 0
[21 [22 [23 [24 0 V 0
~31 ~32 ~33 ~34 ~35 t/Jl = 0 (8.3.4)
[ L 41 L 42 L 43 L4 4 L 45 0/2 0
o 0 [53 [54 [55 W P
The differential operators [ ij are given in App . D for unsymmetric angle-ply, sym-
metric angle-ply and symmetric cross-ply laminates . Symmetric laminates leading,
additional to (8.3.4), the uncoupled plate equations
[ L~1 1 ~12]
21L22
[u]
V
[0] ,
0
(8.3.5)
Equation (8.3.4) can also formulated in a compact matrix form

iii =P
t. is a (5 x 5) matrix and ii, pare (5 x l ) matrice s.
The governing plate equations includin g transverse shear deformations are a set
of three coupled partial equations of second order, i.e. the problem is of sixth order
an for each edge of the plate three boundary conditions must be prescribed. The
most usual boundary conditions are:
• fixed boundary
W = 0, tjJn = 0, tjJt =0
• free boundary
Mn = 0, M nt = 0, Qn =0
• free edge
Mn = 0, tjJt = 0, W =0
• simply supported bound ary
a) w = 0, M n = 0, tjJt = 0 or w 0, dtjJn/dn 0, tjJt = 0 (hard hinged
support)
b) w = 0, M n = 0, M nt = 0
Case b) is more complic ated for analytical or semianalytical solutions. Generall y,
boundary conditions require prescribing for each edge one value of each of the
following five pairs: ( u or N n), (v or N nt ), (tjJn or M n ), (tjJt or M nt ), (w or Qn).
With tjJl = -dW/d XI and tjJ2 = -dW/d X2 Eq. (8.3.5) can be reduced to the classi-
cal plate equation.
In the following we restrict our development to plates that are midplane sym-
metric (B ij = 0), and additional all coupling coefficients (. . ·h6, (.. -Izs. (. . ')45
are zero. The constitutive equations are then simplified to
N I = Ancl + A 12c2, N 2 = A 12 c I + A 22c I , N 6 = A 66c 6,
M I = D nKI + D 12 K 2, M2 = D12KI + D 22 K2, M 6 = D 66K6, (8.3.6)
Q I = k5s Assc s, Q2 = ~4A44c4
N T = [NI N2 N6], M T = [MI M2 M 6], QsT = [QI Q2],

e T
= [ci c2 €6], K T = [KI K2 K6], EsT = [£5 £4],
(8.3.7)
A = [~~~o ~~~0 A~ ],
66
A S = [k5sAss 0 ]
o ~4 A44
Substituting the constitutive equations for M I , M 2 , M6, Q I, Q 2 into the three equi-
librium equations (8.2.2) of the moments and transverse force resultants result s in
the following set of governing differential equations for a laminated composite plate
subjected to a lateral load P3(XI, X2) and including transverse shear deformation
2 2tfJ2
a t/JI
Dll:;-T+(D a <PtfJI (aw )
= 0,
12 + D66h--:\-+D66:;-T-k5S Ass tfJI +:;-
uX I UXI uX2 uX 2 UXI
2tfJ2 2tfJI 2tfJ2
a
D66:;-T+(D12 + a a (aw )
D66):;-:;-+D22:;-T-k~AA44 tfJ2 +:;- = 0, (8.3.8)
uX I UXI UX2 uX 2 UX2
k~sAss (~~~ + ~:7) + ~4A44 (~~: + ~:~) + P3(XI, X2) =0

Analogous to the classical plate equations the shear deformation theory can be used
for modelling and analysis of forced vibrations and buckling of laminate plates. In
the general case of forced vibrations the displacements u, v, w, the rotations tfJI, tfJ2
and the transverse load P in Eq . (8.3.4) are functions of xl, x2 and t. In-plane load ing
is not considered but in-plane displacements, rotary and coupling inertia terms have
to take into account. Therefore, generalized mass densities must be defined
Po = tp(k) (x1k) _x1k - I )) = tp(k)h(k),

k=l k=l
_ f.
PI - L. P
(k) (k)2
X3
(k-I)2)
- X3 ' (8.3 .9)
k=l
P2 -
_ f.
L. P
(k) (k)3
X3 -
(k-I) 3)
X3
k=l
Coupling inertia terms PI are only contained in unsymmetric plate problems.
If one wishes to determine the natural frequencies of the rectangular plate con -
sidered above, then in (8.3.8) P3(Xl,X2) must be set zero but a term -p oa 2wjat2
must be added on the right hand side . In addition, because tfJI and tfJ2 are both in-
dependent variables which are independent of the transverse displacement w, there
will be an oscillatory motion of a line element through the plate thickness which re-
sults in rotary inertia terms P2a2tfJIIat2 and P2a2tfJ2/at2, respectively, on the right
hand side of the first two equations of (8.3.8).
The governing equations for the calculation of natural frequencies of specially
orthotropic plates with A 4S = 0 are
a 2tfJI a
2tfJ2
a 2tfJI
Dll:;-T + (D 12 + D66 ) :;-:;- + D66:;-T
uX I UXluX2 uX 2
2tfJI
s ( aw ) a
-kssA ss tfJI + aXI = P2---ai2 '
(8.3.10)
a
2tfJ2
a 2tfJI a
2tfJ2
D66:;-T + (D 12 + D 66 ) :;-:;- + D22:;-T
uX I uXlUX2 uX 2
-k~4A44 (tfJ2 + :~)

Po = t
k= 1
p (k) (X~k) - X~k-l)) = t
k= l
p (k)h (k),
_ 1 f. (k) « (k) 3 (k- l )3)

P2 - 3 L.J P X3 - X3
k= l
W, t/Jl and t/J2 are function s of Xl, x2 and t.

In a similar way the governing equations for buckling problems can be derived .
In the matrix equations (8.3.4) and (8.3.5) only the differential operator iss is sub-
stituted by
2 2
iss - (Nl a~ + 2N aXaa
aX
6
l X2
+ N2 a 2)
aX
(8.3.11)
l 2
For a cross-ply symmetrically laminated plate is with B ;j = 0 ,01 6 = 0, 0 26 = 0,
A 4S = 0
a2t/Jl2 + (0 12 + 0
Oll-a a2t/J2 + 0 66
66 ) -aa
a2t/Jl
-
5
2 - kssAss (
t/Jl + -a aw) = 0,
Xl Xl X2 a X2 Xl
2t/J
a 22 + ( 0 12 + 0
0 66 -
a 2t/Jl 2t/J
a -2 - ki4 A44 t/J2 + -a
66 ) -aa + 0 2 22
(aw ) = 0,
a Xl Xl X2 a X2 X2
~sAss (~~~ + ~:7) + ki4

A44 (~~: + ~:~ )
a 2w a 2w a 2w
= Nl - 2 + 2N6-a __ a · +N2 -2
aXl Al X2 aX 2
(8.3.12)
.: The variational formulation of laminated plates including shear deformation

may be based for example upon the principle of minimum potential energy for static
problems and the Hamilton's principle for dynamic problems. Formulating the elas-
tic potential II we have to consider that in the general case of unsymmetric laminate
plates, including shear deformation, II = II(u, v, W, t/Jl, t/J2) is a potential function
of five independent variables and that the strain energy II; has a membrane, a bend-
ing and a transverse shearing term, i.e.
tt, = ~ !
V
«(Tl£1 + (T2 £2 + (T6£6 + (Ts£s + (T4£4) d V
(8.3.13)
= Il'"
I
+ II~I + II~
I
with
272 8. Modelling and Analysisof Plates
IIi = ~f V
(Nlcl + N2c2 + N 6c6)d A ,
IIf = ~f (MlKl + M 2K2 + M6 K6)dA, (8.3.14)

V
IIr = ~f (Qics + Q~c4)dA

V
The stress resultants, stiffne ss and constitutive equations are formulated in Sect. 4.2,
e.g. (4.2.10) - (4.2.17). The elastic potential II is then given by
II(u , v, W, 0/1, 0/2) = ~ f (e TAs + KTBe + eTBK + KTDK
f
A (8.3.15)
+ esTASeS)dxldx2 - P3 W dXldx2
A
In (8.3.15) the in-plane loads PI, P2 are not included and must be added in gen-
eral loading cases. Shear correction coefficients can be developed for plates quite
similar to beams. Approximately one con siders a laminate strip of the width "1"
orthogonal to the xl-direction and independently another laminate strip orthogonal
to the x2-direction and calculates the correction factors k~s and k~4 like in Chap. 7
for beams. Sometimes the shear correction factors were used approximately equal
to homogeneous plates, i.e, k~4 = k~s = k~s = k S = 5/6.
Mostly we have symmetric laminates and the variational formulation for bend-
ing Mindlin's plates can be simplified
II(w, 0/1, 0/2) = ~ f (KTDK + esTA SES)dxl dX2 - f P3wdxldX2 (8.3.16)

A A
If we restricted the Hamilton's principle to vibration of symmetric plates, the varia-
tional formulation yields
T(w, 0/1, 0/2) = 21 f[ Po (dW)

at 2+P2 (do/d/ ) 2+P2 (do/dt2) 2] dXldx2
(8.3.17)
A
II is given by (8.3.16) and Po,P2 by Eqs. (8.3.10), T is the kinetic energy .
For a symmetric and specially orthotropic Mindlin 's plate assuming A 4 S = 0 it
follows from (8.3.16) for bending problems that
8.4 Sandwich Plates 273
(8.3.18)
For natural vibration the variational formulation for that plate is
f
12
L(W,0/1,0/2) = T(w, 0/1, 0/2) -II(W,0/1,0/2), 0 L(W,0/1,0/2)dt = 0(8.3.19)

11
To calculate buckling loads the in-plane stress resultants must be, like in the Kirch-
hoff's plate theory, included into the part IIa of II. Consider a plate with a constant
in-plane force N1 it follows
II(w, 0/1, 0/2) = IIi(w, 0/1, 0/2) - ~ f N1 (:~) 2 dX1dx2 (8.3.20)
The case of a more general in-plane loading can be transposed from (8.2.27). The
term IIi stay unchanged .
8.4 Sandwich Plates
To formulate the governing differential equations or tht variational statement for

sandwich plates we draw the conclusion from the similarity of the elastic behavior
between laminates and sandwiches in the first order shear deformation theory that
all results derived above for laminates can be applied to sandwich plates. We restrict
our considerations to symmetric sandwich plates with thin or thick cover sheets.
Like in the beam theory, there are differences in the expressions for the flexural
stiffness 011, 012, 022, 0 66 and the transverse shear stiffness Ass, A 44 of lami-
nates and sandwiches (Sects 4.3.2 and 4.3.3). Furthermore there are essential differ-
ences in the stress distributions. The elastic behavior of sandwiches and the general
model assumptions are considered in detail in Sect. 4.3. The stiffness relations for
sandwiches with thin and thick skins are also given there:
Symmetric sandwiches with thin cover sheets (4.3.12) - (4.3.14)

n
A ij = 2A£ = 2 E Q&k) h(k),
t Q~)h(k) x~k),
k=l
D ij = hCC& = hC x~k) = ~ (x~k) + X~k-1») (8.4.1)

k=l
(ij) = (11),(12),(22),(66)
AIj = hcqj' (ij) = (44), (55), q4 = Gh, q5 = Gb
hC is the thickness of the core, n is the number of faces layers and G13, G23 are the
core shear stiffness moduli. Shear correction factors can be calculated similarly to
the beams approximately with the help of (7.4.2).
Symmetric sandwiches with thick cover sheets (4.3.16) - (4.3.17) of one lamina
Ai)' = AS a = 2h!Q! or Ai)' = A~a = 2h! Qf.+ hcQc., i.] = 1,2,6

I) I) I) I) I)
D ij = Dt = ~Q£ (h +h hfh
a f C) c
or
D··I) = D~a
I)
= ~hfQi.
2 I)
[(hi + hC)2 + ~hf2]
3 + ~hc3Qc,
12 I)'
. . = 1" 2 6 (8.4.2)
I,)
(ij) = (11),(12),(22),(66)
a a CCfj,(ij)
AIj = AI/ = hCCfj' AIj = AI/ = 2hfC&+h = (44),(55)
f -- Cf23' CC44 -- G23'
C44 C Cf55 -- Gi13' CC55 -- C 13
C
With these stiffness values for the two types of sandwich plates the differential equa-
tions (8.3.8), (8.3.10) or the variational formulations (8.3.18) - (8.3.20) of the theory
of laminate plates including transverse shear deformation can be transposed to sand-
wich plates.
Equation (4.3.22) demonstrated that for sandwich plates with thick faces the
stiffness Ata, Dta, (ij) = (11), (22), (66) and Ata, (ij) = (44), (55) should be
used. Because generally Qfj « Q£ usually the simplified stiffness
ALa
I)
:::::i A S.a = 2Ai.
I) I)'
DLa:::::i DSa
I) I)
(1 + hC
C
hf h + (4/3)h
hC + hf
f)
yield satisfying results in engineering applications. Thus is valid for isotropic-facing

sandwich plates and for sandwich plates having orthotropic composite material fac-
ings (cross-ply laminates).
In Sect. 4.3 generally and in Sect. 7.4 for beams the continuing popularity of
sandwich structures was underlined. Sect. 7.4 also recalled and summarized the
main aspects of modelling and analysis of sandwich structures . Engineering ap-
plications to sandwich beams were discussed in detail. Keeping this in mind, the
derivations to sandwich plates can be restricted here to few conclusions:
• Most sandwich structures can be modelled and analyzed using the shear defor-
mation theory for laminated plates.
• Generally, the stiffnes s matrices A , Band D of laminated plate s are employed .

• Consider the lower face as lamina 1, the core as lamina 2 and the upper face
as lamina 3 one can include or ignore the effect of the core on the response to
bending and in-plane loads and the effect of tran sverse shear deformation on the
response of the facings .
• The shear deformation theory of lamin ated plate s can be not only transposed to
sandwich plates for bending, vibration and buckling induced by mechanical loads
but include also other loading, e.g. hydrothermal effects .
With the special sandwi ch stiffness includ ing or ignore in-plane, bending and tran s-
verse shear deform ation response all differential equations and variational formul a-
tions of Sect. 8.3 stay valid. Some examples for sandwich plates are con sidered in
Sect. 8.7.
8.5 Hygrothermo-Elastic Effects on Plates
Elevated temperature and absorbed moisture can alter significantly the structural
response of fibre-reinforced laminated composites. In Sects 8.2 to 8.4 the structural
respon se of laminated plates as result of mech anical loadin g was cons idered and
thermal or hygro sgopic loadings were neglected.
This section focuses on hygrothermally indu ced strains, stresses and displace-
ments of thin or moderate thick laminated plates. We assume as in Sect. 7.5 mod-
erate hygrothermal loadings such that the mechanical properties rem ain approx-
imately unchanged for the temperature and moisture differences considered. Be-
cause the mathematical formulations governing thermal and hygroscopic loadings
are analogous, a unified derivation is straightforward and will be considered in the
frame of the classical laminate theory and the shear deform ation theory .
The following derivat ions use the basic equations, Sect. 4.2.5, on thermal and
hygros copic effects in individual laminae and in gene ral laminate s. The matrix for-
mulations for force and moment resultants, Eq . (4.2.74), can be written explicitly
as
Nth Nmo
Nl All A 12 A 16 B11 B12 B1 6 £1 1 1
N2 A 22 A 26 B12 B 22 B26 £2 N th
2 N 2mo
N6 A 66 B 16 B2 6 B 66 £6 Nth
6 N 6mo
= (8.5.1)
M1 S D 11 D12 D 16 J(1 M1th M 1mo
M2 y D 22 D 26 J(2 th M2 mo
M2
M mo
M6 M D66 J(6 M th
6 6
with the known matrix elements, Eq. (4.2.15),
n
A lJ.. -- "Q(k) ( (k) _
L.J ij x3
(k-1))
x3 I
k=l
.. _ ~ ~ Q(k) ( (k)2 _ (k-1)2)
BIJ (8.5.2)
- 2 L.J ij x3 x3 I
k=l
.. _ ~ ~ Q(k) ( (k)3 _ (k-1)3)
D IJ - 3 L.J ij x3 x3
k=l
The thermal and moisture stress resultants Nth Nmo M th Mmo are resultants per
I I I
unit temperature or moisture change, Eqs. (4.2.66).

Substituting the hygrothennal constitutive equation (8.5.1) into the equilibrium
equations (8.2.3) and replacing the in-plane strains e, and the curvatures x, by the
displacements U , V, w, Eq. (8.2.5), yield the following matrix differential equation
for the classical laminate theory
Lu = P -0 [~:] (8.5.3)
Lu = p is identically to Eq. (8.2.7) with Lij given in App. C. N* = Nth + N?",

M * = M th + Mmo are the hygrothennal stress results and 0 is a special (3 x 6)
differential matrix
a a a
a= a a a (8.5.4)
02 a 2 2a 2
a a a - axi - dX~ - aX1 aX2
For selected layer stacking Eq. (8.5.3) can be simplified. The matrix L and the dif-
ferential operators L ij are summarized for the most important special laminates in
App.C.
Hygrothennal induced buckling can be modelled as
N** ] =
Lu +0 [ M (a
Nl -
2
2 +2N6~
dX 1 OXIOX2
a
+N2 - ( 2
aX 2
2 2)
U* (8.5.5)
with u*r = [0 Ow] . Prebuckling displacements and stress resultants are deter-
mined by solving Eq. (8.5.5) with N == O. For the corresponding buckling problem,
NIl N2 and N 6 are taken to be the stress resultant functions corresponding to the
prebuckling state. The buckling loads are found by solving the eigenvalue problem
associated with (8.5.5), i.e. with N* = 0 and M* = O.
Because energy methods are useful to obtain approximate analytical solutions
for hygrothennal problems the total potential energy II is formulated. Restricting to
symmetrical problems with A 16 = A 26 = a and 0 16 = 0 26 = 0, i.e to cross-ply
laminates, we have
(8.5.6)
The classical laminate theory which neglect transverse shear deformations can lead
to significant errors for moderately thick plates and hygrothermal loadings. Us-
ing the shear deformation theory, Sect. 8.3, we can formulate corresponding to Eq.
(8.3.4).
-_= p-o
Lu
_ - [N*]
M* (8.5.7)
a
The matrix is identically to Eq. (8.5.4). For hygrothermal induced buckling we
have analogous to Eq. (8.5.5)
2 2 2)
__ _[N* ] =
Lu +0 M* (Nd d (
I - 2 + 2N 6 :1:1" + N 2 - 2 U *(8.5.8)
dXI OXIOX2 dX2
For prebuckling analysis the terms involving NIl N 2 and N 6 are ignored. Then buck-
ling loads are calculated by substituting the values NIl N 21 N 6 determined for the
prebuckling state into equation (8.5.8) dropping now the hygrothermal stress re-
sultants N* and M*. For special laminate stacking the differential operators are
summarized in App. D.
The elastic potential II is now a function of five independent functions
U, V, W,t/JII t/J2. Restricting again to cross-ply laminates the elastic total potential
II can be formulated as
II = 2"1 !{ (s« )
Au dXI
2
+ 2A 12 (dU dV) ( dV )
dXI dX2 + A 22 dX2
2
e«+dV)2
+A 66 (-
dX2
-
dXI
dt/JI ) 2 (dt/JI dt/J 2) ( dt/J2 ) 2
+ Du ( dXI + 2D 12 dXI dX2 + Dn dX2
(8.5.9)
Equations (8.5.6) and (8.5.9) are the starting point for solving hygrothennal induced
buckling problems e.g. with the Ritz- or Galerkin approximation or the finite ele-
ment method. Analytical solutions are in general not possible. As considered above,
the force resultants N 1 , N2 and N 6 have to be calculated in the prebuckling state,
i.e. for N == 0 and the calculation force resultants are substituted into Eqs. (8.5.6)
or (8.5.9), respectively, with N* = 0, M* = 0 to calculate the buckling loads. If
there are transverse loads p, Eqs . (8.5.3) or (8.5.7) the bending problem follows
from (8.5.6) or (8.5.7) by setting N = 0 and substitute an additional term
!
A
pwdA
8.6 Analytical Solutions
The analysis of rectangular plates with selected layer stacking and boundary condi-
tions can be carried out analytically in a similar manner to homogeneous isotropic
and orthotropic plates. The analytical methods of homogeneous isotropic plates, e.g.
the double series solutions of Navier or the single series solutions of Nadai-Levy can
be applied to laminated plates with special layer stacking and analogous boundary
conditions . In Sect. 8.6 possibilities of analytical solutions in the frame of classical
laminate theory and shear deformation theory are demonstrated for bending, buck-
ling and vibration problems .
8.6.1 Classical Laminate Theory
There are varying degrees of complexity in laminated plate analysis. The least com-
plicated problems are one-dimensional formulations of cylindrical plate bending.
For cylindrical bending both, symmetric and unsymmetric laminates, are handled in
a unique manner assuming all deformations are one-dimensional.
In the case of two-dimensional plate equations the most important degree of
simplification is for plates being midplane symmetric because of their uncoupling
........ -
X2
Fig. 8.4. Plate strip
in-plane and out-of-plane response. The mathematical structure of symmetric angle-

ply plate equations corresponds to homogeneous anisotropic plate equations and
that of symmetric cross-ply plate equations to homogeneous orthotropic plate equa-
tions. To illustrate analytical solutions for rectangular plates in the framework of
the classical laminate theory we restrict our developments to specially orthotropic,
i.e. to symmetric cross-ply plates. For this type of laminated plates the Navier so-
lution method can be applied to rectangular plates with all four edges simply sup-
ported. The Nadai-Levy solution method can be applied to rectangular plates with
two opposite edges have any possible kind of boundary conditions . For more general
boundary conditions of special orthotropic plates or other symmetric or unsymmet-
ric rectangular plates approximate analytical solutions are possible, e.g. using the
Ritz-, the Galerkin- or the Kantorovich methods, Sect. 2.2.3, or numerical methods
are applied, Chap. 11.
As considered above the simplest problem of plate bending is the so-called
cylindrical bending for a plate strip i.e. a very long plate in one direct ion with
such a lateral load and edge support in this direction that the plate problem may be
reduced to a one-dimensional problem and a quasi-beam solution can be used. In
the following we demonstrate analytical solutions for various selected examples .
1. Platestrip (Fig. 8.4)

The model "plate strip" describes approximately the behavior of a rectangular plate
with alb « 1. The plate dimension a in Xl-direction is considered finite, the other
dimension b in x2-direction approximately infinite. The boundary conditions for
the edges Xl = 0, Xl = a may be quite general, but independent of x2 and the
lateral load is P3 = P3(XI) ' All derivatives with respect to x2 are zero and the plate
equation reduces to a one-dimensional equation. For symmetric laminated strips
Eqs. (8.2.6) and (8.2.9) reduce to
Dllw""(xd = P3(X1),
M 1 (xd = -Dllw"(X1),
M 2(xd = -D 12w"(X1),
M 6(X1) = -D 16W"(xd (general case),
(8.6.1)
M 6 (x d = 0 (specially orthotropic case, D 16 = 0),
Q1(xd = M~(X1) = -Dllwlll(X1),
Q2(X1) = M~(X1) = -D 16W"/(X1) (general case),
Q2(X1) = 0 (specially orthotropic case)
When one compares the differential equation of the strip with the differential equa-
tion bD ll w"" (xd = q(X1) of a beam it can be stated that all solutions of the beam
equation can be used for the strip .
For the normal stresses in the layer k the equations are
(8.6.2)
CTt)(X1,X3) = 0
and the transverse shear stresses follow from (5.2.19) to
and
i.e
[ ~:] = [;~~ ;~~] [~1] , (8.6.3)
Considering the solutions of the symmetrical laminated plate strip, we have follow-
ing conclusions:
• The solutions for laminate beams and plate strips are very similar, but the calcu-
lation of the strip bending stiffness D ij has to include Poisson's effects .
• Because of including of Poisson's effect we have the relation
W(X1)strip < w(x1heam
and M 2 (x d =1= o.
• MI(xt} and QI(XI) of the strip and the beam are identical. If M6(Xt} = 0 then
VI == QI, i.e there is no special effective Kirchhoff transverse force.
The solutions for plate strips with cylindrical bending can be transposed to lat-
eralloads P3(XI,XZ) = xzp(xt} . From W(XI,XZ) = XZW(XI) it follows that
xZW""(XI) = xzp(xI)/D 11. The displacement W(XI) and the stress resultants
M I (xt}, QI (x) of the plate strip with the lateral load p(XI) have to be multiplied
by the coordinate Xz to get the solution for the lateral load XZP(XI) . Note that in
contrast to the case above, here M6 = -2D 66W'(Xt} - DI6W"(XI) in the general
case and M6 = -2D 66W'(XI) for specially orthotropic strips.
For unsymmetric laminated plate strips the system of three one-dimensional
differential equations for the displacements U(XI), V(XI) and w(xt} follow with
(8.2.6) as
dZu dZv d 3w
A 11- + A 16 - - B11-- = 0
dxi dxi dXf
dZu dZv d 3w
A 16 - + A66- - BI 6 - - = 0 (8.6.4)
dxi dxi dXf
d 4w d 3u d 3v
11
D dx4 - B11 dx 3 - B dx 3 = P3
l 6
I I . I
These equations can be uncoupled and analytically solved. The first and the second
equation yield
dZu B d 3w dZv
= (8.6.5)
dx z
I A dx ' dx z
3
I A dx 3
I I
with A = A 11A66 - Ai6' B = A66B11 - Al6Bl6, C = A llB l 6 - AI6B11. Differ-
entiating both equations and substituting the results in the third equation of (8.6.4)
we obtain one differential equation of fourth order in W(XI)
d4w A
dxf = D P3, D = D11A - B11 B - Bl6 C (8.6.6)
Equation (8.6.6) can be simple integrated to obtain w(xt} and than follow with
(8.6.5)
d3u B d 3v C
= D P3, d 3 = D P3 (8.6.7)
d Xl3 Xl
For a transverse load P3 = P3(XI) we obtain the analytical solutions for the dis-
placements U(XI), v(xt} and W(XI) as
W(XI) = I :f
~JJJJP3dxldxldxldxI +C +Cz ~i +C3XI +C4,
u(xt} = ~ JJJP3 d xI dXI dXI + B Xl + BZXI + B3,
I
(8.6.8)
V(XI) = ~JJJP3 d xI dXI dXI + Al Xl + AZXI + B3

With Eqs .. (8.6.5) follows Al = B1 = C1 and we have eight boundary conditions to

calculate 8 unknown constants, e.g. for clamped supports u(O) = u(a) = v(O) =
v(a) = web) = w(a) = 0, w'(O) = w'(a) = 0, Eqs.. (8.2.12) yield the one-
dimensional equations for the force and moment resultants
du dv d 2w
N 1 = A 11- + A 16 - - B11--,
dX1 dX1 dXI
du dv d 2w
N 2 = A12- + A 26- - B]2--,
dX1 dX1 dXI
du dv d 2w
N6 = A 16 - + A66- - B16--,
dX1 dX1 dXI
du dv d 2w
M 1 = B11- + B16- - 0 11--,
dX1 dX1 dXI
du dv d 2w
M 2 = B12- +B26 - - 0 12--
d Xl d Xl dX 2,
1
du dv d 2w (8.6.9)
M 6 = B16- + B66- - 0 16--,
dX1 dX1 dXI
d 2u d 2v d 3w
Q1 = B11- + B 16 - - 011--,
dXI dXI dXf
d 2u d 2v d 3w
Q2 = B 16 - + B66 - - 016-,
dXI dXI dXf
d 2u d 2v d 3w
VI = B11 d 2 + B16 d 2 - 011 - d 3 = Q1,
Xl Xl Xl
d 2u d 2v d 3w
V2 = 2B16-2 + 2B66-2 - 20 16 - = 2Q2
dX 1 dX 1 dX 31
The general symmetric case follows with Bij = 0 and for a symmetric cross-ply
strip are Bij = 0 and A 16 = 0,0 16 = O.
Analytical solutions can also be formulated for vibration and buckling of strips
with one-dimensional deformations . The eigen-vibrations of unsymmetrical plate
strips taking account of U(X1, t) = u(xdeiwt, V(X1, t) = v(xde iwt, W(X1, t) =
w(xde iwt are mathematically modelled as
d 2u d 2v d 3w 2
A 11- + A16- - B11-- - phw w = 0,
dXI dXI dXf
d 2u d 2v d 3w 2
A 16 -2 + A 66 -2 - B16 - - phw v = 0, (8.6.10)
dX 1 dX 1 dX 31
d 4w d 3u d 3w
0 11-- - B11- - B16-- - phw 2w = 0
dxi dXf dXf
u, v and ware now functions of Xl and t.
If the in-plane inertia effects are neglected the Eqs. (8.6.5) are valid. Differenti-
ating these equations and substituting the result in the third Eq. (8.6.10) lead to the
vibration equation
d 4w A
- - - -phw 2 w
dXI 0
=0 (8.6.11)
For a symmetrically laminated cross-ply strip we obtain with A/O = 1/0 11

N
ph = L p(k) h(k) (8.6.12)
k=l
The analytical solutions correspond to the beam solutions in Sect. 7.6
W(XI) = CI cos ~XI

a
+ C2 sin ~XI
a
+ C3 cosh ~XI
a
+ C4 sinh ~XI'
a
( ~)
a
4 = ph w2
0 11
(symmetric cross-ply strip), (8.6.13)
( ~ ) 4 = ph ~ w 2 (general unsymmetric strip)
For a simply supported strip we have w(O) = w(a) = w"(O) = w"(a) = 0 and
therefore CI = C3 = C4 = 0 and C2 sin (~) a = 0, i.e. with A = nit follow
4 2
w2 -
-
na ph
n4 A'
4
0 w = (na1C ) VPhOA (8.6.14)
Analytical solutions can be calculated for all boundary conditions of the strip.
In analogous manner analytical solutions follow for the buckling behavior of
strips which are subjected to an initial compressive load NI = -No. The third
equation of (8.6.4) is formulated with P3 = 0 as
d 4w d 3u d 3v d 2w
0 11 - - - B11 - - B16 - - N, - - = 0 (8.6.15)
d xi dXf dXf 1 dxi
and with Eq. (8.6.5) follows

d 4w A d2w
- - - -NI - - = 0, (general case)
dxt 0 d xi
(8.6.16)
d 4w 1 d2w
- - - - NI - - - 0 (symmetrical cross-ply case)
dxt 0 11 dxi - ,
with N I (Xl) = - No. The buckling equations correspond again to the beam equa-
tion (7.2.35) and can be solved for all boundary conditions of the strip
A . A A . A
w(xt} = CI cos -Xl + C2 sin -Xl + C3 cosh -Xl + C4 sinh -Xl,
2 a a a a (8.6.17)
(~) = ~No
For a simply supported strip we have with w(O) = w(a) = w"(O) = w"(a) = 0
C2 sin A = 0, A = n1C
....... .,
b Boundary conditions :
rP3 (X l , X2 ) I
.'1'2:
" , "
Xl
a
Fig. 8.5. Rectangular plate, all edges are simply supported, specially orthotropic
A nonzero solution is obtained if

n 2 7[2 D
No = ----;;'2 A (8.6.18)
Thus the critical buckling load follows with to

7[2 D
NO cr = az A (8.6.19)
Summarizing the developments of analytical solutions for unsymmetrical laminated

plate strips we have the following conclusions:
• The system of three coupled differential equations for the displacements
U(Xl), V(Xl) and w(xd can be uncoupled and reduced to one differential equa-
tion of fourth order for w(xd and two differential equations of third order for
U(Xl) and V(Xl), respectively.
• Analytical solutions for bending of unsymmetrical laminated plate strips can be
simple derived for all possible boundary conditions. In the general case all stress
resultants (8.6.4) are not equal to zero. The general symmetric case and symmet-
rical cross-ply strips are included as special solutions .
• The derivations of bending equations can be expanded to buckling and vibration
problems.
• The derivation of analytical solutions for unsymmetrical laminated strips can, like
forthe symmetrical case, expanded special to lateral loads P3(Xl, .'1'2) = x2P(xd .
2. Navier solution
Figure 8.5 shows a specially orthotropic rectangular plate simply supported at all
edges with arbitrary lateral load P3(XI . In the Navier solution one expands the
1X2)
deflection W(Xl .'1'2) and the applied lateral load P(Xl .'1'2), respectively, into double
1 1
infinite Fourier sine series because that series satisfies all boundary conditions
00 00
P3(Xl, XZ) = LL prs si n arxl si n I3 sxz,

r=ls =l
a b
prs = a~ II
o 0
P3(Xl , xz) si n arxl sin I3sxz d xl d xz, (8.6.20)
00 00
w( xl, xz) = L L wrs sin arxl sin I3sxz

r=l s=l
with
rn Po _ sn
ar = a' fJ S - b
The coefficients to -, are to be determined such that the plate equation (Table 8.1) is
satisfied.
Substituting Eqs. (8.6.20) into the plate equation yields
00 00
L L Wrs (0 1a; + 203a; 13~ + Ozl3;) sin arx l s in I3s xz

r=l s=l (8.6.2 1)
00 00
= L: L: prs sin arxl si n I3s xz

r=l s=l
and we obtain the coefficients W rs
prs prs
W rs = --::------;---:-:::-'-'~=-----::=--= (8.6.22)
01 a~ + 203 a~ l3~ + OzM drs
The solution becomes
00 00
W(Xl, xz) = ~rs si n arxl sin I3sxz

LL (8.6.23)
r=l s=l rs
The load coefficients prs one obtains by integrating (8.6.20) for the given lateral
loading P3(Xl, xz) . For a uniform distributed load P3(Xl, xz) = P = canst we
obtain, for instance,
16p
prs = -z-, r,s=1,3,5, ... (8.6.24)
n rs
From Table 8.1, the equations for the moment resultant s are:
azw azw
M 1(Xl , XZ) = -Oll -;-Z
oX
- 0 12 -;-Z
ox z
l
00 00
= L L (Olla; + 01213~ ) wrs sin arx l si n I3sxz,

r=l s=l (8.6.25)
azw azw
MZ(Xl,XZ) = -012 axz - Ozz axz
00 00
1 z
= L L (012 a; + Ozzl3~)Wrs sin ltrXl sin I3sx z,
r=l s=l
(8.6.26)
one obtains the solutions for the in-plane stresses oy) d

I
k
)I lT~k)
r :~:;1 - ~ ~
2
(k)
lT6
- L..J L..J D 1aA
r=l s=l
(k)
r
(k)
prs
+ 2D3lX r2{32s + D2{34s
(QulX; + Q 12 (3~) sin lX rX1 sin {3 SX2 1

(8.6.27)
(Q~~ lX; + Q~~ (3~) sin lX rX1 sin {3sX2

r -2Q~~ lX r{3 s cos lX rX1 cos (3sX2
With the simplified formula (5.2.19) follows the transverse shear stresses lT~k) I lT~k)
= [Fu x3 F62X3]
F 61 X3 F22 X3
f: f: 3 2
[(DulX r + D 12{3slXr)wrs cos lX rX1 sin {3sX2]
r=l s=l (D 12lX;{3s + D 22{3 f)w rs sin lXrX1 cos (3 sX2
(8.6.28)
The Navier solution method can be applied to all simply supported specially or-
thotropic laminated rectangular plates in the same way. For a given lateral load
P3(X1IX2) one can obtain the load coefficients prs by integrating (8.6.20), and by
substituting prs in (8.6.3) follows the WrS. Some conclusions can be drawn from the
application of the Navier solution :
• The solution convergence is rapid for the lateral deflection W(X 11 X2) and uniform
loaded plates . The convergence decreases for the stress resultants and the stresses
and in general with the concentration of lateral loads in partial regions .
k)
• The solution convergence is more rapid for the stresses lTi in the fibre direction
but is not as rapid in calculating lTJk).
The Navier solutions can be also developed for antisymmetric cross-ply laminate
and for symmetric and antisymmetric angle-ply laminates. For these laminates the
plate equations (8.2.6) are not uncoupled and we have to prescribe in-plane and
out-of-plane boundary conditions. It is easy to review that the Naviers double series
solutions Type I and Type 2, i.e.
Type I:
00 00
u(xJ, xz) = L L Urs cos arX1 sin I3 sxz,

r=ls=l
00 00
V(Xl, xz) = L L Vrs sin arx1 cos I3sxz,

r=l
00
s=l
00
W(Xl, xz) = L L Wrs sin arxl sin I3 sxz,

r=l s=l
Type 2:
00 00
U(Xl,XZ) = L L Urs sinarxl cosl3sxz,

r=ls=l00 00
v(Xl, xz) = L L Vrs cos a rXl sin I3 sxz,

r=l s=l
00 00
W(Xl,XZ) = L L wrssinarx1 sinl3sxz,

r=l s=l
TrY p. _ TrS
a r = - , r- >:
a r
a
satisfy the following alternative boundary conditions for selected laminated plates:
• Simply supported boundary conditions, Type I
Xl = 0 and Xl = a
W = 0, M 1 = 0, v = 0, N1 = 0
Xz = 0 and Xz = b
W = 0, Mz = 0, u = 0, Nz = 0
The Naviers double series Type I for u, v and W can be used only for laminates,
whose stiffness A 16, Az6, B16, Bz6 , 0 16, 0Z6 are zero, i.e for symmetric or anti-
symmetric cross-ply laminates
• Simple supported boundary conditions, Type 2
Xl = 0 and Xl = a
W=o, M 1 =0, U = 0, N6 =0
Xz = 0 and Xz = b
W= 0, Mz =0, v = 0, N6 =0
The Navier double series solution Type 2 for u, v, W can be used only for lami-
nate stacking sequences with A 16, AZ6, Bll, B12, Bn , B66, 0 16, 0Z6 equal zero,
i.e for symmetric or antisymmetric angle ply laminates.
288 8. Modelling and Analysisof Plates
b Boundary conditions:
X2
-+
xl
For the edges x2 = ±b/2 may be

arbitrary b.c.
a
Fig. 8.6. Rectangular speciallyorthotropic rectangular plate with two oppositeedges simply
supported
The Navier solutions can be used for calculating bending, buckling and vibration.
For buckling the edge shear force N6 and, respectively, for vibration the in-plane
inertia terms must be necessarily zero .
3. Nadai-Levy solution
For computing the bending of specially orthotropic rectangular plates with two
opposite edges simply supported, a single infinite series method can be used . The
two other opposite edges may have arbitrary boundary conditions (Fig. 8.6) . Nadai
introduced for isotropic plates the solution of the plate equation in the form
W(Xl, X2) = Wp(Xl) + Wh(Xl, X2), P3 = P3(xd, (8 .6.29)
where w p (Xl) represents the deflection of a plate strip and wh (Xl, X2) is the so-
lution of the homogeneous plate equation (P3 = 0) . wh must be chosen such that
w( Xl, X2) in (8.6.29) satisfy all boundary conditions of the plate. With the solutions
for wh, suggested by Levy, and w p , suggested by Nadai,
00
_ ~ p r sin itrXl
Wh(Xl, X2) = L !r(X2) SinitrXl, Wp ( Xl ) - L..J
r=l
0 4
litr
(8.6.30)
r=l
with
nr
it r = -
a
and
a
P3(Xl)
r=l
00
= L prSinitrXl, pr = ~ J
o
P3(xd SinitrXldXl
the boundary conditions for Xl = 0 and Xl = a are satisfied .

Substituting (8.6.30) into the plate equation for specially orthotropic plates, Ta-
ble 8.1, it follow for each term !r(X2) a differential equation of 4th order with con-
stant coefficients
(8.6.31)
or
4!
d r(X2) _ 2 D 3 /t; d 2! r(X2) + D 1 /t~! r(X2) = E!- (8.6.32)
dxi D2 dx~ D2 D2
The homogeneous differential equation, i.e. Pr = 0, can be solved with
!rh(X2) = C r exp ("-r/trX2) (8.6.33)
and yields the characteristic equation for the four roots
(8.6.34)
In the case of isotrop ic plates it follows with D 1 = D2 = D 3 = D there are

repeated roots ± 1.
For specia lly orthotropic laminated plates the form of !rh (X2) depend s on the
character of the roots of the algebraic equatio n of 4th order. There are three differen t
sets of roots :
1. (D3/ 02)2 > (0 I/02) :
In this case (8.6.34) leads to four real and different roots
"-1/2 = ±OI, "-3/4 = ±02, 01,02 > 0,
! rh(X2 ) = A r cosh 01 /trX2 + B, sinh 01/trX2 (8.6 .35)
+ C, co sh 02/trX2 + Or sinh 02/trX2
2. (03 / 0 2)2 = (0I/02):
In this case (8.6.34 ) leads to four real and equa l roots
"-1/2 = +0, "-3/4 = - 0, > 0,°

!rh(X2) = (A r + BrX2) cos ho/trx2 + (C, + OrX2) sinh o/trx2 (8.6.36)
3. (D3/ 02)2 < (0I/ 02) :

In this case the roots are complex
"-1/2 = 01 ± i02, "-3/ 4 = - 01 ± i02, 01 , 02 > 0,
!rh(X2) = (A r cos 02/trX2 + B, si n h 02/trX2) cosh 01/trX2 (8.6.37)
+ (C, cos 01/trX2 + Or si n 01 /trX2) si n h 01/trX2
For a given plate for which materials and fibre orientations have been specifie d only,
one of the three cases exists. However in the design problem, trying to find the best
variant, more than one case may be involved with the consequence of dete rmi ning
not just four constants A r, Br, Cr, Dr, but eig ht or all twelve to calc ulate which
construction is optimal for the design .
Concerning the particular solution, it is noted that the lateral load may be at
most linear in x2 too, i.e P3(X1, X2) = P3(X1)q( X2) with q at most linear in X2. The
solution w p in (8.6.29) is then replaced by
00 •
" P ySlnll: yXl .
w p ( X1,X2 ) = q (x2) /....; 0 4 Slnll: yXl (8.6.38)
y=l lll:y
With the solution W(X1, X2) = Wh(X1, X2) + Wp(X1, X2) the stress resultants and
stresses can be calculated in the usual way.
The Navier and Nadai-Levy solution method can be also applied to eigenvalue
problem s. We assume , for instance, that the vibration mode shapes of a laminated
plate with specially orthotropic behavior, which is simply supported at all four
edges, is identical to an isotropic plate. We choose
00 00
W(X1, X2, t) = L L ui. , sin ll:YXl sin ll:sX2 sin wt (8.6.39)

y=l s=l
to represent the expected harmonic oscillation and to satisfy all boundary conditions .
Substituting the expression (8.6.39) into (8.2.16) with P3 == 0 yields
[01ll:~ + 203ll:;ll:; + 02ll:; - pw 2]wyS = 0 (8.6.40)
A non-zero value of WYS, i.e. a non-trivial solution, is obtained only if the expression
in the brackets is zero, hence we can find the equation for the natural frequencies
w;s = ; : [0 1 Gf +20 3 G)2 G)2 + G)4] O2 (8.6.41)
The fundamental frequency corresponds to r = 5 = 1 and is given by

Wrl = p~;4 [0 1 +203 G)2 +0 2 Gf] (8.6.42)
Note that the maximum amplitude W yS cannot be determined, only the vibration
mode shapes are given by (8.6.39). In the case of an isotropic plate the natural
frequencies are with 0 1 = 02 = 03 = 0
w;s = k ys ;: {f;, r; = [r
2
+ 52 (~) 2] (8.6.43)
If we consider a buckling problem, e.g. a specially orthotropic laminated plate sim-

ply supported at all edges with a biaxial compression N 1 and N 2 , it follows from
(8.2.19) that
a 4w a
4w 4w a 2w 2w a a
0 1:\4' + 203 a 2a 2 + O 2 :\4' = N 1 :1"2 + N 2 :1"2 (8.6.44)
uX l Xl X2 uX2 uXl uX2
The Navier solution method yields with (8.6.39)
n2wYS[01r4 + 203r252'}'2 + 0254'}.4] = -wYS[N 1r2 + N 252'}'2]a2 (8.6.45)
with'}' = a/b. A non-zero solution of the buckling problem (w rs :F 0) leads to
7[2
N 1r2 + N2S2".2 = --[0Ir4 + 203r2s2".2 + 02s4".4] (8.6.46)
a2
We consider the example of uniform compression N 1 = -N and N 2 = -KN,
where the boundary force N is positive. Equation (8.6.46) yields
N = 7[2(0I r4 + 20 3r2s2".2 + 02 s4".4)
a2(r2 + Ks 2".2)
The critical buckling load Ncr corresponds to the lowest value of N. If K = a we
have the case of uniaxial compression and the buckling equation simplifies to
7[2
N -- - ( 0 1 r4 + 203 r2s2rv2
a2r2 f
+ 0 2s4rv4)
f
For a given r, the smallest value of N is obtained for s = 1, because s appears only
in the numerator. To determine which r provides the smallest value Ncr is not simple
and depends on the stiffness 01/02/03, the length-to-width ratio". = alb and r.
However, for a given plate it can be easily determined numerically. Summarizing
the discussion of the classical laminate theory applied to laminate plates we can
formulate the following conclusions:
• Specially orthotropic laminate plates can be analyzed with the help of the Navier
solution or the Nadai-Levy solution of the theory of isotropic Kirchhoff's plates,
if all or two opposite plate edges are simply supported. These solution methods
can be applied to plate bending , buckling and vibration .
• For more general boundary conditions specially orthotropic plates may be solved
analytically with the help of the variational approximate solutions method of
Rayleigh-Ritz or in a more generalized way based on a variational method of
Kantorovich.
• Plates with extensional-bending couplings should be solved numerically, e.g. with
the help of the finite element method , Chap. 11. Note that in special cases anti-
symmetric cross-ply respectively symmetric and antisymrnetric angle-ply lami-
nates can be analyzed analytically with Navier's solution method .
In this section we illustrated detailed analytical solutions for specially orthotropic
laminates which can predict "exact" values of deflections, natural frequencies of vi-
bration and critical buckling loads. But even the "exact" solutions become approxi-
mate because of the truncation of the infinite series solutions or round-off errors in
the solution of nonlinear algebraic equations, etc. However these solutions help one
to understand, at least qualitatively, the mechanical behavior of laminates. Many
laminates with certain fibre orientations have decreasing values of the coefficients
0 161026 for bending-torsion coupling and they can be analyzed with the help of
the solution methods for specially orthotropic plates .
8.6.2 Shear Deformation Laminate Theory
The analysis of laminated rectangular plates including transverse shear deforma-

tions is much more complicated than in the frame of classical laminate theory. Also
for plate analysis including shear deformations the at least complicated problem is
cylindrical bending, i.e one-dimensional formulations for plate strips.
Unlike to classical plate strips equations only symmetric and unsymmet-
ric cross-ply laminates can be handled in a unique manner. In the case of
two-dimensional plate equations we restrict the developments of analytical
solutions for bending, buckling and vibrations analogous to Eqs. (8.3.6) -
(8.3.8) to midplane symmetric cross-ply plates with all Bij = 0 and additional
A 16 = A Z6 = 0 16 = 0Z6 = 0,A 45 = O.
1. Plate strip
Consider first the cylindrical bending for the plate strip with an infinite length in
the xz-dircction and uniformly supported edges Xl = 0, Xl = a, subjected to a
load P3 = p(xl).lfwe restrict the considerations to cross-ply laminated strips the
governing strip equations follow with A 16 = A Z6 = 0, B16 = BZ 6 = 0,016 =
0 16 = 0Z6 = 0, A 45 = 0 and result in a cylindrical deflected middle surface with
v = O,tpz = O,u = U(Xd,tpl = tpl(Xl),W = W(Xl) from (8.3.4) as
dZu dZtpl
A ll d Z + Bll - Z = 0,
Xl d Xl
dZu dZtpl (dW)
B ll d Z + 0 11 ciT - k§5 A55 0/1 + d = 0, (8.6.47)
Xl k~5A5:l(ddtplXl + dZ~)
dX
+ P3;:1) = 0
l
The stress resultants Ni(xh,Mi(Xl),i = 1,2,6 and Qj,j = 1,2 are with (8.3.2)
and (8.3.6)
du dtpl
Nl(Xl) = A ll - +B l l - '
d Xl d Xl
du dtpl
NZ(Xl) = A 12 - + B1Z- '
d Xl d Xl
N 6 (Xl ) = 0,
du dtpl
Ml(Xl)=Bl l - +Oll-d'
d Xl Xl (8.6.48)
du dtpl
Mz(xd = B12 - + 012-'
d Xl d Xl
M 6 (Xl ) = 0,
Ql (Xl) = k~5A55 (tpl + :~) ,

QZ(Xl) = 0
The three coupled differential equations for u, wand tpl can be reduced to one
uncoupled differential equation for tpl. The first equation yields
dZu Bll dZtpl d 3u Bll d 3tpl
(8.6.49)
dxi - - All dxi' dXf - All dXf
Differentiating the second equation and substituting the equation above result in
3tpl 3tpl
W)
d -
2
-BII
-- d - + D -d
u
5
- - kssA (dtpl
ss - +- = 0
Au dXf dXf dXl dXI
. ( Du - Au
or with BIl) = D u
R
3tpl
d tpl d2W) R d
~sAss ( dXl + dXI = D u dXf (8.6.50)
Substituting Eq. (8.6.50) in the third equation (8.6.47) yield an uncoupled equation
for tpl (Xl)
R d 3tpl
D u dx 3 = -P3 (8.6.51)
1
The uncoupled equations for u(xd and W(Xl) follow then as
d 2u
-z
dXl
= - -Au dZtpl
--z'
Bll dX
-
dw
dXl
= -tpl + -Dfl dZtpl
- --z
k§sA dX
(8.6.52)
l ss l
The three uncoupled equations can be simple integrated
Dfltpl(Xl) =- III P3(Xl)dxldxldxl + c1 1+ CZXl + C3,
W(Xl) = DIfl [IIfI P3(xddxldxldxldxl + Cl :f + Cz ~I

k§s~ss [II P3(xd d xl dxl + ClXl]
(8.6.53)
+ C3Xl +C4] -
= wB(xd + WS(Xl),
U(Xl) = - ~:: DIfJ. [III P3(xddxldxldxl + ClXl + Cs]
Thus the general analytical solutions for unsymmetric cross-ply laminated strips are
calculated. For symmetrical cross-ply laminated strips the equations yield Dfl =
D u and Au u" (Xl) = O. Restricting to symmetrical cross-ply laminated strips
analytical solutions for buckling or vibrations can be developed analogous to Timo-
shenko's beams or to the classical strip problems.
For a buckling load N l (Xl) = - No follow with P3 = 0
dZtpl - kssA dW)

ss tpl + -d = 0,
5 (
Du--z
dX l Xl
(8.6.54)
d tpl dZW) dZw
~sAss ( -d +-Z +NO- =0
Xl dXl d Xl
The equations can be uncoupled. With
d tp1 d 2W) 011 d 3tp1

( d X1 + dxi = k~5A55 d Xf '
d 3tp1 d 4w d 2w
~5 A55 d Xf = -~5ASS d xi - No dX1
one obtain s analogous to Eq. (7.3.23)
4 2
0 11 1- - s - -
No ) - w4
d - + N o-d w- = 0 (8.6.55)
( kssAss dX 1 dX1
The general solution for the eigenv alue problem (8.6.55) follows with
w( xd = Ce Axj (8.6.56)
and the characteristic equation
0 11 (1 - k55N~ 55 ) A+ NoA = 0
S
4 2
(8.6.57)
with the solutions

A1/ 2 = ±ik, A3 / 4 =0
as
W(X1) = C1 sin kx, + C2 cos kx, + C3X1 + C4 (8.6.58)
If we assume, e.g. simply supported edges X1(0 ) = O, x 1(a) , follow with w(O) =
w (a) = wl/(O) = wl/(a) = 0 the free coefficients C2 = C3 = C4 = 0 and
C 1 sin ka = O. If C1 f. 0 follow with sin ka = 0 the solution k = m 7[ / a =
IXm( m = 1,2, . . .) and k = IX~ and thus
2
No 2 0 11 ~5A55 1X~
1>.T ) = IXm' No = 0 lX2 i.s A
0 11 ( 1- -1'- 10'0
- 11 m + 1\55 5S
~5As5
The critic al buckling load corresponds to the smallest value of No which is obtained
for m = 1
011k~sAS5 7[2 7[ 20 11 1
N cr = = - 2- ------;;,----- (8.6.59)
0117[2 + k~5A 55a2 a 1 7[ 2011
+ a2k55
s A
55
It can be seen that analogous to the Timoshenko's beam, Sect. 7.3, the including of
shear deformations decrea ses the buckling loads .
The free vibration s equations of the Timo shenko 's beams were also considered
in Sect. 7.3. For symmetri c cross-ply laminated plate strips we obtain comparable
equations
2tp1
d 2 - k s A S5 ( tpl + -d
dW) ePtp
011--
d X1 55 Xl = at 2 '
P2
~SAS5 ( ~~~ + ~:? ) a2 w

= Po at 2
(8.6.60)
po and P2 were defined as
~ p(k)h(k),
= LJ _ 1 ~ (k) (k)3 (k_l)3)
Po P2 - 3 LJ P X3 - X3
k=l k=l
and the tenus involving po and P2 are the translatory and the rotatory inertia tenus.
0/1 and W are functions of xl and t and thus we have partial derivatives. If we assume
again both strip edges simply supported the analytical solution follow with
W( xl , t ) = Clme- iwm t SIn

. mrrxl
--,
a
W(O, t) = w(a, t) = 0,
(8.6.61)
0/1 (Xl, t) = C2me-iwmt COS mrrxl , do/I(0, t) = do/I (a, t) = 0
dXl a dXl
Substituting these solution function s into the vibration equations (8.6.60) follow
[Dll it~ +sk55A55itm

~5A55 - P2W~ s k§5~55itm 2] [C2m] =
k55A55itm - POW m Cl m
[ 0]
0
The nontrivial solution of the homogeneous algebraic equation yields the eigenfre-
quencies W m
(8.6.62)
or
POP2W~ - (DllPoit m + k§5 A55PO + k§5A55P2it~)2w~ + Dllk§5A55it~ = 0
4 2 2 _ B 1/ 2
AW m - BWm + C = 0, Wm - 2A ± 2A V B2 - 4A C
The general solution for the vibration equations can be formulated for arbitrary
boundary conditions. For harmonic oscillations we write
(8.6.63)
Substituting W(Xl' t) and 0/1 (Xl, t) in the coupled partial differential equations
(8.6.60) yield
2
D ll d 0/ldXI(x}) - k55A 55 s (
0/1 + dx,
dW( Xl))
+ P2 W
2
o/(Xl) = 0,
2W(Xl)) (8.6.64)
ks A (do/l(Xl) d 2 ( ) 0
55 55 d
Xl
+ d 2
Xl
+ POW W Xl =
These both equation s can be uncoupled . With

do/I(x}) 2 d 2w(Xl)
k§5 A55 d = -POW w(x}) - k§5 A55 d
Xl Xl
or
4w(Xl) d 2W ( Xl )
a
d
4 +b 2
() _
- CW Xl -
0 (8.6.65)
dX l dX l
The general solution can be derived as

w(xd = Cl sin AIXI + C2 cos A2Xl + C3 sinh A3Xl + C4 cosh A4Xl (8.6.66)
The Ai are the roots of the characteristic algebraic equation of (8.6.65). The deriva-
tions above demonstrated that for any boundary conditions an analytical solution
is possible. Unlike to the classical theory we restricted the considerations in the
frame of the shear deformation theory to cross-ply laminated strips. Summarizing
the derivations we can draw the following conclusions:
• Cylindrical bending yields simple analytical solutions for unsymmetrical and
symmetrical cross-ply laminated plate strips.
• Restricting to symmetrical laminated cross-ply plate strips we can obtain ana-
lytical solutions for buckling and vibrations problems, but for general boundary
conditions the analytical solution can be with difficulty.
2. Navier solution
Navier's double series solution can be used also in the frame of the shear deforma-
tions plate theory. Analogous to Sect. 8.6.1 double series solutions can be obtain for
symmetric and antisymmetric cross-ply and angle-ply laminates with special types
of simply supported boundary conditions . In the interest of brevity the discussion
is limited here to symmetrical laminated cross-ply plates, i.e. specially orthotropic
plates. The in-plane and out-of-plane displacements are then uncoupled.
Rectangular specially orthotropic plates may be simply supported (hard hinged
support) on all four edges.
Xl = 0, Xl = a:
W = 0, Ml =0 respectively tp2 = 0,
(8.6.67)
X2 = 0, x2 = b:
W = 0, M2 = 0 respectively dtp2 = 0, tpl = 0
dX2
The boundary conditions can be satisfied by the following expressions:
00 00
rlT
W(Xl, X2) = L L W rs sin ItrXl sin {3sX2, a, = - ,
a
r=l s=l
00 00
tpl(Xl, X2) = L L tplrs cos ItrXl sin (3sX2, {3s =

Sf[
b' (8.6.68)
r= l s=l
00 00
tp2(Xl,X2) = L L tp2rssinltrXl cos {3sX2

r=l s=l
The mechanical loading P3(XI I X2) can be also expanded in double Fourier sine
series
00 00
P3(XI I X2) = L L prs sin /trXl sin f3s X21

r=l s=l
a b (8.6.69)
prs = :b JJ
o 0
P3(Xl IX2) sin/trXl sinf3sx2dxldx2
Now the Navier solution method can be extended to Mindlin's plates with all edges
simply supported, but the solution is more complex than for Kirchhoff's plates . Sub-
stituting the expression (8.6.68) and (8.6.69) into the plate differential equations
(8.3.8) gives
[ t~~ t~~ t~] [~~::] = [~

L13 L 23 L 33 Wr s prs
] (8.6.70)
with
L ll = Dll/t~ + D66f3~ + k~5A551
L12 = (D I2 + D 66)/trf3SI LI3 = k~5A55/trl
(8.6.71)
L 22 = D66/t~ + D22f3~ + k~~A441
L33 = k~5A55/t~ + k~4A44f3sl L33 = ~4A44f3s
Solving the Eqs. (8.6.65), one obtains
L 12L23 - L22LI3
t/JIrs = Det(Lij) p rsl
L 12L13 - LllL23
t/J2rs = Det( Lij) p rsl (8.6.72)
LIIL22 - Lt2
Wrs = Det(L p rs
ij)
Det( Lij) is the determinant of the matrix in (8.6.65).
If the three kinematic values W(XI I X2), t/JI (XII X2), t/J2(XJ, X2) are calculated
the curvatures KI I K2 and K6 may be obtained and the stresses in each lamina follow
from (8.3.3) to
0"1 ] (k)
0"2 = X3
[Qll QI2
Q12 Q22
0 ] (k) [KI]
0 K2 I
[
0"6 0 0 Q66 K6
(8.6.73)
0"5 ] (k)
[ 0"4
= [C55 0 ] (k) [t/JI
0 C44
+ :~
dw
]
t/J2 + dX2
In a analogous manner natural vibrations and buckling loads can be calculated for
rectangular plates with all edges hard hinged supported .
3. Nedei-Levy solution
The Nadai-Levy solution method can also be used to develop analytical solu-
tions for rectangular plates with special layer stacking and boundary conditions,
respectively, but the solution procedure is more complicated than in the frame
of classical plate theory. We do without detailed considerations and recommend
approximate analytical solutions or numerical methods to analyze the behavior of
general laminated rectangular plates including shear deformations and supported
by any combination of clamped, hinged or free edges.
Summarizing the discussion of analytical solutions for plates including trans-
verse shear deformations one can formulate following conclusion
• Analytical solutions for symmetrical and unsymmetrical laminated plates can be
derived for cylindrical bending, buckling and vibration.
• Navier's double series solutions can be simple derived for specially orthotropic
plates. Navier's solution method can be also applied to symmetric or antisym-
metric cross-ply and angle-ply laminates, but the solution time needed is rather
high.
• Ritz's , Galerkin's or Kantorovich's methods are suited to analyze generallami-
nated rectangular plates with general boundary conditions.
• Plates with general geometry or with cut outs etc. should be analyzed by numeri-
cal methods
8.7 Problems
1. A plate strip has the width a in Xl-direction and is infinitely long in the X2-
direction . The strip is loaded transversely by a uniformly distributed load Po and
simply supported at Xl = 0, Xl = a. Calculate the deflection w, the resultant
moments MIl M 21 M 6 and the stresses (TI, (T2, (T6
a) for a symmetrical four layer plate [0/90/90/0]
b) for a unsymmetrical four layer plate [0/0/90/90]
Solution:
a) The plate strip is a symmetric cross-ply laminate, i.e. Bij = 0, D 16
D26 = O. The governing differential equations are
d2Ml dM l
-d 2 = -POI - d = Qll
Xl Xl
d 2w d 2w
D U - 2 = -MIl D12- 2 = -M21 M6 = 0 ,
d Xl d Xl
d4w
D U - 4 = Po
d Xl
The vertical deflection w = W(Xl) is
W(Xl) = DIu [po~! + c, :f + C2 ~i + C3Xl + C4]

8.7 Problems 299
Satisfying the boundary conditions

w(O) = 0, w(a) = 0, Ml (0) = 0, M l (a) = 0
yield the unknown constants C1 - C4
qoa qOa 3
Cl=-T' C2=0,C3=24' C4=0
W(Xl) = [( r- (:1)3 (:1)]

and as result the complete solution for the deflection W(Xl)
~6:l :1 2 +
:1 r_x;] ,
The moment resultants follow as
Ml (xd = - p~2 [(
2
M2(Xl) = 012 poa [(X l)2 _ Xl],
0 11 2 a a
M 6 (Xl ) = 0
The strains and stresses at any point can be determined as follow
2w 2
Kl = - d
dXl
= poa [Xl _ (Xl)
2 a a
2], K2 = 0, K6 = 0,
£1 = x3Kl = X3P~2 [:1 - (:1 )2], £2 = 0, £6 = 0

The stresses in each layer are
2
00 _ layers: 0"1= O"f = X3 0Q11 poa
8
[Xl _ (X l)
a a
2] ,
11
2
0"2 = O"~ = X3 Q12 poa [Xl _ (Xl)2] ,
011 8 a a
0"6 = 0,
2
90 o -layers: 0"2 = 0"1, = 3 -poa
x Q12 -- fXl
- - (Xl
- )2] ,
011 8 La a
2
0"1 = O"~ = X3 Q12 poa [Xl _ (Xl )2] ,
011 8 a a
0"6 = 0
b) The plate strip is an unsymmetric cross-ply laminate, i.e. A 16 = A 26 =
16 16
0,-8 = B26 = 0,0 = 0 26 = O. The governing equations follow from
Eqs. (8.2.6) and (8.2.12)
d 2u d 3w d 2v d 4w d 3u
A 11-2 -B 11-- 3 =0, A 66 d 2 =0, OU -B 11 d x3 =P3,
dX l dX l X I d x4I I
du d 2w du d 2w
N, = A 11- - B11-- 2, N 2 = A12- - B12--, N6 = 0,
d Xl dX l dXl dxi
du 2
d w du d 2w
M l = B11- - 0 11--, M2 = B12- - 012--, M 6 = 0
dx, dxi dXl dxi
The equilibrium equations for the stress resultants are
dNl _ 0 d 2Ml _
-d - , - d 2 - -P3
Xl Xl
The displacement U(Xl) and w(x}) are coupled. Substitute

d3u d4w
A 11 - =
dXf
Bll--
dxi
i(::~~S~f;)d~:::ti:~equation yield
or Wi(th Btl) R Po
0 11 1 - A = 0 11, P3 = Po =}
110 11 °fl
For the displacement U(Xl) follows
d3u B11 d 4 w
=
dXf A 11 dxi
or Wi(th
A 11 1 -
Bil) -_ A R 11'
d 4w
4 =
Po
R =}
A 110 11 dXl 0 11
:(::)ili::rr~~1":o:: :J: ;2~r:i;:~lm~o~4]

B11 [qOXf
U(Xl) = 011 Afl -6- + Cl
xi + CSXl + C6]
"2
Note that with
d2u B11 d 3 w
dxt - A 11 dXf
in both equations there are equal constants Cj . The boundary conditions
for wand M l are identically to case a).
The in-plane boundary conditions are formulated for a fixed-free support,
i.e. u(O) = 0, N l (a) = O. The boundary conditions lead to the six un-
known constants C l - C6 and the solution functions are
3
U(Xl) = B11 poa
011Afl 12
[2 ( Xl)
a
3 _ (Xl )2]
a
W(Xl) = ~poa4 [(Xl)4 -2 (Xl)3 + Xl]
0 11 24 a a a
The stress and moment resultants follow as
Nl(Xl) = N6(Xl) = 0,
= ( A 12 Bkl _ B~)
2
N2(Xl) poa [(Xl)2 _Xl],
»: [(:1)2 _:1],
011A11 0 11 2 a a
Ml(X}) =
M 2(Xl ) = (Bil -A012 A11) 20

poa: [(Xl)2 _ Xl] ,
a a
11 11
M 6 (Xl ) =0
8.7 Problems 301
It is interesting to compare the results of case a) and case b). The forms of
are for the two cases identical except for the magnitude. With
W(Xl)
1 1 1
-- >-
0fl ( Btl)
0 11 1- A 0
0 11
11 11
the deflection of the unsymmetric laminate strip will be greater than the
deflection of the symmetric laminate . Note that there is no force resultant
N l (Xl) in the unsymmetric case but it is very interesting that there is a
force resultant N 2 as a function of Xl, but N 2(0) = N 2 (a) = O. With
2
€l= du = B11 R poa [(Xl)2 _Xl], €2=€6=O,
dXl 0l1A11 2 a a
2
Kl = - d = _ poa: [(Xl)2 _ Xl], K2 = K6 = 0
dX2l 20 11 a a
follow the strains €l, €2 and the stresses (Tl, (T2 for the 0 0 and 90 0-layers
in a similar manner like case a). With B11 = B12 = 0 case b) yields the
symmetrical case a).
2. A plate strip of the width a with a symmetric al cross-ply stacking is subjected a
downward line load u« at Xl = a12. Both edges of the strip are fixed. Calcul ate
the maximum deflection Wma x using the shear deformation theory.
Solution :
With (8.6.51) and (8.6.52) follow
d 3!/J l
ofl = 3
0 11, 011- = qOe5(Xl - i a) ,
d Xl
1
with
1 {O1
e5(Xl - -a) =
2
Xl f:. al2
Xl = al2 ' ! 1 1
e5(Xl - -a)dxl =< xl - -a >
2 2
0
< Xl - e > is Foppel's bracket symbol:
< Xl - e> =
n {O( Xl - e)n xlXl >< ee '
- d < Xl - e > n = n < Xl - e > n-l ,
dx,
! < Xl - e > n dXl = 1+n

1
< Xl - e > n+l +C
With (8.6.53) the analytical solutions for !/Jl and ware given
1 1 2 Xl2
0l1!/Jl(Xl) = iqo < Xl - i a > +C12 + C2Xl + C3,
1 1 1 3 Xl3 Xl2 ]
w(xd = - -qo < Xl - -a > +Cl - + C2 - + C3 Xl + C4
0 11 [ 6 2 6 2
1 1
- -s--[qO < Xl - -a > +C IXl]
kssAss 2
2
0/1 (xd = qoa [(XI)2 _ Xl] ,
8011 a a
3
W(XI) = _ qoa [3 (Xl )2_
4 (Xl )3] _ qoa Xl = wB + wS,
480 11 a a 2k5sAss a
qoa 3 qoa
W max = 1920 11 + 4k ssA ss
The classical plate theory yields with kssA ss -+ 00 the known value
qoa 3
W max = 1920 11
3. Bending of a quadratic sandwich plate
A quadratic sandwich plate has a symmetric cross-section. The plate properties
are a = b = 1 m, hi = 0,2875 10- 3 m, hC = 24,7110- 3 m, E! = 1,42 lOs
MPa, v! = 0,3, G! = E! /2(1 + v!), GC = 22 MPa. The cover sheet and the
core material are isotropic, hi « h'', The transverse uniform distributed load
is p = 0,05 MPa. The boundary conditions are hard hinged support for all
boundaries. Calculate the maximum flexural displacement W max with the help
of a one-term Ritz approximation.
Solution:
The elastic potential II(w, 0/1, 0/2) of a symmetric and special orthotropic
Mindlin 's plate is given by (8.3.18). For stiff thin cover sheets and a core
which transmits only transverse shear stresses the bending and shear stiffness
for isotropic face and core materials are (8.4.1)
Oij = hcClf) = hC [Q~h(f)fV)] = hCh!~ (h C+h!) Q~P,

«ij) = (11) , (22), (66), (12)) with
E! viE!
Q11 = 1 _ (v!)2 = Q22, Q12 = 1 _ (v!)2' Q66 = G!
and
A~ = hCCfj = hCG c, (ij) = (44), (55)
8.7 Problems 303
new, t/Jl, t/J2) =

/ { "2I hCh f (h C + h)
f [
Qll
(dt/Jl )
dXl
2
+ 2Q12 (dt/J1 dt/J2)
dXl dX2
A
+ Q22 ( dX2
dt/J2 ) 2+ Q66 (dt/Jl dt/J2 ) 2]
dX2 + dXl
+ ~ hCG C
[ ( t/Jl + :~) 2 + (t/J2 + ::) 2] } dXl dX2
- / PWdXldx2
The one-term approximations
W(XI,x2 ) . ( -a
= al SIn 7TXI) . (a
- sin 7Tx2 ) '
7TXl) sm
t/Jl (Xl, X2) = a2 COS ( -a- 7TX2 ) ,
. ( -a-
t/J2(Xl,X2)=a3 sm 7TXI ) COS ( -a-

. ( -a- 7TX2)
satisfy the boundary conditions . Substituting these approximative functions into

Tl follow IT = IT(al,a2,a3) and the conditions for a minimum of Tl, i.e.
dIT/da l = 0, i = 1,2,3 yield the equations for the undetermined coefficients
ai
Ka =q
with
aT = [al a2 a3], qT = [16p/7T 2 a 0]
and
K=
hCG CA hcM x§ (Q12 + Q66)A2 hChfx§ (Q22 + Q66)A2 + hCG c

with A = 7T/ a. The solution of the system of three linear equations leads to
al = 0, 0222, a2 = a3 = -0, 046 and the maximum displacement follows to
Wmax = W(XI = a/2, X2 = a/2) = al = 2,22 cm.
4. A simply supported laminate plate [00/900/00] has the following material
properties: Ern = 3.4 GPa, Ef = 110 GPa, Vm = 0.35, vf = 0.22, V rn = 0.4,
vf == ep = 0.6, Gm = Em/2(1 + vm ) = 1.2593 GPa, Gf = Ef/2(1 + vf ) =
45.0820 GPa, h(l ) = h(2 ) = h(3 ) = 5 mm, a = b = 1 m.
a) Formulate the equation for the bending surface for a lateral unit load
F = 1 N at Xl = 51, X2 = 52 using the classical laminate theory.
b) Formulate the equation for the natural frequencies of the laminate plate
using the classical plate theory and neglecting the rotatory inertia .
Solution :
a) The stacking sequence of the layers yields a symmetric cross-ply plate
which is specially orthotropic (Table 8.1) Bij = 0,016 = 026 = 0
d4 W d4 W d4 W
0 11~ + 2(0 12 + 2066):. 2:. 2 + 022:;--Z = P3(X1, X2)
oX1 oX1oX2 uX2
The boundary conditions are (Fig. 8.5)
w(O, X2) = w(a, X2) = W(X1, 0) = W(X1, b) = 0,
M 1(0, X2) = M1 (a, X2) = M2(X1, 0) = M2(XJ, b) = 0

The Navier 's double infinite series solution (8.6.21) - (8.6.23) leads to
W(X1,xz) = f: f: ~rs sin arX1 sin {3 sxz
r=l s= l rs
with
drs = [Olla; + 2(0 12 + 2066)a~{3~ + Ozz{3;], ar = r;, s;,
{3s =
4F. ~ . {3 ~
prs = ab sm ar.) 1 SIn s.)z
With (section 2.2.1)
, EfEm
E~ = Efvf + Emv m = 67,36 GPa, Ez = EfV m + EmVf = 8,12 GPa,
, GfG
G12 = Gf Vm + Gf mVf = 3,0217GPa
vb = "I"! + VmVm = 0,272, V;l = vbE;/E~ = 0,0328
and (4.1.3)
Q~l = EU(l - vb v;l) = 67,97 GPa,
Q~z = E;/(1- v~Zv;l) = 8,194 GPa,
Q;z = Q~l = v~zQ~z = 2,229 GPa,
Q~6 = G~z = 3,02 GPa

follow (4.2.15) the stiffness
8.7 Problems 305
0 I).. -- ~3 L...
~ Q ij(k) ( ( x (k) )3 _ ( x (k- 1) )3) '
3 3
k=l
(! )
Q I) = Q (3)
I)
= Q(O
I)
Oj = Q~ .
I) '
Q ~~)
I)
= Q I)(~OOl ' Q (2) _ Q (l )
11 - 22 '
(2) _ Q (l ) Q (2) _ Q (l )
Q 22 - 11' 66 - 66 '
x3
(0)
= - 7,5mm, x3(1) _
- -2,5mm,
X3
(2)
= 2,5mm, X~3) = 7,5 mm,
0 11 = 18492 Nm, 0 22 = 2927 Nm,
0 12 = 0 21 = 627 Nm, 0 66 = 849 Nm

The equation for the bending surface is
Fa2 ~ ~ sin It r51 sin f3 s5 2 . .
W(X1, X2) = n 4 r~ s~ 18492r4 + 4650r252 + 292754 SIn It r
Xl
SIn f3 sX2
If F = 1 N then W ( X1 , X2 ) represents the influence surface, i.e. the de-

flection at (Xl , X2) due to a unit load at (51, 52). This influence function
W(X1, X2; 51,52) is sometimes called Green 's function of the plate with
all boundaries simply supported. In the more general case of a rectangular
plate a :f. b the Green's function is
F ~ ~ sin ltr 51 sinf3s52 . .
W ( X1, X2; 51,52) = ~b L... L... d SIn It r X l Sin f3 sX2
n a r=l s= l rs
The Green 's function can be used to calculate the bending surfaces of sim-
ply supported rectangul ar plates with any transverse loading. With the solu-
tion W(X1 , X2) we can calculate the stress resultants M1, M 2, M6, Q 1, Q 2
and the stresses 0"1,0"2, 0"6, O"s and 0"4 using (8.6.27) and (8.6.28).
b) Using (8.6.41) the equation for the natural frequencies of a simply sup-
ported rectangular plate is
4
w;s = ;h [011 1t ; + 2 (0 12 + 2066) It;f3~ + 0 2213:]
with
h -- "'h(k) _ ~ '" (k) ( (k) _ (k-1 »)
L... ' P - h L...P x3 x3
(k) (k)
The fundamental frequency corresponds to r = 5 = 1 and is given by
wi1= p~;4 [011 + 2(012 + 2066 ) G)2 + 0 22 G) 4]
For a = b = 1 m and the given material properties we find the fund amental
natural frequency
1593,S
W 11 = ---
VPh
5. Consider a cylindrically orthotropic circular plate with a midpl ane symmetric
layer stacking under the conditions of axisymmetric loading and displacements.
a) Develop the differential equations for in-plane loading . Calculate the stress
resultants for a solid disk (R, h, Ey , Eo, vro) loaded a) with a radial bound-
ary force Nr(R) = -Nro and (3) with a body force hp, = hpw 2r caused
by spinning the disk about the axis with an angular velocity w.
b) Develop the differential equations for transverse loading under the con-
dition of the first order shear deformation theory. Calculate the stress re-
sultants for a solid plate (R, h, Er, Eo,vro) loaded by a uniform constant
pressure P3(r) == -Po and a) clamped, respectively, (3) simply supported
at the boundary r = R.
Solution:
With Sect. 2.1.5 we obtain xl = x-, x2 = e, x3 = Z, £T1 = a-, £T2 = £TO,
£T6 = £TrO, £1 = e., £2 = £0, £6 = £rO . For axisymmetric deformations of
circular disks and plates all stresses, strains and displacements are independent
of e, i.e. they are function s of r alone and £T6 = 0, £6 = O.
a) For an in-plane loaded cylindrical orthotropic circular disk under the con-
dition of axisymmetric deformations the equilibrium, constitutive and geo-
metric equations are:
Equil ibrium Equations (Fig. 8.7)
With cos(rc/2 - de/2) = sin(de/2) ~ de/2 follow
d(rNr) N 0
dr - 0 + prr =
Constitutive Equations
N, = Au£r + A 12£o, No = A12£r + A22£O, Nro = 0
Geometric Equations
n, + d N,
Fig. 8.7. Disc element (rdrd8)h

8.7 Problems 307
du u
e; = -, £e = -,
'"rre = 0
dr r
These equations forming the following system of three ordinary differential
equations
d(rNr)
~-Ne = -por,
du u du u
N r = A U - + A12-, N e = A 12- + A22-
dr r dr r
involving three unknown quantities N», N e and u. Substituting the stress re-
sultants in the equilibrium equations yield one uncoupled differential equa-
tion for u(r)
r d2u + du _ ~b2u = _ rpr
dr 2 dr r Au
with 152 = Ani Au or
d 2u 1 du
-+ ----u
152
=--
r-
dr 2 r dr r2 Au
a) Radial boundary force
- APr = 0, Nr(R) = -Nro, RI = 0, R2 =R
n
The general solution of the differential equations follow with
u(r) = CrA, A = ±b
as
u(r) = Clr+" + C2r-o
With R I = O,R2 = R we obtain C2 = O,CI = -Nro/[(Aub +
Au)Ro-I] and such
Nr(r) = -Nro (i)O-I, Ne(r) = -Nrob (i)O-1
Conclusion :
For 15 = 1 we have an isotropic disk with the well-known solution N; =
Ne = - Nro . For 15 > 0, i.e. the circumferential stiffness exceeds the radial
stiffness, at r = 0 we have N, = Ne = 0, otherwise for 15 < 0, i.e. the
radial stiffness exceeds the circumferential, at r =
high stress resultants or stresses, respectively.
°
we have infinitely
(3) Body force caused by rotation

With pr = pw 2r we obtain the solution of the inhomogeneous differential
equations as
2 2
s 1 pw 3 0 1 pw 3
U (r) = CI r - Au 9 _ 15 2 r = CI r + Au 152 _ 9 r
For 15 = 1 follow the well-known solution
1- v 2 pw 2 3
u(r) = Cr - r
E 8
b) With Fig. 8.8 we obtain the:
Equilibrium Equations
d(rMr) M Q - 0 d(rQr) 0
dr - e - r r -, dr + rp3 =
Constitutive Equations
M r = DllKr + Dl2 Ke, Me = Dl2Kr + D22 Ke ,

~
Qr = kssAss ( tpr dW)
+ dY
Geometric Equations
dtpr tpr (dW)
x; = dr' Ke = -;:' 'Yrz = tpr + dY
Integrating the second equilibrium equation
Qr(r) = ~ ( Cl - !
P3(r)rdr)
and substituting the M» , Me and Qr equations in the first equilibrium equa-
tion yield
d
2tpr
r dr 2 + dtpr 1 2
dr - r t5ptpr = D
1 (
ll
Cl -
! ) p3rdr ,
152 = 022
p D
ll
The general solution has again the form
tpr(r) = C2rJp + C3r- Jp + tpp(r)
tpp(r) is the particular solution of the inhomogeneous differential equa-
tion depending on the form of the loading function s P3 (r) . The differential
equation for the plate deflection w(r) follows with
Qr + dQr
Fig. 8.8. Plate element (rdrde)h

8.7 Problems 309
k Ass ~~ = Qr -
S
kS A ss1/Jr,
dw
dr
= _1_
S
k Ass
~C1 ~r - ~r J P3(r)rdr) - C2rJp - C3 r- Jp + 1/Jo,
w(r) = kS ~SS Cl In r - J~ J P3(r)rdrdr)

Jp 1
r +
- C2-- - C3-- + C4 -
Op + 1
r- +
Jp 1
1 - op
J 1/J pdr
For a constant pressure P3(r) = -Po we obtain
w(r) = - 1- ( C ln r + - por2)
- - -C2 - r1+Jp - -C3 - r1-Jp
1
kS Ass 4 1 + op 1 - op
C1r2 por4
+ C4+ + ,
2011(O~ -1) 8011(O~ - 9)
111 ( ) - C J p + C r-J p _
C1r por3
'fr r - zr 3 -O-11-(-o~=----l-) 2011(O~ _ 9)
This general solution is not valid for op = 1 and op = 3 because the
particular solutions 1/Jp for op = 1 and op = 3 include terms coinciding
with the fundamental solutions rand r 3 . Therefore, for such values op the
particular solutions must be determined in another form. For op = 1, i.e.
for the isotropic case, one can use 1/Jp = Ar In r + Br3 and for op = 3
1/Jp = Ar + Br3 and one obtains the general solutions
op = 1
w(r) = kS A1 5 ( C1 I n r + por2) 1
-2:C2r 2
-C3Inr
--
s 4
+ C4 - - C1-1
A
40 11
(
2
1)
In r - - +por --
640 11'
4
1 rlnr por3
1/Jr(r) = C2 r + C3, + Cl + 160
20 11 11
op = 3
w(r) =- 1- ( C por2) 1
- -C2r 4
+C31-2
1lnr+ - -
kSA ss 4 4 2r
+ C4 - r
2
C1 160 11 + 480
por (
11
ln r - 4 '
1)
3 1 r In r po 3
1/Jr(r) = C2r + C3 r 3 - C180 11 + 120 r In r
11
The constants C l, C2, C3 and C4 are determined from the boundary condi-
tions at the inner and outer plate edge. For solid plates with R 1 = 0, R2 =
R the constants C1 and C3 must be zero, otherwise 1/Jr and w tend to infinity
at the plate center. For 0 # 3 the general solution for solid plates is
2 2]
por [ 1 r C2 1+b
w(r) = 4"" k~5A55 + 2011(b~ - 9) - 1 + 15/ p + C4,
_ bp _ POr3
o/r(r) - C2r 2011(b~ _ 9)
a) Clamped solid circular plate (b p 'I- 3)
The boundary conditions are 0/1 (R) = 0, w(R) = 0 yield the constants C2
and C4 and the solution as
w(r) = _~(R2 - r2)
4k s A55
+
Po 3 bp
- [R
r1+bp r4 R4 p
--+~~~~
(b - 3)]
2011(b~-9) l+b p 4 4(1+b p )
f3) Simply supported solid circularplate (b p 'I- 3)
We take now the boundary conditions w(R) = 0 and Mr(R) = 0 and have
the solution
w(r) = _~(R2 _ r2)2
4ksA55
3 b
+ Po [( 30 11 + 012)R - p (r1+bp _ Rl+bp)
2011(b~ - 9) (bp0 11 + 0n)(1 + bp )
+ ~(R4 _ r 4)]
Note that if the transverse shear deformations are neglected we must put
k~5A55 -+ 00 . In the particular case k~5A55 -+ 00 and bp = 1 follow the
well-known solutions for the classical theory of isotropic plates, i.e.
_~(R2 _
4
a) w(r) =
640
r2)2 = _poR
640 R
[1- (!-)]2
f3) w(r) = _~(R2_r2)
640 1+v
R 2 _ r2) (S+V
= -~~~ [1- or [~:~ -(i)2]
6. A rectangular uniformly loaded symmetric cross-ply plate, Fig. 8.9, is clamped
at the edges X2 = ±b and can be arbitrary supported at the edges xl =
±a. The deflection W(Xl, X2) may be represented in separated-variables form
W(Xl, X2) = Wij(Xl, X2) = !i(xdgj(X2) .
a) Formulate one-term approximate solutions using the Vlasov-Kantorovich
method, (2.2.45) - (2.2.47), based on the variation of the potential energy
JI(w) .
b) Demonstrate for the special case of a plate clamped at all edges the ex-
tended Kantorovich method using the Galerkin's equations .
Solution:
The differential equation and the elastic potential energy can be formulated,
Table 8.1 and Eq. (8.2.24),
(j4 w (j4 w (j4 w
01:1"4
oX l
+ 203 uX
::. 2::. 2 + 02:1"4
oX
= PO,
lux2 2
8.7 Problems 311
with 0 1 = DIll Oz = 0 ZZ10 3 = 0 12 + 20 661pz = Po
I1(w) ~~ 11 [Dn (;:i)' +022 (;;,)'
azw aZw
+ 2012 - z - z + 40 66 ( ~
aZW) Z
ox
]
- 2po d Xl d xz
aX1 ax z oXl Z
The one-term approximate solution W(Xl1 xz) = Wij(Xll xz) = fi(xdgj(xz)
has an unknown function Ji(Xl) and a priori chosen trial function gj(xz), which
satisfy at least the geometric boundary conditions at Xz = ±b.
a) The variation 1511 of the elastic potential energy 11(w ) yields
t511(w ) = 21 JaJb[( O ll azw azw) (azw)

aXI + 0 12 ax~ 15 aXI
-a- b
+ (0 12 ~:~ + 0 22 ~:7 )15 (~:7 )

+ 40 66 ( a: ;:X z) 15 ( a: ;:X z) - pot5w] d Xl d xz
Substituting W(Xl1 xz) = f i(xdgj(xz) one obtains
a
t511(w) = J
-a
[OllAf['t5f[' + 0 12 B(f[' t5 f i + f it5f!') + OzzCJit5Ji
where
X2
b
x
a a
Fig. 8.9. Rectangular uniformly loaded plate, cross- ply symmetrically laminated, clamped at
the longitudinal edges x2 = ±b and arbitrary boundary conditions at the edges Xl = ±a
b b b
A = J-b
gr d x21 B = J-b
gj'gj d X21 C= J
-b
(gj') 2d x 2'
b b
D =J (gj) 2d x 21 Po = J POgj d X2
-b -b
Integrating B by parts yield
b
B= gjgjl~b - J
-b
(gj) 2dx 2 = -D
because gj(±b) = 0 for plates with clamped or simply supported edges

x2 = ±b. Now we integrated by parts the term
a
J
-a
fI' sff' dXI
of bIT
a a a
J
-a
fI'bfI'dxI = J
-a
ff'(bfi)//dxl = fI'bfI[a - J
-a
fI"(bJi)'dxl
a
= ff'bfII~a - fl//bfil~a + J fI"'bfidxI
and the condition bIT = ° -a

yields the ordinary differential equations and
the natural boundary conditions for fi (Xl)
DIAfI"'(xd - 2D 3D fI'(xd + D2Cfi(XI) = Po,
at Xl = ±a :
[DuAff'(Xl) - D12Dfi(xd]bf[(XI) = 0,
[DuAfI//(XI) - D12Df[(XI) +4D 66Df[(XI)]bfi(Xl)
If a plate edge is clamped, we have f = 0, f' = 0, if it is simply supported,
= °
°
we have f = 0, f" = and if it is free, we have
(DuAfI' + D12Bfi) = 0, (DuAfI// + D12BfI - 4D66Bf[) = °
The differential equation for f(Xl) can be written in the form
f""(XI) - 2kif//(Xl) + kif(xd = k p
with
k2 _ DD3 k42 = CD 2 k _ Po
1 - AD l' ADI' P- ADI
The solutions of the differential equation are given in App. G in depen-
dence on k~ < ki, k~ = ki or k~ > ki in the form
4
f(xd = L C/p/(xd + fp
/=1
with fp = polD2e. The solutions can be simplified if the problem is
symmetric or antisymmetric. The constants C/ can be calculated with the
boundary conditions at xl = ±a.
8.7 Problems 313
b) In the special case of all plate edges are clamped the corresponding bound-
ary conditions are
Xl = ±a : w = 0, ~w = 0, Xz = ±b : w = 0, ~w = 0
OXl OXZ
The one-term deflection approximation is assumed again in the form
W(Xl, xz) = Wij(Xl, xz) = !i(Xl)gj(XZ) . The Galerkin 's procedure yields
f fb (01 d4W
a ij d4Wij d4Wij )
dxi + 203 dxidX~ + Oz dxi - Po gjdXZ = 0
-a -b
:~w(ef~:~:') d4~ + dX 1
203 (fb dZ~
dx
gjdX Z) d ~ +
Z
Z
dX 1
-b -b
Oz (i .~~
-b
gjdX,) !i = i
-b
PogjdXZ
Two of the integral coefficients must be integrated by parts
f
b
dZgj
- - g odxz = -
dx~ J
j I
dgg o -
dxz J -b
b
fb
(d
-
g j)
dxz
dxz ,
-b -b
fbd4gj
dx4 gjdxZ =
d
3gj
Ib dZgj dg j Ib
dx3 gj -b - dx z dxz -b +
fb
(d Zg j) Z
dxz dxz
-b Z Z Z -b Z
The results can be simplified because for the clamped edges follow
j
gJo(±b) = 0, dg I - 0
dxz ±b -
:: (l:~:~ ~~ ::::"[1(:;0):::,r~~ +
0, (L ~~ dX') Ii 1 = pogjdx,
To improve the one-term approximative plate solution we present in a sec-
ond step now !i(Xl) a priori and obtain in a similar manner a differential
equation for an unknown function g/xz)
0, Uj,'dXj) ~~ - [1 Ut;)' dX'] ~~

203 +
OJ U(~~ )' dX}i 1 = POlidXj

In this way we have two ordinary differential equations of the iterative

solution procedure which can be written
d 4f: dZJ..
DIAg------i - 2D3Dg----:J.- + DzCgfi = POg,
dXI dXI
d 4g. dZg.
1
DzA f - - 2D 3Df -1 + DICfg · = POf
dx~ dx~ 1
Both equations can be rearranged in the standard form, App. G
4fi
d Z dZfi 4
- 4 - 2k l g - Z + kzg/i = kpg,
dXI dXI
d 4gj Z dZgj 4
- - 4 - 2klf--z + kzfg j = k pf
dx z dx z
with
Z DgD3 4 CgDz POg
k l g = AgD I' kZg = AgD I' kpg = AgD I'
kZ _ Of 03 k4 _ CfD z k _ POf
If - AfD I' zf - AfD I' pf - AfD I
The solutions of both equations are summarized in App. G and depend on
the relation between k~g and kt g or qf and ktf' respectively.
The iterations start by chosing the first approximation as
w~~ =h(XI)gl(XZ), w~z{ =!z(XI)gl(XZ), w~l =!z(XI)gZ(XZ), . . .
In the special case under consideration the first approximation is
WlO(XI,XZ) = h(XI)(X~ - bZ)z
and satisfy the boundary conditions w = 0, dw/i:)Xz = 0, Xz = ±b. For a
number of widely used composite material we have k~ > kt.
Because the
problem is symmetric we have then the simplified solution
k
h (Xl) = CI cosh aXI cos bXI + Cz sinh aXI sin bXI + ~g
kZg
The constants CI , Cz can be calculated with
h(±a) dh I = 0
= 0, dXI ±a
and w~OJ (Xl, xz) is determined. Now one can start the next step
WW(XI, xz) = h (Xdgl (xz)
with the function h (xd as the a priori trial function . The iteration steps
can be repeated until the convergence is satisfying. In the most engineering
applications
w~Oll(XI'XZ) = h(XI)gl(XZ)
can be used as satisfying closed analytical solution, i.e. wW (Xl, xz) is suit-
able for engineering analysis of deflection and stresses in a clamped rect-
angular special orthotropic plate with uniform lateral load and different
aspect ratios .
9. Modelling and Analysis of Circular Cylindrical
Shells
In the previous Chaps. 7 and 8 we have considered beams and plates, i.e. one- and
two-dimensional structural elements with straight axes and plane reference surfaces.
Thin-walled laminated or sandwich shells can be also modelled as two-dimensional
structural elements but with single or double curved reference surfaces. To cover
shells of general shape a special book is necessary, because a general treatment
of shells of any geometry demands a detailed application of differential geometry
relations.
To give a brief insight into the modelling of shells only the simplest shell ge-
ometry will be selected and the following considerations are restricted to circular
cylindrical shells. The modelling and analysis of circular cylindrical shells fabri-
cated from fibre composite material, i.e. its structural theory, depends on the ra-
dius/thickness ratio RIh. For thin-walled shells, i.e. for R/h » 1, either the classical
or the first order shear deformation shell theory is capable of accurately predicting
the shell behavior. For thick-walled shells, say R/h < 10, a three-dimen sional mod-
elling must be used.
Each single lamina of a filamentary composite material behaves again macro-
scopically as if it were a homogeneous orthotropic material. If the material axes of
all laminae are lined up with the shell-surface principal coordinates, i.e., the axial
and circumferential directions, the shell is said to be special orthotropic or circum-
ferential cross-ply circular cylindrical shell. Since the often used cylindrical shells
with closely spaced ring and/or stringer stiffeners also can be approximated by con-
sidering them to be specially orthotropic , a greater number of analysis have been
carried out for such shell type. If the material-symmetry axes are not lined up with
the shell principal axes, the shell is said to be anisotropic, but since there is no struc-
tural advantage for shells constructed in this way it has been not often subjected to
analysis.
In Chap. 9 there are only a short summarizing section on sandwich shells and
no special section considering hygrothermo-elastic effects. Both problems can be
simple retransmitted from the correspond ing sections in Chaps. 7 and 8. Also a spe-
cial discussion of analytical solution methods 'will be neglected, because no general
shell problems are considered .
316 9. Modelling and Analysis of Circular Cylindrical Shells
9.1 Introduction
Chapter 9 gives a short introduction to the theory of circular cylindrical shells in the
frame of the classical shell theory and the shell theory including transverse shear de-
formations. Fig. 9.1 shows a laminated circular cylindrical shell with general layer
stacking, the global coordinates Xl = X, X2 = S = Rep, x3 = z, and the principal
material coordinates 1 = x~, 2 = x;. In the theory of circular cylindrical shells the
most complex problem is the modelling and analysis of laminated shells with an
arbitrary stacking of the layers and arbitrary loading. The at least complex problem
is a mid-plane symmetric cross-ply laminated shell with axially symmetric loads
using the classical shell theory. The mathematically modelling leads in this case to
an ordinary differential equation . This type of stacking and loading will be primary
considered in Chap. 9, because analytical solutions can be derived. Generally as-
sumed is that each layer having a constant angle of wrap, constant volume ratio of
b 1 = x~ c
z
, z(II) -_ ~
' i"-I) 2
, z(1)
2 = x2 • z( O) = _ ~
2
Fig. 9.1. Circular cylindrical shell. a Geometry, global coordinates Xl = X, x2 = S = Rep,
b shell middle surface, principal material coordinates x~ = 1, x~ = 2, fibre angle e,
c lami-
nate structure, n layers, layer coordinates z( k), layer thickness h(k) = z(k) - z(k-l)
fibre to resin, and the fibre and resin are both isotropic and homogeneous within
themselves. The ply material axes, Fig. 9.1 b, will be rotated away from the global
e,
axes by an angle positive in the counterclockwise direction.
9.2 Classical Shell Theory
The following hypothe ses are the basis to derivative the equations of the classical
shell theory :
• Displacements are small compared to the shell thickne ss, all strain-displacement
relations may be assumed to be linear.
• The Kirchhoff hypothesi s is applicable, i.e. line elements normal to the middle
surface before deformation remain straight, normal to the deformed middle sur-
face, and unchanged in length after deformation.
• All components of translational inertia are included in modelling vibration prob-
lems, but all components of rotatory inertia are neglected.
• The ratio of the shell thickness h to the radiu s R of the middle surface is small as
comp ared with unity and Love's first-approximation shell theory is used which
define a thin or classical shell theory: hi R « 1 and all terms 1 + (zi R) ~ 1.
It can be shown that this relationship is consistent with the neglect of transverse
shear deformation and transverse normal stress.
In addition we assume that each individual layer is considered to behave macro-
scopically as a homogeneous, anisotropic, linear-elastic material, that all layers are
assumed to be bonded together with a perfect bond and that each layer may be of
arbitrary thickness and may be arranged either symm etrically or unsymm etrically
with respect to the middle surface.
9.2.1 General Case
The governing differenti al equations are formulated in terms of the three middle-
surface displacement components ( Ul == u x , u: == Us , u3 == u z )
The strain displacement relations for a circular, cylindrical shell of any material,
neglecting the effects of transverse shear deformation and using Love 's first approx-
imation are given by
au av w au av
ex = ax' es = as + R' exs = as + ax'
a2w a2w 1 av a2w 1 av (9.2.2)
Kx = - ax2' K s = - as 2 + R as' K x s = -2 axas + Rax
The total strains at a arbitrary distance z of the middle surface are

lO x = e x + Kx Z , lO s = e s + KsZ, €xs = e xs + Kx sZ
or
fj = €j + KjZ, j = (1,2,6) == (x,s,xs) (9.2.3)
Each individual layer is assumed to be in a state of generalized plane stress, the
Hooke 's law yields
CT~k)
I
= Q~~)
IJ f J', i, J' = (1,2,6) (924)
• .
and in the general anisotropic case the Qij matrix is full populated (Table 4.2).
Using again the Love's first approximation 1 + tz] R) >:::j 1), i.e. neglecting the
difference in the areas above and below the middle surface z = 0, the force and
moment resultants, Fig. 9.2, are defined analogous to plates
h/2 h/2
Ni = J
-h/2
CTi d z, Mi = J
-h/2
CTi Zd z, i = (1,2,6) == (x, s, xs) (9.2.5)
Putting Eq. (9.2.4) into (9.2.5) yields the constitutive equations in the known form
(9.2.6)
with
h/2
(A ij , Bij , D ij) = J (1, z, z2)Q ijdz

-h/2
i.e. for n laminate layers
pz
n;
Nsx dXP'~
ax )l(
1/ px aM.
Ms+ --ax d x
d s == Rd'1'
M.
M~
M x•
Fig. 9.2. Positive directions for stress resultants

n
A ij = L Q ij (Zek) - Zek~ l» ) ,
k=l
B.. -
lJ -
~2 LJ
~ Q..
lJ
(Zek)2 _ Ze k- 1)2 ) '
k=l
D .. -
lJ -
~ Q lJ.. (Zek)3 _
~3 LJ Ze k- 1)3 )
k=l
N T = [Nx n, Nxsl, M T = [Mx M s Mxsl, (9.2.7)
e T = [€x €s €xsl, "T = [x, Ks Kxsl
The equilibrium equations follow with Fig. 9.2 as
dNx dNxs dM x dM xs _ Q _ 0
dX + ds + px = 0, dx + ds x- ,
dNxs dNs Qs _ 0 dM xs dMs _ Q (9.2.8)
dX + ds + R + p« - , dX + ds s = 0,
dQx + dQs _ Ns + pz = 0
dX ds R
The moment equations (9.2.8) can be used to eliminate the transverse shear resul-
tants and one obtains
dNx dNxs
dX + as+ px = 0,
dNxs dNs ..!.. (dM s dM xs) _ 0 (9.2.9)
dX + ds + R ds + dX + P» - ,
d2M x 2d2Mxs d2M s Ns
dx2 + dXds + a52 - If + pz = 0
Substituting Eqs. (9.2.6) into (9.2.9) yields a set of three coupled partial differential
equations for the three displacements u, v, w , which can be written in matrix form
[ ~~~ t~ t:] [~]

L 31 L 32 L 33 w pz
[~:] (9.2.10)
The linear differential operators L ij are defined in App. E. For symmetrically ar-
ranged layers the differential operators can be simplified, but the matrix (9.2.10)
stay full populated (App. E).
If we consider natural vibrations of laminated circular cylindrical shells in Eqs.
(9.2.9) and (9.2.10) the distributed loads px, ps, pz are taken zero, i.e. px = ps =
pz = 0, but all components of translatory inertia must be included. Without detailed
derivation on obtains
(9.2.11)
and Eq. (9.2.10) change s to
L I I L12 L13]
L21 l-z: L 23 (9.2.12)
[
L31 L 32 L33
with
Po = tJ Z{k)
k- \ {k_l )
p~k)dz = t
k-l
p~k)h(k)
The stress resultants and the displ acement are now functions of x, sand t. p~k) is the
mass density of the kth layer, Po the mass inertia with respect to the middle surface.
9.2.2 Specially Orthotropic Circular Cylindrical Shells Subjected by Axial

Symmetric Loads
Now we consider cross-ply laminated circular cylindrical shells. The laminate stack-
ing may be not middle-surface symmetric, but the fiber angles are = 0 0 or = 90 0 e e
and the princip al material axes I' - 2' - 3 coincide with the structural axes x, s, z,
i.e. the stiffness A l 6 = A 26 = 0, D l 6 = D26 = O. In the case of axial symmetry
loading and deformations there are both, all derivations a/as and v, N xs , M xs zero.
For the loads per unit of the surface area are the following conditions valid
px = 0, ps = 0, pz = p z(x)
The equilibrium equations (9.2.8) reduce to
dNx = 0, dQx _ N s + pz = 0, dM x - Q x =0
dx dx R dx
or eliminating Q x
2M
dNx =
dx
0, d
dx2
x
- R
u, = - pz (9.2.13)
The strain-displacement relations follow from (9.2.2)

du w d 2w
€x=dx ' €s=R' KX = - d x 2' €x s=O,Ks=Kxs=O (9.2.14)
and the stresses from (9.2.4) and (9.2.14) with Q l6 = Q26 = Q66 = 0
(k) _
(Tx - Qll
(k)
(€ x + ZKx ) + Ql 2 €s
(k) _
- Qll
(k) (dU d
2
d x - Z d x2
W) + Ql(k)2 W
R
o;
(k) _ (k)
- Ql 2 (€x + ZKx) + Q 22 € s
(k) _
-
(k) (dU
Ql 2
d
2
d x - Z dx2
W) + Q 22(k) W
R
(9.2.15)
(k) _ E~k) (k) _ EY) (k) _ v}~) E~k)
Qu - 1 - (k) (k)'
V xs V sx
Q 22 - 1 (k) (k)'
- V xs V sx
Ql 2 - 1 (k) (k)'
- V xs V sx
(k) (k)
V xs V sx
E~k) = E~k)
The constitutive equations (9.2.6) can be written as follow

Nx=All€x + A12€s + BllKx,
N s=A 12€x + A22€s + B12Kx,
(9.2.16)
Mx=Bll€x + B12€S + 0llKx,
M s=B12€x + B22€s + °12 Kx,
with €x,€s and K x from Eq. (9.2.14) .
Putting (9.2.12) and (9.2.14) in the equilibrium equations (9.2.13) one obtains
after a rearrangement
and with
OR = AllO ll - BI1 (9.2.17)
All
can finally be written
4w 2w
d 2 [A 12Bll ] d 4 1 ( A12 Nx)
dx4 + ROR All - B12 dx2 + 4A W = OR pz - All If (9.2.18)
This is a ordinary differential equation of fourth order with constant coefficients and
can be solved by standard methods .
For the most important case of a symmetrical layer stacking Eq. (9.2.18) can be
reduced with Bll = B12 = 0, OR = 0 11 as
4w
d +4A4w = _1_ (pz _ A 12 Nx), 4A4 = _1_A llA 22 - Ail (9.2.19)
dx 4 011 All R 0llR2 All
The inhomogeneous linear differential equation of fourth order has constant coeffi-
cient and can be analytically solved
W(x) = Wh(X) + wp(x)
The homogeneous solution Wh(X) = Ce~x yields the characteristic equation
4
aA +4A = 0
with the conjugate complex roots
= ±A(l ±i), i = R
ll:1-4 (9.2.20)
and with e±Ax = cosh Ax ± sinh Ax, e±iAx = cos Ax ± i sin Ax one obtains the
solution of the homogeneous differential equation as
Wh(X) = C1 cosh Ax cos Ax + C2 cosh Ax sin Ax

(9.2.21)
+ C3 sinh Ax cos Ax + C4 sinh Ax sin Ax
or
Wh(X) = e- AX(CI cos Ax + C2 sinh) + e AX(C3 cos Ax + C4 sin Ax) (9.2.22)
The particular solution wp(x) of the inhomogeneous equation depends on the load-
ing term .
In solving (9.2.19), another solution form may be utilized, the so-called bending-
layer solution. Note the Eqs. (9.2.16) for the symmetrical case, i.e.
d 2w dMx d 3w
x
M = -D dx2'
ll Qx = dX = -D ll dx3
the solution can be written as:
Mo -AX( ' 1 1 ) Qo -AX 1
W (X ) = 2A2 D e sin /~x - cos /~x - 2A3 D e cos /~x
11 11
+ A~L e-A(L-x)(sin A(L - x) - cos A(L - x)) (9.2.23)

2 D 11
+ QL e-A(L-x) cos A(L - x) + wp(x)
2A3Dll
Instead of the general constants Ci , i = 1,2,3,4 the resultant stress moments
Mo, M L and resultant stress forces Qo, QL at x = 0 respectively x = L are used as
integration constants. To determine the wp(x) solution one have to consider N x in
Eq. (9.2.19) as a constant value following by boundary condition and p(x) have to
be restricted to cases where d4 p(x )/ dx 4 = 0, what is almost true from view point
of practical applications. It can be easy seen that
wp(x) = 4A2D
1 [
p(x) -
An
All
Nx]
If (9.2.24)
ll
is a solution of the inhomogeneous differential equation (9.2 .19).
The advantage of the solution from (9.2.23) is easily seen. The trigonometric
terms oscillate between ± 1 and are multiplied by exponential terms with a negat ive
exponent which yields to an exponential decay. Ifwe set Ax = 1.5n or A(L - x) =
1.5n then is e-1. 5rr ~ 0.009, i.e. the influence of the boundary values Mo, Qo or
ML, QL is strong damped to < 1% . With 0 ::; x ::; 1.5n/ A or 0 ::; L - x ::;
1.5n/ A bending boundary layers are defined which depend on the shell stiffness.
The important point is that at each end of the shell a characteristic length LB
can be calculated and the Mo- and Qo-terms approach zero at the distance x > LB
from x = 0 while the M L- and Q L-terms approach zero at the same distance LB
from x = L. In the boundary layer region bending stresses induced from M o, Qo a
ML, QL are superimposed to membrane stresses induced from pz. Looking at a long
shell, Fig. 9.3, with L > L B in the region A-B only M o, Qo and w p are non-zero,
in the region C-D only ML, QL and w p and in the region B-C only the particular
solution w p is nonzero, i.e. in this region only a membrane solution exists. With the
calculated w(x) the first differential equation (9.2.17) with Bll = 0 can be solved
A
. B C. . 0
- .,. .--- - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - -----', I
L
Fig. 9.3. Long circular cylindrical shell: Bending boundary regions (A-B) and (C-D), mem-
brane region (B-C)
and yields the displacement function u(x) . It should be noted that only some terms
of u(x) decay away from the boundary edges .
In the case of axially symmetric loading and deformation the bending stresses
in each lamina are given by
(TX] (k) = [Qll Q12](k)

[ (Ts Q12 Q22 es
[ex] +z [Qll Q12](k ) [KX]
Q12 Q22 0
(9.2.25)
The transverse shear stress (Txz follows analogous to the classical beam equations
with (7.2.31).
Summarizing the results of the classical shell equations one can draw the fol-
lowing conclusions :
• The most general case of laminated circular cylindrical shells is that of arbitrarily
laminated anisotropic layers, i.e. angle-pl y layers arbitrarily arranged . The anal-
ysis of these shells is based on approximately analytical methods using Ritz-,
Galerkin- or Kantorovich method and numerical methods , e.g. FEM .
• Cross-ply laminated shells, i.e shells with orthotropic layers aligned either axially
or circumferentially and arranged symmetrically with respect to the shell middle
surface have governing shell equations which are the same as those for a single-
layer specially orthotropic shell. For axis symmetrical loading the shell equations
reduce in the static case to ordinary differential equations of the x-coordinate and
can be solved analytically. If the orthotropic layers are arranged to an unsymmet-
ric laminated cross-ply shell then bending-stretching, coupling is induced and the
governing equations are more complex .
• When circular cylindrical shells are laminated of more than one isotropic layer
with each layer having different elastic properties and thickness and the layers
are arranged symmetrically with respect to the middle surface , the governing
equations are identical to those of single layer isotropic shells . However, if the
isotropic layers are arranged unsymmetrically to the middle surface, there is a
coupling between in-surface, i.e stretching and shear, and out-of-surface, i.e bend-
ing and twisting, effects.
• Additional to the Kirchhoff's hypotheses all equations of the classical shell theory
assumed Love's first approximation , i.e. the ratio hjR is so small compared to I
that the difference in the areas of shell wall element above and below the middle
surface can be neglected.
9.2.3 Membrane and Semi-membrane theories

Thin-walled singe layer shells of revolution can be analyzed in the frame of the so-
called membrane theory . One neglects all moments and transverse stress resultants,
all stresses are considered approximatively constant through the shell thickness i.e.
there are no bending stresses and the coupling and bending stiffness are taken to be
zero in the constitutive equations. In some cases it is possible to use the membrane
theory for structural analysis of laminated shells . The efficient structural behavior of
shells based on the shell curvature that yields in wide regions of shells of revolution
approximately a membrane response upon loading as the basic state of stresses and
strains. The membrane theory is not capable to predict sufficient accurate results in
regions with concentrated loads, boundary constraints or curvature changes, i.e. in
regions located adjacent to each structural, material or load discontinuity. Restrict-
ing the consideration again to circular cylindrical shells with unsymmetric cross -ply
stacking we arrive the following equations
Mx = M s = M xs = 0, Qx = Qs = 0,
aNx aNxs aNxs aNs
as + as = -px, as + as = -ps, N, = Rp«, (9.2 .26)
au av w au av
Ex = ax' Es = as + R' Exs = as + ax = /'xs,
N x = A l1 Ex + A 12Es , N s = A 12Ex + A22Es , N xs = A 66 Exs
The membrane theory yield three equilibrium conditions to calculate three unknown
stress resultants, i.e the membrane theory is statically determined. The membrane
theory is the simplest approach in shell analysis and admit an approximative an-
alytical solution that is very convenient for a first analysis and design of circular
cylindrical shells .
But the problems which can be solved by the membrane theory are unfortu-
nately limited. To avoid generally to use the more complex bending theory we can
consider a so-called semi-membrane theory of circular cylindrical shells. The semi-
membrane theory is slightly more complicated than the membrane theory but more
simpler than the bending theory. The semi-membrane theory was first developed by
Vlasov on the basis of statically and kinematically hypotheses.
If one intends to construct a semi-membrane theory of composite circular cylin-
drical shells bearing in mind the hypotheses underlying the classical single layer
shell theory and the characteristics of the composite structure. The semi-membrane
theory for composite circular cylindrical shells introduces the following assump-
tions :
• The shell wall has no stiffness when bended but in axial direction and when
twisted, i.e. D l1 = D66 = 0, B11 = B66 = o.
• The Poisson's effect is neglected, i.e. An = 0, B12 = 0,0 12 = o.

• With the assumptions above follow M x = M xs = 0, Qx = O.
• The cross-section contour is inextensible, i.e.
es = -av +
w
as R = 0
-
The shear stiffness of composite shells can be small. Therefore, the assumption
of the classical single layer semi-membrane theory that the shear stiffness is in-
finitely large, is not used.
Taking into account the assumptions above, one obtains the following set of twelve
equations for twelve unknown functions.
aNx aNxs _ 0 aNxs aNs Qs
ax + as - , ax + as + If + ps = 0,
aMs aQ s u.
as - Qs = 0, as - If - pz = 0,
au av au av w (9.2.27)
ex= ax' e xs = ax + as' e s = as + R'
N; = A l1 e x , N xs = A 66 e xs , M s = °22 Ks ,
Qs = ~4A44 (tps+ ~:)

The system (9.2.27) can be reduced. For the circular cylindrical shell the unknown
functions and loads can be represented with trigonometric series and after some
manipulations we obtained one uncoupled ordinary differential equation of fourth
order for Wn (x), n = 0,1,2, . . .. The detailed derivation of the governing solutions
shall not be considered .
Analogous to plates, considered in Chap. 8, the classical shell theory is only suffi-
ciently accurate for thin shells. For moderately thick shells we have to take, at least
approximately, the transverse shear deformation effects into account. The Kirch-
hoff's hypotheses are again relaxed in one point: the transverse normals do not
remain perpendicular to the middle-surface after deformation, but a line element
through the shell thickness perpendicular to the middle-surface prior loading, un-
dergoes at most a translation and rotation upon the load applications, no stretching
or curvature.
The following considerations are restricted to axial symmetrical problems of
symmetrical laminated cross-ply circular cylindrical shells including transverse
shear deformation . We start with a variational formulation including the trapeze
effect, i.e. Love's first approximation is not valid. For axial symmetrical problems
we have the following simplifications of the shell equations :
All derivatives a/as(...) are zero and for the strains, stress resultants and loads we
assume
txs = a Ks = a Kxs = a
N xs = a M xs = a (9.3.1)
ps = a px = a pz = pz(x)
The kinematical assumptions yield with (5.1.2) the shell displacements
ux(x, z) = u(x) + zt/Jx(x),
us(x, z) = 0, (9.3.2)
uz(x, z) = w(x)
The strain-displacement relations are
du dt/Jx
Ex = dx +z dx'
w
Es = R+z'
(9.3.3)
dw
E xz = t/Jx + dx
and the stresses in the kth layer of the shell are
du dt/Jx
-+z--
(Tx ] (k) [Ql1 Q12 a ] (k) dx w dx
(Ts
[ (Txz
= Q12 Q22 a r+z
(9.3.4)
a a Qss dw
t/Jx + dx
For a special orthotropic shell the Qij are
Ex Es
Ql1 = 1- VxsV sx ,Qn = 1 - VxsVsx '
(9.3.5)
vxsEx
Q 12 = ,Qss = Gxz
1 - VxsVsx
The stress resultant forces and couples are defined as
u, -_ ~
n f (Tx(k) ( 1 + Z) dz,
R », = Ln f (k)
CTs dz,
k-\( k) k=1 (k )
Mx = tf (T£k)z (1 +~) dz, Ms = ~

n
h
f (k)
CTs zdz, (9.3.6)
k=\(k) k-1 )
W
Qx = ~f
1:::' (k) ( 1
CTxz Z) dz,
+R
k-\( k)
and one obtains with (9.3.4) and (9.3.6)

du w 1 do/x
N, = An- + A 12 - + -RDn dx '
a~ R
u, = A12 + T22W,
dx
M x = Dn (~~~ + dd~x ) , (9.3.7)
do/x -
M s = D12 d x + T22W ,
Qx = Ass (o/x + ~:) or Qx = k§sAss (o/x + ~:)
The stiffness coefficient s are
(Aij,D ij) = t JQ~)(l,z2)dz, (ij) = (11),(12),

k=\ (k)
T2 2 =~
L.
J dk)~
22 R + z
= f. d k)
L. 22
[In (1 + '::')]h/2
R -h/2
k=\ (k) k=l
1 1 (9.3.8)
~ RA22 + R3 D22,
T2 2 = t JQ~~ zdz = tQ~~R['::'_In(1+'::')]h/2
k=l R+Z k=l R R -h/2
h(k)
1
~ R2 D22
and k§s is the shear correction factor.
The variational formulation for the axial symmetrically circular cylindrical shell
with symmetrically laminated e = 0 0 and e = 90 0 laminae and coincided principal
material and structural axes is given as
II(u, W, o/x) = IIi - IIa,
h/2 Tr L
IIi(u, w,o/x) = ~ J J J (CTx£x + CTs£s + CTxz£xz)dx(R + z)d<pdz

-h/2 0 0
(9.3.9)
t
Tr L
=~ J J J (QW£~
k-\(k) 0 0
(k) (k) 2 (k) 2 )
+ 2Q 12 exes + Q22 £s + Q ss £xz (R + z)dxd<pdz
Using Eq. (9.3.3) one obtains
1 Zn: L { [ du Z d1/Jx Z du d1/Jx

IT.=-JJ
I 2 R A 11 ( -dx ) +0 11 ( -
dx ) + 20 11-dx -dx
o 0 du Z
+ 2A12w dx + Tzzw + RkssAssl1/Jx + 21/Jx dx +
s r Z dw (dW)~}
dx J dxdei, (9.3.10)
Zn: L
ITa =J J pz(x)wRdxdqJ
o 0
Equation (9.3.10) can be used for solving shell problems by the variational meth-
ods of Ritz, Galerkin or Kantorovich. It can be also used to derive the differential
equations and boundary conditions but this will be done later on the direct way.
Hamilton's principle is formulated to solve vibration problems. The potential
energy function IT is given with (9.3.10) but all displacements are now functions
of x and the time t. If we analyze natural vibrations the transverse load pz is taken
zero. The kinetic energy follows as
T= t
k=1
T(k) = !
2 k=1
t J JZn:JL p(k) [( dU)
dt
Z + 2z dU d1/Jx
dt dt
h (k) 0 0
+ zZ (d~X ) Z + (~~ r] RdqJdxdz

(9.3.11)
1
~ ~ o J{Rpo [(~~)' + (~~)']
0
dUd1/Jx
+ 2Rpl at at + Rpz (d1/JX)Z}
at dqJdx
In Eq. (9.3.11) p(k) is the mass density of the kth layer, Po and oz are the mass
and the moment of inertia with respect to the middle surface per unit area and PI
represents the coupling between extensional and rotational motions. PI does not
appear in equations for homogeneous shells.
Now with the Lagrange function L(u, w, 1/Jx) = T(u, ui, 1/Jx) - IT(u, w, 1/Jx) the
Hamilton's principle is obtained as
12
is J L(u, w, 1/Jx)dt = 0 (9.3.12)

11
The direct derivation of the differential equations for symmetrical cross-ply circular
cylindrical shells follow using the constitutive, kinematics and equilibrium equa-
tions. The stiffness matrix is defined as
[~] [~ ~] [:], QS = ASes,

NT = [Nx u; Nxs], M T = [Mx M s M xs], QsT = [Qx Qs],
au (av
[ ax as
+~)
R
(au
as
+axav)] , (9.3.13)
= [atjJx atjJs (atjJx + atjJs)] ,

ax as as ax
[ ( tjJx + ~:) (tjJs + ~; - i)]

For symmetric cross-ply shells all B ij are zero and also the A ij, D ij with (ij)
(16), (26) and (45). Such we have
A= [~~~~~~
o 0 A
~ ], D= [g~~g~~
0 0 A
~ ],
66 66
The static equilibrium equations are identical with (9.2.8). For vibration analysis
inertia terms have to be added and one can formulate
aN x aN xs a2tjJ x a2u
ax + as = - px + Po at2 + PI
at2 '
aN xs aNs Qs 2
a v 2tjJ
a s
ax as+ + If = -ps + Po at2 + PI at2 '
aQx aQs u, a2w
as -
ax + If = - pz + po at2 ' (9.3.14)
aM x aM xs a2tjJ x a2u
ax as -
+ Qx = P2 at2 + PI at2 '
aM xs aMs a2tjJs a2v
ax as -
+ Qs = P2 at2 + PI at2
PO,Pl ,P2 are like in (9.3.11) generalized mass density and are defined in (8.3.9).
Putting the constitutive equations (9.3.12) in the equilibrium equations (9.3. 14) the
equations can be manipulated in similar manner to those of the classical theory and
one obtains the simultaneous system of differential equations
f~~ f~~ f~~ f~: f~:] [~tjJx

~31 ~32 ~33 ~34 ~3S =
~;0 + [~OPI ~o0 ~1P2 ~10 0~] ata22 [~tjJx
L41 L42 L43 L44 L4s tjJs 0 0 PI 0 P2 0 tjJs
LSI LS2 LS3 LS4 Lss W pz 0 0 0 0 po w
(9.3.15)
The linear differential operators are defined in App. F.
For free vibrations the loads px, ps, pz are zero and the shell will perform sim-
ple harmonic oscillations with the circular frequenc y w. Corresponding to simple
supported conditions on both ends of the cylinder, i.e
N, = 0, V = 0, w = 0, M x = 0/0/5 = 0/
the spatial dependence can be written as products of two trigonometric functions
and the complete form of vibrat ions can be taken as
00 00
U(X/ cp/ t) = L L Ur5eiwrsf cos IXmX cos ncp

r=0015=1
00
V(X/ ip, t) = L L Vr5eiwrst sin IXmX sin ncp

r=1
00
5=1
00
w(x/ cp/ t) = L L Wr5eiwrst sin IXmX cos ncp (9.3.16)

r=1
00
5=1
00
o/x(x/ cp/ t) = L L 'fr5eiwrsfcos IXmX cos ncp

r=15=1
00 00
0/5(x , cp, t) = L L "fr5eiwrsf sin IXmX sin ncp

r=15=1
where Urs, Vrs/ W r5/'frs/ "frs denote amplitudes, IXm = mtt f l, m, n are the longitu-
dinal and the circumferential wave numbers. Substituting Eqs. (9.3.16) into (9.3.15)
results in a homogeneous algebraic system and its solutions for a particular pair
(m, n) gives the frequency and amplitude ratio corresponding to these wave num-
bers. For arbitrary boundary conditions the Ritz' or Galerkin's method can be rec-
ommended to obtain the characteristic equations for solving the eigenvalue problem .
Then the natural frequencies and the mode shapes can be calculated. The solution
process is manageable, but involved.
If one restricts the problem to statics and to axially symmetrical loading
pz = pz(x) the Eqs. (9.3 .13) - (9.3.15) can be simplified:
Equilibrium equations
dNx =0 d~x _ Qx = 0, dQx _ Ns +P = 0 (9.3.17)

dx ' dx R z
Strain-displacement equations
du w do/x dw
tX=dx' tS=R' x«> dx' Exz = o/x + dx (9.3.18)
Constitutive equations
N x = A11 t x + A 12 t s ,
N, = A 12 t x
+ A 22 t s,
do/x (9 .3.19)
M x = D 11 dx
Qx = k§sAsSExz
All derivatives ajas( . . .) and u, t xs/ Ks, Esz, N xs, M xs, Q s are zero. The stress
resultant-displacement relations follow as
du w
N; = Au dx + A12R"'
du w
n, d x + A22R"'
= Al2
(9.3.20)
dtpx
M x = D11 dx '
Qx = ~sAss (tpx + ~:)

With dNx/dx = 0 we have N x = const = No and one obtains
du 1 (
dx = Au No - Al2R"
W) (9.3.21)
The equilibrium equation (9.3.17) for Qx yields
:x (tpx + ~:) = kss~ss (i - pz) (9.3.22)

= -s_l_ [~ (A l2 + A22~) - pz]
kssA ss R dx
du
R
and the equilibrium equation dM x / dx - Qx =0
Du d:~x - ~sAss ( tpx + ~:) = 0 (9.3.23)
After some manipulations follow with (9.3.22), (9.3.23) two differential equations
for tpx and W as
dtpx = _ d
dx dx
2
2
w
+ _1_. _ [~ ( Al2 No _ AI2 - AU A
kssA ss R \ All Au
22 w) _pzlJ ,
R
2 (9.3.24)
dw Du d tpx
- = - - - - - 2t p x
dx k5sAss dx
Differentiating the second equation (9.3.24) and eliminating tpx the first equation
leads to one uncoupled differential equation of fourth order for w( x)
4
d w 1 1 A uA22 - AI2 d 2w 1 A uA22 - AI2
-------- +- W
4
dx kssA ss R2 Au dx 2 R2 DuAu
2
1 ( A l2 No ) 1 d pz (9.3.25)
= D u - Au If + pz - kssA ss dx 2 '
2w
dtpx d 1 A uA22 - AI2 1 (A l2 No )
dx = - dx 2 + kssA ss R2A u w + kssAss Au If - pz
With kssAss -7 00 Eqs. (9.3.25) simplify to the corresponding equations of the
classical shell theory (9.2.19).
The governing equation of the axisymmetric problem for or circular cylindrical
shell in the frame of the shear deformation theory can be written as
d4w d 2w
dx 4 - 1
2k dx 2 + kiw = k p (9.3.26)
with
k2 1_~ AllAn - AI2 ki = __1_~ AllAn - AI2
1 - k;sA ss R All ' k;sA ss R2 0 11 All
2pz
k __1_ (_ A 12 No + P ) _ 1 d
P - 011 All R z Ollk;sA ss dx 2
The differential equation can be analytical solved
W(x) = Wh(X) + wp(x)
The particular solution wp(x) has e.g. with d2pz/dx2 = 0, the form
_ kp _ R 2pz - RA 12 N O
w p ( x ) - 4" - 2 (9.3.27)
k2 AllAn - A 12
The homogeneous solution Wh(X) = Ce'u yield the characteristic equation
2
aA - 2kIa: + ki = ° (9.3.28)
with the roots
a:1-4 = ±VkI ± Jkt - kt

which can be conjugate complex, real or two double roots depending on the relations
of the parameters k 1 and k2.
The general solution can be written as
4
w(x) = L Ci<Pi(X) + Wp(X)
i==l
The functions <Pi(X) are given in different forms depending on the roots of the char-
acteristic equation (9.3.28). The roots and the functions <Pi(X) are summarized in
Appendix G. The most often used solution form in engineering application is given
for k~ > kI '
For short shells with edges affecting one another, the <Pi(X) involving the hy-
perbolic functions are convenient. If there are symmetry conditions to the middle
cross-section x = Lj2 the solution can be simplified , for we have <P3 = <P4 = 0.
For long shells with ends not affecting one another applying the <Pi(X) that involve
exponential functions .
Analogous to the classical shell solution for long shells a bending-layer solution
can be applied. Only inside the bending-layer region with the characteristic length
LB the homogeneous part wh and the particular part wp of the general solution W
have to superimposed. Outside the bending-layer region , i.e for x > LB or (L -
x) > LB only w p characterizes the shell behavior.
Summarizing the results of the shear deformation shell theory one can say
9.4 Sandwich Shells 333
• If One restricts the consideration to symmetrical cross-ply circular cylindrical

shells subjected to axially symmetric loadings the modelling and analysis is most
simplified and correspond to the classical shell theory.
• In more general cases including static loading and vibration and not neglecting
the trapeze effect the variational formulation is recommended and appro ximative
analytical or numerical solutions should be applied .
• Circular cylindrical shells are one of the most used thin-walled structures of COn-
ventional or composite material. Such shells are used as reservoirs , pressure ves-
sels, chemical containers, pipes, aircraft and ship elements. This is the reason for
a long and intensive study to model and analyze circular cylindrical shells and as
result efficient theories and solutions methods are given in literature .
9.4 Sandwich Shells

Sandwich shells are widely used in many industrial branche s because sandwich con-
structions often results in designs with lower structural weight then constructions
with other materials. But there is not only weight saving interesting, but in several
engineering applications the core material of a sandwich construction can be also
used as thermal insulator or sound absorber. Therefore one can find numerou s lit-
erature on modelling and analysis for sandwich shells subjected static, dynamic or
environmental loads .
But as written in Sects 7.4 and 8.4 sandwich constructions are, simply consid-
ered, laminated constructions involving three laminae: the lower face, the core, and
the upper face. And by doing so, one can employ all methods of modelling and
analysis of laminated structural elements.
It was discussed in detail in Sect. 8.4 that, considering sandwich structural el-
ement s, we have to keep in mind the assumptions on the elastic behavior of sand-
wiches. Such there are differences in the expres sions for the flexural bending and
transverse shear stiffness in comparison with laminated circular cylindrical shells
and essential differences in the stress distribution over the thicknes s of the shell
wall. The stiffness parameter for sandwich shells depend on the modelling of sand-
wiches having thin or thicker faces, in the same manner as for plates, Eqs. (8.4.1)
and (8.4.2).
For sandwich constructions generally the ratio of the in-plane moduli of elas-
ticity to the transverse shear moduli is high and transverse shear deformations are
mostly included in its structural modelling . For this reason , the first order shear de-
formation theory of laminated shells is used in priority for sandwich shells. But for
thin-walled sandwich shells with a higher shear stiffness approximately the classical
sandwich theory can be used.
The correspondence between laminated and sandwich shells is for vibration or
buckling problems limited and only using for overall buckling and vibration. There
are some special local problems like face wrinkl ing and core shear instability in
buckling or the face must be additional considered as a shell of elastic foundation
on the core and also shear mode vibration can occur where each face is vibrating
out of phase with the other face. These problems are detailed discussed in a number
of special papers and can not considered in this book.
9.5 Problems
1. A circular cylindrical sandwich shell has two unequal faces with the reduced
stiffness Q{i, Q{l and the thicknesses hh, hh. The shell has an orthotropic
material behavior and the material principal axes shall coincide with the struc-
tural axes x, s. The core with the thickness h C does not contribute significantly
to the extensional and the flexural shell stiffness. The lateral distributed load is
pz = pz(x) . Formulate the differential equation using a perturbation parameter
to characterize the asymmetry of the sandwich and find the perturbation solu-
tion way.
Solution :
The shell problem is axially symmetric. In the frame of the classical shell theory
one can use the differential equation (9.2.18)
4 2
d w _2_ [A 12 B11 _ B ] d w 4,\4 _ -.2..- ( _ Al2 Nx)
dx4 + RDR All 12 dx2 + w- DR pz All R
The stiffness parameter are calculated for sandwiches with thin faces, Sect.
4.3.2, h ~ h C
All
11 11 11 (1 + Q{lhh),
= Qhhh + Qhhh = Qhhh
Q{i hh
D11 = (~)2
2
Qhhh + (~)2 Qhhh = (~)2 Q{lhh
11 2 11 2 11 (1 + Q{lhh),
Q{i hh
B11 = _~Qhhh
11 + ~Qhhh
2 11 = ~Q{lhh
11 (-1 + Q{lhh)
2 Q{i hh
2
B12 and D 12 can be calculated analogous. A asymmetry parameter can be de-
fined as
Qhhh
_1+_11_
Qh hh 11
Qhhh
1+_ 11_
Qh hh11
For a symmetric sandwich wall is B11 = a and so Yf = O. For an infinite
stiffness of face 1 follows Yf ~ -1 and of face 3 Yf ~ +1, i.e. the parameter Yf
is for any sandwich construction given as
-1<Yf<+1
9.5 Problems 335
The differential equation (9.2.18) can be written with the parameter 1J as
-
4
d -w + -2- [A l2JD 11 - ..jA 11Bl2
4
v'DU]1J--
d w +4
2
14
/~ W
dx RDR...;AU B11 dx 2
__1_ ( A l2Nx )
- DR pz _ All R
Since 11J1 < lone can find w(x) in the form of a perturbation solution
00
w(x) = L w n(x)1Jn
n=O
For n = 0 follow
d4wo _ 4A-4wo = _~ (pz _ A l2 Nx)

dx 4 DR All R
and for n ~ 1
-
4
d wn
-
dx
14
4 + 4/~ Wn
2 [A l2JD 11 ...;AUB l2
= ---
RDR
-
..jAll B11
v'DU]1J--=--'-''----=-
d w
dx
2
n_ l
2
The left hand side corresponds to the middle-surface symmetric shell with axi-
ally symmetric loading . The right hand side corresponds to the second deriva-
tion of the previously obtained w-solution .
Conclusion
The perturbation solution yields the solution of the differential equation as a
successive set of solutions of axially symmetric problems of which many so-
lutions are available. The perturbation solution converges to the exact solution .
In many engineering applications w(x) = wo(w) + 1JWl (x) will be sufficient
accurate .
2. A symmetrical cross-ply circular cylindrical shell is loaded at the boundary
x = 0 by an axially symmetric line pressure Qo and line moment Mo. Calculate
the ratio M o/ Qo that the boundary shell radius does not change if the shell is
very long.
Solution :
We use the solution (9.2.23) with wp = 0 and neglect for the long shell the
influence of M L and QL
w(x) = 2/~l~OD11 e-Ax(sinA-x - cos Ax) - l~Do

2/~ 11
cos Ax
The condition of no radius changing yields
w(x = 0) = 0 :::} - l~Do Qo = 0 :::} Mo = - ~

2/~ 11 2A-3D 11 Qo A-
3. For a long fluid container, Fig. 9.4 determinate the displacement w(x) and the
stress resultants Ns(x) and Mx(x). The container has a symmetrical cross-ply
layer stacking and can be analyzed in the frame of the classical laminate theory.
R R
p(x)
Fig. 9.4. Long fluid container. L > La
Solution :
For a long circular cylindrical shell the solution for Wh(X) , Eq. (9.2.22), can be
reduced to the first term with the negative exponent
Wh(X) = e-AX(C1 sin Ax + C2cosAx)
The particular solution w p (x) follow with
p(x) = Po ( 1 - I)
and Eq. (9.2.24) as
wp(x) = 4A~~1l (I-I)

The boundary constraints are
dW(O)=O~Cl=_
dx
Po
4A4Dll
(1-':: )
L
and we obtain the solutions
w(x) = 4A~~1l {1- I- [cos Ax + (1- I) sin AX] e-

AX}
In addition,
du W
N, = All€x + A 22€s = All dx + A22:R
i.e. with €X = 0
A 22 d 2w dM x d 3w
N, = RW(x), M x = DllK x = -D ll dx2' Qx = dX = -D ll dx3
4. Consider a cantilever circular cylindrical shell, Fig. 9.5. The normal and shear
forces N x and N xs as are distributed along the contour of the cross-section
x = L that they can reduced to the axial force FH, the transverse force Fv ,
9.5 Problems 337
5 = Rep
Fig. 9.5. Tension, bending and torsion of a cantilever circular cylindrical shell
the bending moment MB and the torsion moment My . Calculate the resultant
membrane stress forces with the membrane theory.
Solution :
With (9.2.26) we have the following equations
Ns= Rpz, - aNxs aNx en;

- = -ps, - - = -px - - -
ax ax as
and pz = ps = px = 0 yield
N, = 0, N xs = const, N, = const
The distributions of FH, Fv, MB and My over the cross-section contour x = L
can be represented as
Nx(x 1
= L) = 2nR ( FH 2MB
+ TCoscp ) ,
Nys(x = L) = 2~R (~y + 2Fv sin cp)

and yield the reduced forces Fv, FM and moments MB, My
7[
2 !
o7[
Nx(x = L)Rdcp = FH,
7[
2 !
o
Nxs(x = L) sin cpRdcp = :R! 2Fv sin2 cpRdcp = Fv,
0
7[/2 7[/2
4 !
o
Nx(x = L)Rcoscpdcp = ~MB !0
cos 2 cpdcp = MB,
7[/2 7[/2
2 !
o
RNxs(x = L)Rdcp = R1n !
0
MyRdcp = My
The equilibrium equations yield
FH cos~
Nx(x) = 2nR - [MB + Fv(L - x)] nR '
Ns(x) = 0,
MT Fv .
Nsx = 2nR12 + nR sin ~
10. Modelling and Analysis of Thin-walled Folded
Structures
The analysis of real structures always is based on a structural and mathem atical
modelling. It is indispensable for obtaining realistic results that the structural model
represents sufficiently accurate the characteristic structure behavior.
Generally the structural modelling can be divided into three structure levels
• Three-dimensional modelling . It means structural elements, their dimensions in
all three directions are of the same order, we have no preferable direction .
• Two-dimensional modelling. One dimension of a structural element is significant
smaller in comparison with the other both, so that we can regard it as a quasi
two-dimensional element. We have to distinguish plane and curved elements e.g.
discs, plates and shells.
• One-dimensional modelling . Here we have two dimensions (the cross-section)
in the same order and the third one (the length) is significant larger in compar-
ison with them, so that we can regard such a structural element as quasi one-
dimensional. We call it rod, column,bar, beam or arch and can distinguish straight
and curved forms also.
The attachment of structural element s to one of these classes is not well defined
rather it must be seen in correlation with the given problem.
Many practical problems, e.g., in mechanical or civil engineering lead to the
modelling and analysis of complex structure s containing so-called thin-walled ele-
ments. As a result of the consideration of such structures a fourth modelling class
was developed, the modelling class of thin-walled beams and so-called beam shaped
shells including also folded plate structures. In this fourth modelling class it is typ-
ical that we have structures with a significant larger dimension in one direction
(the length) in comparison with the dimension s in transverse directions (the cross-
section) and moreover a significant smaller thickness of the walls in comparison
with the transverse dimensions.
In Chap. 7 the modelling of laminate beams is given in the frame of the
Bernoulli 's and Timoshenko's beam theory which cannot applied generally to thin-
walled beams. The modelling of two-dimen sional laminate structures as plates and
shells was the subject of the Chaps. 8 and 9. In the present Chap. 10 the investi-
gation of beams with thin-walled cross-sections and beam shaped shells especially
folded structures is carried out. Chapter 10 starting in Sect. 10.1 from a short recall
of the classical beam models. In Sect. 10.2 a generalized beam model for prismatic
thin-walled folded plate structures is introduced, including all known beam models.
340 10. Modelling and Analysis of Thin-walled Folded Structures
Section 10.3 discusses some solution procedures and in Sect. 10.4 selected problems
are demonstrated.
10.1 Introduction
Analyzing thin-walled structures it can be useful to distinguish their global and local
structural behavior. Global bending, vibration or buckling is the response of the
whole structure to external loading and is formulated in a global coordinate system.
A typical example for global structure behavior is the deflection of a ship hull on
the waves. But the deflections and stresses in a special domain of the ship e.g. in the
region of structure loading or deck openings or the vibrations or buckling of single
deck plates represent typical local effects.
A necessary condition for a global analysis is that the geometry of the structure
allows its description in a global co-ordinate system, i.e. the thin-walled structure is
sufficient long how it is given in case of a quasi one-dimensional structure.
Of course there are interactions between global and local effects, and in the
most cases these interactions are nonlinear. Usually the global analysis is taken as
the basic analysis and its results are the boundary conditions for local considerations
by using special local co-ordinate systems. The reactions of local to global effects
whereas are neglected .
From this point of view the global analysis of thin-walled beams and beam
shaped shells can be done approximately by describing them as one-dimensional
structures with one-dimensional model equations. For such problems the classical
beam model of J. Bernoulli was used. This model is based on three fundamental
hypotheses :
• There are no deformations of the cross-sectional contour.
• The cross-section is plane also in case of deformed structures.
• The cross-section remain orthogonally to the deformed system axis.
As a result of bending without torsion we have normal stresses (J and strains £ only
in longitudinal direction . Shear deformations are neglected. The shear stresses T
caused by the transverse stress resultants are calculated with the help of the equilib-
rium equations, but they are kinematically incompatible .
The Bernoulli's beam model can be used for beams with compact and sufficient
stiff thin-walled cross-sections. In case of thin-walled cross-section it is supposed
that the bending stresses (Jb and the shear stresses T q are distributed constantly over
the thickness t. If we have closed thin-walled cross-sections a statically indetermi-
nate shear flow must be considered .
A very important supplement to Bernoulli's beam model was given by Saint
Venant for considering the torsional stress. Under torsional stresses the cross-
sections have out-of-plane warping, but assuming that these are the same in all cross-
sections and they are not constrained we have no resulting longitudinal strains and
normal stresses. In this way we have also no additional shear stresses. The distribu-
tion of the so-called Saint Venant torsional shear stresses is based on a closed shear
flow in the cross-section . For closed thin-walled cross-sections the well-known ele-
mentary formulae of Bredt can be used.
The Timoshenko's beam model is an extension of the Bernoulli's beam model.
It enables to consider the shear deformations approximately. The first two basic hy-
potheses of the Bernoulli's model are remained. The plane cross-section stays plane
in this case but is not orthogonally to the system axes in the deformed structure. For
the torsional stress also the relationships of Saint Venant are used.
Rather soon the disadvantages of this both classical beam models were evident
for modelling and analysis of general thin-walled beam shaped structures. Espe-
cially structures with open cross-section have the endeavor for warping, and be-
cause the warping generally is not the same in all cross-sections, there are additional
normal stresses, so-called warping normal stresses and they lead to warping shear
stresses too. Therefore the torsional moment must be divided into two parts, the
Saint Venant part and the second part caused by the warping shear stresses.
Very fundamental and general works on this problem were done by Vlasov. Be-
cause his publications are given in Russian language they stayed unknown in west-
ern countries for a long time. In 1953 a translation of Vlasov' s book "General Shell
Theory and its Application in Technical Sciences" into German language was edited
and about ten years later his book on thin-walled elastic beams was published in En-
glish and German. By Vlasov a general and systematic terminology was founded,
which is used now in the most present papers .
The Vlasov's beam model for thin-walled beams with open cross-sections is
based on the assumption of a rigid cross-section contour too, but the warping ef-
fects are considered. Neglecting the shear strains of the mid-planes of the walls the
warping of the beam cross-section are given by the so-called law of sectorial areas.
The application of this Vlasov beam model to thin-walled beams with closed cross-
sections leads to nonsatisfying results, because the influences of the cross-sectional
contour deformations and of the mid-plane shear strains in the walls are significant
in such cases.
Therefore a further special structural model was developed by Vlasov in form
of the so-called semi-moment shell theory, in which the longitudinal bending mo-
ments and the torsional moments in the plates of folded structures with closed cross-
sections are neglected. By this way we have in longitudinal direction only membrane
stresses and in transversal direction a mixture of membrane and bending stresses.
This two-dimensional structural model can be reduced to a one-dimensional one
by taking into account the Kantorovich relationships in form of products of two
functions . One of them describes a given deformation state of the cross-section,
considered as a plane frame structure and the other is an unknown function of the
longitudinal co-ordinate.
In 1994 the authors of this textbook published a monograph on thin-walled
folded plate structures. Starting from a general structural model for isotropic struc-
tures also a short outlook to anisotropic structures was given. The general model
equations including the semi-moment shell model and all classical and generalized
linear beam models could be derived by neglecting special terms in the elastic en-
ergy potential function or by assuming special conditions for the contour defor-
mation states . In Sect. 10.2 the derivation of generalized folded structural model
is given for anisotropic plates, e.g. off-axis loaded laminates . The derivations are
restricted to prismatic systems with straight system axes only.
Summarizing one can conclude from the above discussion there are several rea-
sons why for thin-walled structures must be given special consideration in design
and analysis . In thin-walled beams the shear stresses and strains are relatively much
larger than those in beams with solid, e.g. rectangular, cross-sections . The assump-
tions of Bernoulli's or Timoshenko 's beam theory can be violated e.g. by so-called
shear lag effects, which result in a non-constant distribution of normal bending
stresses which are different from that predicted by the Bernoulli hypotheses for
beams carrying only bending loads. When twisting also occurs warping effects, e.g.
warping normal and shear stresses, have to add to those arising from bending loads.
The warping of the cross-section is defined as its out-of-plane distorsion in the direc-
tion of the beam axis and violated the Bernoulli 's hypotheses and the Timoshenko's
hypotheses too.
Because of their obvious advantages fibre reinforced laminated composite beam
structures are likely to play an increasing role in design of the present and, espe-
cially, of future constructions in the aeronautical and aerospace, naval or automotive
industry. In addition to the known advantages of high strength or high stiffness to
weight ratio, the various elastic and structural couplings, which are the result of the
directional nature of composite materials and of laminae-stacking sequence, can be
successfully exploited to enhance the response characteristics of aerospace or naval
vehicles .
In order to be able to determine the behavior of these composite beam structures,
consistent mechanical theories and analytical tools are required . At first, a Vlasov
type theory for fiber-reinforced beams with thin-walled open cross-sections made
from mid-plane symmetric fiber reinforced laminates was developed but in the last
15 years many improved or simplified theories were published.
Because primary or secondary structural configurations such as aircraft wings,
helicopter rotor blades, robot arms, bridges and other structural elements in civil en-
gineering can be idealized as thin- or thick-walled beams, especially as box beams,
beam models appropriate for both thin- and thick-walled geometries which include
the coupled stiffness effects of general angle-ply laminates, transverse shear defor-
mation of the cross-section and the beam walls, primary and secondary warping,
etc. were developed . But nearly all governing equations of thin- and thick-walled
composite beams adopt the basic Vlasov assumption:
The contours ofthe original beam cross-section do not deform in their own
planes.
This assumption implies that the normal strain €s in the contour direction is small
compared to the normal strain €z parallel to the beam axis. This is particular valid
for thin-walled open cross-sections , for thin-walled closed cross-section with stiff-
eners (transverse sheets) and as the wall thickness of closed cross-sections increase.
Chapter 10 focuses the considerations to a more general model of composite thin-
walled beams which may be include the classical Vlasov assumptions or may be
relax these assumptions, e.g. by including the possibility of a deformation of the
cross-section in its own plane, etc.
In the following a special generalized class of thin-walled structures is consid-
ered, so-called folded plate structures. A folded plate structure shall be defined as
a prismatic thin-walled structure which can be formed by folding a flat rectangu-
lar plate or joining thin plate strips along lines parallel to their length. Figure 10.1
demonstrates thin-walled structures of the type defined above. The plate strips can
be laminates.
10.2 Generalized Beam Models
Section 10.2 defines the outline of modelling beam shaped, thin-walled prismatic
folded plate structures with open, one or multi-cell closed or mixed open-closed
cross-sections. The considerations are limited to global structural response . Assum-
ing the classical laminate theory for all laminated plate strips of the beam shaped
structure the elastic energy potential function is formulated. The energy potential
is a two-dimensional functional of the coordinate x of the structure axis and the
cross-section contour coordinate s.
Following the way ofVlasov-Kantorovich the two-dimensional functional is re-
duced to an approximate one-dimensional one. A priori fixed generalized coordi-
nate functions describing the cross-section kinematics are introduced. Generalized
displacement functions which depend on the system coordinate x only are the inde-
pendent functions of the reduced variational statement which leads to a system of
matrix differential equations, the Euler equations of the variational statement, and
to the possible boundary equations.
The general structural model can be simplified by neglecting selected terms
in the energy formulation or by restricting the number of the generalized coordi-
nate functions, i.e. the cross-section kinematics . All results are discussed under the
[ f I TToB
Fig. 10.1. Thin-walled prismatic folded plate structures with open or closed cross-sections
viewpoint of a sufficient general structural model for engineering applications. A

general structural model is recommended which includes all above noted forms of
cross-sections and enables to formulate efficient numerical solution procedures.
10.2.1 Basic Assumptions
A prismatic system is considered, its dimensions are significant larger in one di-
rection (the length) in comparison with these in transverse directions. The system
consists of n plane thin-walled strip elements; it means their thickness is significant
smaller than the strip width, i.e. ti « d i . Rigid connections of the plate strips along
their length lines are supposed. Closed cross-sections as well as open cross-sections
and combined forms are possible. In Fig. 10.2 a general thin-walled folded structure
is shown . There is a global co-ordinate system x, y, z with any position . In each strip
we have a local co-ordinate system x, si, ni, the displacements are Ui, vi, Wi. We re-
strict our considerations to prismatic structures only and neglect the transverse shear
strains in the strips normal to their mid-planes, it means the validity of the Kirchhoff
hypotheses is supposed or we use the classical laminate theory only. All parameters
of each strip are constant in x-direction. For the displacements we can write
(10.2.1 )
u, and vi are the displacements in the mid-plane and to, is the deflection normal to
the mid-plane of the ith strip. As loads are considered:
• surface forces, distributed on the unit of the mid-plane
PXi = PXi(x,Si), PSi = PSi(x,Si), pn, = Pni(x,Si) (10.2.2)
• line forces, distributed on the length unit of the boundaries of the structure
qxilx = 0 = qXi(O,sJ, qSi/X = 0 = qSi(O,Si) , qnilx = 0 = qni(O,Si) (10.2.3)

qxilx = I = qXi(l,Si), qSilx = I = qSi(l,Si), qnilx = I = qni(l,Si)
Fig. 10.2. Thin-walled folded structure geometry and co-ordinate systems

If a linear anisotropic material behavior is supposed , for each strip we can use the
constitutive relationship given as
(10.2.4)
or
N Xi EXi
NS i ESi
N XSi EXSi
=
MXi KXi
M Si KSi
M XSi KXSi
The following steps are necessary for calculating the elements of the matrices
A, B, D for the ith strip:
• Calculate the reduced stiffness matrix Q' for each lamina (k) of the strip (i) by
using the four elastic moduli EL , ET , vLT, GLT, Eqs. (4.1.2) and (4.1.3).
• Calculate the values of the transformed reduced stiffness matrix Q for each lam-
ina (k) of the strip (i) (Table 4.2).
• Considering the stacking structure, it means, considering the positions of all lam-
inae in the ith strip calculate the matrix elements A k1i, Bk1i, Dk1i' (4.2.15).
It must be noted that the co-ordinates xl, X2, x3 used in Sect. 4.1.3 are corresponding
to the coordinates x, si, n, in the present chapter and the stresses 0"1,0"2,0"6 here are
O"Xi' O"Si'O"XSi ' For the force and moment resultants also the corresponding notations
N Xi, Ns i, NXSi,lvIxi' Msi' M XSi are used and we have to take here :
~/2 ~/2 ~ /2
N Xi = J
-t;/2
O"Xi d n i, N Si = J
-t;/2
O"Si d n i, N XSi = J
-t;/2
O"xsidni,
t;/2 t;/2 t;/2

(10.2.5)
M Xi = J
-t;/2
O"xinidni, M Si = J
-t;/2
O"Sinidn i, M XSi = J
-t;/2
O"XSinidni
In Fig. 10.3 the orientations of the loads, see Eqs. (10.2.2) and (10.2.3), and the
resultant forces and moments in the ith wall are shown. In the frame of the classical
laminate theory the transverse force resultants N Sn i and N X n i follow with the help
of the equilibrium conditions for a strip element.
In the same way here we have the following definitions for the elements of the
deformation vector [E1 E2 E6 K1 K2 K6V == [EXi ESi EXS i KXi KSi KXS i]T with
(10.2.6)
10.2.2 Potential Energy of the Folded Structure
The potential energy of the whole folded structure can be obtained by summarizing
the energy of all the n strips
I d,
II = ~ L(o)!! T
[NT M ] i [~] i ds .dx - Wa (10 .2.7)
1 0 0
N x,
L - :xs,
N xs,
N xlI, M xs,
M.rs,
qll.lx=O
Fig. 10.3. Loads and resultant forces and moments in the ith strip
With equation (10.2.4) the vectors of the resultant forces and moments can be ex-
pressed and we obtain
/ di T
IT = ~ ~[ [[: L[~~ L[:L ds.dx - w, (10.2.8)
The external work of the loads is also the sum of all the n strips
/ d,
w, = L {~!
zoo
! 2(PXiUi + pSiVi + PniWi) ds, dx
d (10.2.9)
+ ![(qXi Ui + qSivi + qniWi) Ix=o + (qxiui + qSivi + qniWi) Ix=JdS}

o
After some steps considering the Eqs. (10.2.4) and (10.2.6) Eq. (10.2.9) leads to
/ di
IT = ~ {~!
(z) 0
!
0
[AlliU;Z + 2A12iu~vj + 2A16iU~(uj + v;)
+ A 22ivj2 + 2A 26ivj(uj + v;) + A66i (uj + V;) 2

' 1/ - 2B 12 UiWi
- 2B ll iUiWi , . . - 2B 12iVi• wi1/
i
- 2B26i(uj + v;)wj· - 4B 66/uj + v;)W~·

+ O lliWiI/Z + 20 12iWi1/..
wi + 40 16iWi1/,.
wi (10.2.10)
•• 2 40 ..,. 40 Wi,.Z
+ O 2Z Wi +i 26iWi wi + 66 i
- 2(PXiUi + pSiVi + PniWi)] ds, dx
d·
- ![(qXiUi + qSivi + qniWi)lx=o+ (qxiUi + qSiVi + qniWi)lx=/] dS i }

o
10.2.3 Reduction of the Two-dimensional Problem
Equation (10.2.10) represents the complete folded structure model, because it con-
tains all the energy terms of the membrane stress state and of the bending/torsional
stress state under the validity of the Kirchhoff hypotheses . An analytical solution of
this model equations is really impossible with the exception of some very simple
cases. Therefore here we will take another way. As the main object of this section
we will find approximate solutions by reducing the two-dimensional problem to an
one-dimensional one taking into account the so-called Kantorovich separation rela-
tionships (Sect. 2.2).
For the displacements u., Vi, to, in the ith strip we write the approximative series
solutions
Ui(X,Si) = 'LUj(X)CPij(Si) = UTtp = tpTU,
(j)
Vi(X, s.) = 'L Vk(X)o/ik(Si) = VT tp = tpTy, (l0.2.11)
(k)
Wi(X, Si) = 'L Vk(X)Sik(Si) = yT S = STy
(k)
Here the CPij(Si), o/ik(Si)' 5ik(Si) are a priori given trial functions of the co-ordinates
siand Uj(x), Vk(x) unknown coefficient functions of the longitud inal co-ordinate x.
Vlasov defined the CPij(s.), o/ik(s.), 5ik(Si) as the generalized co-ordinate functions
and the Uj(x), Vk(x) as the generalized displacement functions . Of course it is very
important for the quality of the approximate solution, what kind and which number
of generalized co-ordinates CPij(Si), o/ik(Si), 5ik(Si) are used.
Now we consider a closed thin-walled cross-section, e.g. the cross-section of a
box-girder, and follow the Vlasov's hypotheses:
• The out-of-plane displacements Ui(Si) are approximately linear functions of si.
In this case there are n" linear independent trial functions CPij' n* is the number
of parallel strip edge lines of cross-section .
• The strains £s;(Si) can be neglected , i.e. £ Sj ~ O. The trial functions o/ik(Si) are
then constant functions in all strips and we have n* * linear independent o/ik(Si)
and 5ik(Si) with n** = 2n * - m* . m* is the number of strips of the thin-walled
structure and n" is defined above .
The generalized co-ordinate functions can be obtained as unit displacement states
in longitudinal direction (cp) and in transversal directions (0/,5). Usually however
generalized co-ordinate functions are used, which allow mechanical interpretations.
In Fig. lOA, e.g., the generalized co-ordinate functions for a one-cellular rectangu-
lar cross-section are shown . CP1 characterizes the longitudinal displacement of the
whole cross-section, CP2 and CP3 its rotations about the global y- and z-axes . CP1, CP2 ,
CP3 represent the plane cross-section displacem ents, while CP4 shows its warping.
0/2 and 0/3 characterize the plan cross-section displacements in z- and y-direct ion
and 0/1 the rotation of the rigid cross-section about the system axis x. 0/4 defines a
cross-sectional contour deformation, e.g. a distorsion . The generalized co-ordinate
functions 51, 52, 53, 54 represent displacements of the strips corresponding to 0/1 ,
0/2,0/3,0/4, For the example of a box-girder cross-section there is n* = 4, m* = 4
and n** = 8 - 4 = 4.
In the following more general derivations the strains £ Sj will be included, we
will take into account more complicated forms of warping functions and therefore
there are no restrictions for the number of generalized co-ordinate functions . After
the input of Eq. (10.2.11) into (10.2.10) and with the definition of the 28 matrices
IV 1 U
-l _.'.u
V4 I
VI
t4
d1 = d3 = ds
d2 = d4 = dG
X ' ,' _
y
tI lz t3
a = ds/2, b = dG/2
c = dsdG /
.t 2 I V3
U :::- . ~.
! V2 ' U I
qJI
b _
1 1 1 a
a -
.
b -
!/JI
j ~2 !/J3 !/J4
. 1 -
1 1
1
52 53
Fig. 10.4. Generalized coordinate functions of an one-cellular rectangular cross-section

dj a,
.AI = L J (i) 0
All jcp(l ds., .A z J
=L
(i) 0
A 16;ipecpT ds.,
dj dj
.A = L J
3 A66 jcpecpeT d s., .A4 LJ= A 66 ;tptpT d s.,
(i) 0 (i) 0
dj d,
.As L J = A Z6jtpetp T d s., .A = L J

6 Azz;tpetpe T ds.,
( i) 0 (i) 0
d, d,
.A7 = L J D ll ;5S T d s., .A8 L J= D 16 jSeST d s.,

(i) 0 (i) 0
d; d,
.A9 L J = D66jSeSeT ds ., LJ
.A 1O = D 1Z;See ST ds.,
(i) 0 (i) 0
dj d,
.All =LJ DZ6jSeeSeTd s., LJ

"\lZ =
T
DZZjS"S.. d s.,
(i) 0 (i) 0
s, dj
.A13 =LJ A 16jiptpT d s., .A LJ

14 = A 1z ;cptpeT d s.,
(i) 0 (i) 0
d; d,
(10.2.12)
.A15 =LJ A66;ipetpT d s, .A LJ

16 = A Z6 ;cpetpe T ds.,
(i) 0 (i ) 0
a, dj
.A17 =LJ B ll jipS T d s., .A = L J

18 B1 6jipSeT ds .,
(i) 0 (i) 0
d, dj
.A = L J
19 B 1z ;CPSee T d s., LJ
.A zo = B 16 ;cpeST ds.,
(i ) 0 (i ) 0
d, dj
.An L J = B 66 ;ipe SeT d s., .An L J= BZ6jcpeSee Td s.,

(i) 0 (i) 0
dj d;
=L J
.A Z3 B 16jtpST d s., LJ
.A Z4 = B 66;tpseT ds.,
(i ) 0 (i ) 0
d; d;
LJ
.Az 5 = BZ6jtpSee Td s., LJ
.A Z6 = B 1Z;tpe S T d s.,
(i) 0 (i) 0
d; d;
LJ
.A Z7 = BZ6;tpe SeT ds., LJ
.A Z8 = Bzz;tpeSee Tds,
(i) 0 (i) 0
and the load vectors

di d,
fx =L / px/pds i, rx = L/ qx/pds i,
(i) 0 (i) 0
di d;
t. = L/ Ps;t/Jds i , r s = L/ qSit/Jds i , (10.2.13)

(i) 0 (i) 0
di di
fn = L/ PniSdSi, rn = L/ qn;Sds i
(i) 0 (i) 0
the potential energy in matrix form is obtained as follows

I
n = ~/ IT
[U AIU' + yTA 6Y + U TA 3U + 2U TA 1sY'
o
+ y,T A 4y' + yllT A 7yll + y TA 12Y +4y,T A 9y'
+ 2U ,TA 14Y + 2UTA 2U' + 2U,TA 13Y ' - 2U ITA 17Y"
,TA IT IT TAsY
- 2U 19Y - 4U A 1sY' + 2U A 16Y + 2y '
(10.2.14)
- 2Y TA' 26Y II - 2Y T'A 2SY - 4Y TA' 27Y I - 2U TA 20Y II
A
IT
- 2y ,,123v" - 2UT,,122 Y - 2y ITA 2s Y - 4U T,,121 v'
- 4y,TA24Y' +2yTA 10Y" +4y,T A sY" +4y TA nY'
-2(UTfx+yTfs+yTfn)] dx
- (UTr x + yTr s + yTrn) Ix=o - (UTrx + yT rs + y Trn) IX=I
The variation of the potential energy function (l 0.2.14) and using
2
an
au - d (an) an d (an) d (an)
dx au l = 0, ay - dx ayl + dx2 ay" = 0,
l5UT [dn] - 0 T [an d (an)] _ = 0,
aul x=O,1 - , l5Y ayl - dx ay" x-O) (10.2 .15)
l5ylT [ an ] -- 0
::Iy"
{J x=O,1
leads to a system of matrix differential equations and matrix boundary conditions of
the complete thin-walled folded plate structure
A " A AT , A
-A 1U + (A z - Az)U + A 3U
+A I7V'" - (.1. 13 - 2.1. 18 + A zo)V"
+( -.1. 14 + .1. 15 + .1. 19 - 2A z1)V' + (.1. 16 - Azz)V = Ix
AT III AT AT AT "
-A I7U - (A 13 - 2A 18 + AzO)U
+(Ai4 - Ais - Ai9 + 2Arl )U' + (Ai6 - Arz)U (10.2 .16)
T ~ T
+A 7V
A ""
+ (2A s - 2A s + £1Z3 - A z3)V
A A III
A A A AT A A AT "
-(A 4 + 4A 9 - AlO - A lO - 4Az4 + A Z6 + A z6)V
A AT A AT A AT A AT,
+(A s - A s + 2A n - 2A ll + A zs - A ZS - 2A z7 + 2A Z7)V
+(.1.6 + .1. 12 - 2A z8)V = I s + In
A T ,A T A " A A ,
bU [A1U +A zU-A I7V +(A I3-2A I8)V
+(.1.14 - A I9)V ± Tx]x=O,1 = 0
T AT " AT AT AT , AT AT
bV [A17U + (A 13 - 2A 18 + A zo)U + (A 1S - 2A 21)U
A III A AT A AT "
-A7V + (2A 8 - 2A S - AZ3 + A Z3)V
A A AT A AT , (10 .2.17)
+(A 4 + 4A 9 - A lO - 4A z4 + A Z6)V
AT AT A AT
+(A s + 2A n - A zs - 2A z7)V ± Ts ±Tn]x=O,1 = 0
bV'T [-Ai7U' - Arou

A " AT AT , AT AT
+ (2A 8 - A Z3)V + (A lO - A Z6)V]x=O,1 = 0
+A 7V
In Eqs. (10.2.17) the upper sign ( +) is valid for the boundary x =
0 of the structure
and the lower one (- ) for the boundary x = 1. This convention is also valid for all
follow ing simplified models .
10.2.4 Simplified Structural Models
Starting from the complete folded structure model two ways of derivation simplified
models are usual:
• Neglecting of special terms in the potential energy function of the complete
folded plate structure.
• Restrictions of the cross-section kinem atics by selection of special generali zed
co-ordinate function s.
For the first way we will consider the energy terms caused by
• the longitud inal curvatures KX i '
• the transversal strains £ si '
• the shear deformat ions of the mid-planes £ XSi and
• the torsional curvatures KXSi
in the strips. But not all possibilities for simplified models shall be taken into ac-
count. We will be restricted the considerations to:
A a structure model with neglected longitudinal curvatures K Xi only,
B a structure model with neglected longitudinal curvatures KX i and neglected tor-
sional curvatures KXS i'
C a structure model with neglected longitudinal curvatures KX i and neglected
transversal strains £ S i '
D a structure model with neglected longitudinal curvatures KX i ' neglected transver-
sal strains £ Si and torsional curvatures KX S i ' and
E a structure model with neglected longitudinal curvature s KXi ' neglected transver-
sal strains £ S i and neglected shear strain £ XS i of the mid-plan es of the strips.
In Fig. 10.5 is given an overview on the development of structural simplified models.
Structure model A. The starting point is the potential energy equation (10.2.10), in
which all terms containing w;'
have to vanish. Together with (10.2.11) and (10.2.12)
we find that in this case
..1 7 = 0,..1 8 = 0,..110 = 0,..1 17 = 0,..1 20 = 0,..1 23 = 0,..1 26 = °
The matrix differential equations (l0.2.16) and the boundary conditions (l0.2.17)
change then into
IKS i 1= 0, ESi 1= 0, exs, 1= 0, xxs, 1= 0 I
!KXi =0I
IES i 1= 0 : I ESi =0I
Iexs, 1= 0 I : EXSi =0I IEXSi 1= 0 : II EXS I· =0I
Ixxs, 1= 0 t-1 <xs, = 0 I xxs, 1= 0I t-1

<xs, = 0 I
<xs, 1= 0 I I
A B C D E
Fig. 10.5. Overview to the derivation of usual simplified models for thin- walled folded plate
structures
A " AT,A A A A "
-A1U +(Az-AZ)U +A 3U-(A 13-2A 18)V

+( -A 14 + A 1S + A 19 - 2A 21)V' + (A 16 - Azz)V = Ix
-(Ai3 - 2Ai8)U" + (Ai4 - Ais - Ai9 + 2A;1)U' (10.2.18)

AT AT
+(A 16 - An)U - (A4 + 4A 9 - 4A z4)V
A A A "
A AT AT A AT AAT , A
+(A s - As + 2A u - 2A U + A zs - A ZS - 2A z7 + 2A Z7)V
+(A 6 + A 12 - 2A z8)V = Is + In
bUT [A 1U' + A;U + (A 13 - 2A 18)V'
+(A 14 - A 19)V ± TX ]
x=O,l
= a
bV T [(Ai3 - 2Ai8)U' + (Ais - 2A;1)U (10.2.19)
+(A 4 + 4A 9 - 4A z4)V'
AT AT AT ]
+(A S + 2A U - A zs - 2A 27)V ± Ts ± Tn
A
x=O,l
= a
Structure model B. Here the longitudinal curvatures KX i and the torsional curva-
tures KXSi are neglected and therefore in the potential energy additionally to w;' : : : a
in model A all terms containing w;·
have to vanish. Additionally to the case of
model A now also the matrices A 9, Au, A 18, A Z1, A Z4, A 27 are null-matrices. This
leads to the following matrix differential equations and the corresponding boundary
conditions:
A " AT ,
A A A "
-A 1U +(Az-AZ)U +A 3U-A 13V

+( -A 14 + A 1S + A 19)V' + (A 16 - A Z2)V = Ix
(l0.2.20)
-Ai3 U" + (Ai4 - Ais - Ai9)U' + (Ai6 - A;z)U - A 4V"
AAT AT, A A A A
+(A s - As + A zs - Azs)V + (A 6 + A 12 - A z8)V = Is+ln
bUT [A1U'+A;U+A1 3V'+(A14-A19)V±Tx] =0

x=O,l (l0.2.21)
T [AT ,AT A, AT A ) ]
bV A 13U + A 1SU + A 4V + (As - A zs V ± Ts ± r.; x=O,l = a
Structure model C. In this structure model the longitudinal curvatures KXi and
the strains ESi are neglected. Therefore in this case in the potential energy function
(l 0.2.10) all terms containing w;' and vi have to vanish. Considering the equations
(l 0.2.11) and (10.2.12) we find, that additionally to the case of the structure model A
here the matrices As, A 6, A 14, A 16, A Z7, A Z8 are null-matrices and in this way we
obtain the following matrix differential equations and the corresponding boundary
conditions:
A " A AT, A A
-AI U + (A z - AZ)U + A 3U - (A13 - 2A IS)V
A "
+(A IS + Al9 - 2A zI)V' - AzzV = Ix

AT AT" AT AT AT , AT (10.2.22)
-(A I3 - 2A 18)U + (-A IS - A l9 + 2A ZI)U - AZZU
-(A 4 + 4A9 - 4A z4)V"
AT AT ,
= Is + In
A A A
+(2A ll - 2Al l + Azs - Azs)V + A 12V
buT [AIU'+A~U+(A13-2AIS)V'-AI9V±Tx] =0
x=O,l
bV T [(Ai3 - 2Ais)U' + (Ais - 2A~I)U (10.2.23)
+(A 4 + 4A 9 - 4A z4)V' + (2Ail - Azs)V ± Ts ± Tn] = 0
x=O,l
Structure model D. This structure model neglects the longitudinal curvatures KXi'
the strains £Si and the torsional curvatures KXSi ' In the potential energy func-
tion all terms containing w;' vi
w;- have to vanish and we find together with
I I
(10.2.11) and (10.2.12) that additionally to the structure model C the matrices
A 91A ll I A l81 A 21 1AZ4 are null-matrices . We obtain the matrix differential equa-
tions and the boundary conditions in the following form:
A " AT,
A A
-AIU +(Az-AZ)U +A 3U
-A 13V" + (A IS + A 19)V' - AzzV = Ix
AT " AT AT , AT (10.2.24)
-A 13U + (-A IS - A I9)U - AzzU
AT,
A " A
-A4V + (A zs - Azs)V + A 12V = Is + In A
su' [AIU' +A~U + A I3 V' -A19V ±TxL=o,1 = a

(10.2.25)
bv T [Ai3U'+Aisu+A4V'-AzsV±Ts±Tn] =0
x=O,1
Structural model E. Now the longitudinal curvatures KXi ' the transversal strains
£Si and the shear strains £XSi of the mid-planes shall be neglected. Therefore in
the potential energy function all the terms containing w;' and vi vanish again. The
neglecting of the shear strains of the mid-planes leads with Eq. (10.2.6) to
dUi dVi _ ,
£XS I· = -dSi + -dX = u I, + v I· = a
and we can see that the generalized displacement functions U (x) and V (x) and also
the generalized co-ordinate functions rp(Si) and t/J(Si) are no more independent from
each other
ui = -V;, UTrp- = - V,Tt/J, '1'- = t/J, U = -V' I U' = -V" U" = -V'"
I (10.2 .26)
Therefore the potential energy function must be reformulated before the variation
of U and V. Considering the vanishing terms w;' vi
and (10.2.26) we obtain the
I
potential energy function in the following form:

n = ~ J [V
II T
AlV" + V TA 12V + 2V" TA 19V + 4V" TA 18V'
° (10.2.27)
+ 4V,T ..1 9V' + 4V TAllv' - 2(U TI, + v"Is + v"In)] dx
T T T T T T
- (U Tx + v Ts + V Tn) Ix=o - (U Tx + V Ts + V Tn) IX=1
The variation of the potential energy, see also (10.2.15), leads to the matrix differ-
ential equations and the boundary conditions for the structural model E
1111 T II' T II
A
AlV + 2(A 18 -
A
A 18)V + (-4A 9 + A 19 + A 19)V

A A A A
A AT, A , (10.2.28)
+2(A l l - A ll)V +A12 V =Ix+Is+In
bV T [- AlVIII + 2( -..1 18 + Ai8)V1I + (4..1 9 - A 19)V'

AT
+2A llV+Ix±Tx±Tn]x=o,1 =0 (10.2.29)
bV,T [AI V" +2A 18V' +A19V=t=Tx] =0
x=O,1
Further special models by restrictions of the cross-section kinematics. All the
five given simplified structure models include the neglecting of the longitudinal cur-
vatures KXi in the strips . Because in the case of a beam shaped thin-walled structure
the influence KXi on the deformation state and the stresses of the whole structure
can be seen as very small, its neglecting is vindicated here. The main advantage of
the given five simplified structure models however is that by neglecting the longi-
tudinal curvatures in the strips we have a decreasing of the order of derivations of
the generalized displacement functions U and V in the potential energy. This is an
important effect for practical solution strategies of the model equations .
The structure model s A and C can be used for the analysis of thin-walled beam
shaped structures with open or closed cross-sections . The difference exists only in
the including or neglecting of the strains cSi in the strips. Usually they can be ne-
glected , if we have not temperature loading or concentrated transversal stiffeners in
the analyzed structure . The structure models Band D are valid only for structures
with closed cross-sections, because there the torsional curvatures and the torsional
moments MXSi are very small. The use of the structure model E is vindicated only
for beam shaped structures with open cross-sections . There the shear strains of the
mid-planes of the plate strips have only small influence on the displacements and
the stress state of the structure how in opposite to the case of a closed cross-section.
Further for each of the five considered models we can develop model variants
restricting the cross-section kinematics by selection of special sets of generalized
co-ordinate functions tp, t/J,S. For example, in the structure model B the number of
generalized co-ordinate functions is unlimited . In model D in contrast the number
of t/J, s -co-ordinates is limited to n'", see Sect. 10.2.3. Restricting in this model ad-
ditionally the tp-co-ordinates to n"; the semi-moment shell theory for an anisotropic
behavior of the strips is obtained. The Eqs. (10.2.24) and (10.2.25) stay unchanged .
A symmetric stacking sequence in all the strips leads for this model to a further
simplification, because then we have no coupling between stretching and bending
in the strips, all the elements of the coupling matrix B vanish and therefore all the
matrices A17 - A2 8 are null-matrices. In this special case the following matrix dif-
ferential equations and boundary conditions are valid
(10.2.30)
(10.2.3 1)
If we have symmetric cross-ply laminates in all the plate strips and one of the main
axes of them is identical with the global x-axis, there is no stretching/shearing or
bending/twisting coupling and therefore additionally to the B-matrix the elements
A16 = A 26 = O,D 16 = D 26 = O. With these the matrices A2,A 13 , are null-
matrices, Eq. (10.2.12). In this case the Eqs. (10.2.30) and (10.2. 31) lead to
II
-A 1 U +A 3 U +A 1SV ' = I, (10.2.32)
II
-A 1sU' - A4 V +A 12 V = Is+ In
OUT [A1 U' ±TxL=o,1 = 0
(10.2.33)
oV
T
[Ais u +A V ' ±rs ±rnL=O,1 = 0
4
and we find that we have equations of the same type how in case of the classical
semi-moment shell theory of Vlasov. Here however the matrices A consider the
anisotropic behavior of the strips.
Otherwise if starting from the structure model E then the generalized co-
ordinate functions t/J, 5 are restricted to three co-ord inates, representing the rigid
cross-section, i.e. (th ,51), the rotation of the cross-section about the x-axis,
(tp2,52) and (tp3, 53) the displacements in the global y- and z-direction. If we
additionally assume only four o/-functions, then the first three representing the
plane cross-section, i.e. 0/1 the displacement in x-direction, 0/2, 0/3 the rotations
about the y- and z-axes and 0/4 is a linear warping function, the so-called unit
warping function according to the sectorial areas law. Therefore we have a structural
model similar the classical Vlasov beam model. The difference is only that in the
classical Vlasov beam model isotropic material behavior is assumed and here the
anisotropic behavior of the plate strips is considered. Note that for comparison of
these both models usually the following correlation s should be taken into account:
UI(x) = u(X) displacements of the plane cross-section in x-direction

U2(X) = <py = W'(X) rotation of the plane cross-section about the y-axis
U3(X) = <pz = V'(X) rotation of the plane cross-section about the z-axis
U4(X) = we' (X) the warping with w as the unit warping function
VI (x) = e(x) rotation of the rigid cross-section about the x-axis
V2(X) = vex) displacement of the rigid cross-section in y-direction
V3(X) = w(x) displacement of the rigid cross-section in z-direction
More details about the equations shall not be given here.

If we in this anisotropic Vlasov beam model suppress the warping of the
cross-section and use only the functions <PI, <P2, <P3 representing the plane cross-
section kinematics and do not take into account the torsion, we obtain a special-
ized Bernoulli beam model for laminated beams with thin-walled cross-sections
and anisotropic material behavior. In a similar way a specialized Timoshenko beam
model can be obtained, if we restrict the generalized co-ordinate functions <Pi to the
three functions for the plane cross-section kinematics and take into account only
the two tp-co-ordinates for the displacements in y- and z-direction , here however
starting from the structural model D.
The both above discussed quasi beam models are specialized for structures with
cross-sections consisting of single thin plate strips without any rule of their arrange-
ment in the cross-section . The curvatures KXi are generally neglected. The special-
ized beam equations described above cannot be compared directly with the beam
equations in Chap . 7 because the derivation there is not restricted to thin-walled
folded plate cross-sections .
10.2.5 An Efficient Structure Model for the Analysis of General Prismatic

beam Shaped Thin-walled Plate Structures
Because in the following only beam shaped thin-walled structures are analyzed the
neglecting of the influence of the longitudinal curvatures KXi in the single plate
strips is vindicated. How it was mentioned above, we have in this case a decreasing
of the order of derivations of the generalized displacement functions in the potential
energy, and this is very important for the solution procedures .
The selected structure model shall enable the analysis of thin-walled structures
with open, closed and mixed open/closed cross-sections. Because the influence of
KXSi is small only for closed cross-sections but the influence of EXSi can be neglected
for open cross-sections only, the selected structure model for general cross-sections
have to include the torsional curvatures and the shear strains of the mid-planes.
The strains ESi have in the most cases only a small influence and could be ne-
glected generally. But we shall see in Chap. 11 that including ESi in the model equa-
tions leads an effective way to define the shape functions for special finite elements
and therefore also the ESi are included in the selected structure model.
Summarizing the above discussion the structure model A is selected as an uni-
versal model for the modelling and analysis of beam shaped thin-walled plate struc-
tures. An extension of the equations to eigen-vibration problem s is given in Sect.

10.2.6.
10.2.6 Free Eigen-vibration Analysis, Structure model A
Analogous to the static analysis, the eigen-vibration analysis also shall be restricted
to global vibration response . Local vibrations, e.g. vibration of single plates, are
excluded. A structure model neglecting the longitudinal curvatures cannot describe
local plate strip vibrations. Further only free undamped vibration s are considered.
The starting point is the potential energy function, Eq. (10.2. 10), but all terms
including KXi are neglected . With the potential energy n(Ui, vi, Wi)
I d;
tt = L~
(I)
II
0 0
[All ;U? + 2A 12;U;vi + 2A16;U;(ui + v;)
+ A 22;vi 2 + 2A26;vi(ui + v;) + A 66; (Ui + v;)

2
/.. (10.2.34)
- 2B 12iUiWi - 4B 16iU /iWi/. - 2B22iV•••
i Wi - 4B26iVi• Wi/.
- 2B26i(ui + v;)wi · - 4B66/ui + v;)w;·
+ O 22;W••
i +
2
40 26iWi•• Wi/. + 40 66iWi /.2] d s, d X
and the kinetic energy T (U i, Vi, Wi)
T (u ) = ~ tr! 1Pili[Ca:i) , C;'i) + z+ (a;i)'] ds , dx, (10.2.35)
where Pi is the average density of the ith plate strip
Pi = ~ t
t i k=l
p (k)t(k)
I I
(10.2.36 )
Because we have thin plate strips only, rotational terms of the kinetic energy can be
neglected.
The reduction of the two-dimensional problem is carried out again with the
generalized co-ordinate functions 'I'(Si), t/J(Si),S(Si) , but we must remark that the
generalized displacement functions U, V are time-dependent and therefore they are
written in the following with a tilde. The reduction relationships are
(10.2 .37)
Additionally to the A matrices equation (10.2.12) the following matrices are de-
fined:
d;
81 = f
L
(i) 0
Pitilf'lf'T ds. ,
d;
82 = Lf T
Pitit/Jt/J ds ., (10.2.38)
(i) 0
d;
83 = Lf Piti!,!,T ds,
(i) 0
and we obtain the so-called Lagrange function L = T - II

I
L~f [tl8 l 1 + V
T8 T8
L = 2V +V 3V
(i) 2 0
- T A -, - TA - -TA -, - TA_'
- (U' A 1U +2U' A 14V+2U A 2U +2U' A 13V
-TA - -TA - - T A - , -TA-
+ V A 6V+2U A I 6V+2V A sV +U A 3U
- TA - , - T A -, -TA - -TA _' (10.2.39)
+ 2U A1SV + V' A 4V -2U' A 19V -4U' A 18V
- TA - - T A -I - TA - - TA-
- 2V A 28V - 4V A 27V - 2U A 22V - 2V' A 2SV
-TA -, - T A _'
- 4U A 21V - 4V' A 24V
+ V TAl2V + 4V TAll + 4V, TA9V' )] d x v'

The time derivations of the generalized displacement functions are written with the
point symbol
.:. av
V=- (10.2.40)
at
The Hamilton principle yields the variational statement
f f
t2 t2
s Ldt = r5Ldt = 0, L = L(x, t, ti, V, ll', V ', ts,V) (10.2.41)

t1 t1
and we obtain two differential equations
ei.
aii -
(aL) d (aL) _0
d
all' - dt au -
dx
(10.2.42)
aL d (aL) d (aL) _0
av - dx av' - dt av -
If further harmonic relationships for the generalized displacement functions are as-
sumed
fl(x, t) = U(x) sinwot, Vex, t) = Vex) sinwot (10.2.43)
and we obtain after some steps the following matrix differential equations:
A " A AT , A ZA A A "
-A 1U +(Az-Az)U +(A3-WoB1)U-(A13-2A1S)V
+( -A 14 + A 1S + A 19 - 2A z1)V' + (A 16 - Azz)V = 0
-(Ai3- 2Ai8)U" + (Ai4 - Ais - Ai9 + 2Ar1)U'

AT AT A A A " (10.2.44)
+(A 16 - Azz)U - (A 4 + 4A 9 - 4A z4)V
A AT A AT A AT A AT ,
+(A s - As + 2A ll - 2A ll + A zs - A zs - 2A z7 + 2A z7)V
A A A ZA ZA
+(A 6 + A l2 - 2A z8 - woB z - WoB3)V =0
With these equations given above the global free vibration analysis of prismatic
beam shaped thin-walled plate structures can be done sufficient exactly.
10.3 Solution Procedures
Two general kinds of solution procedures may be taken into account

• analytic solutions and
• numerical solutions
The consideration below distinguish exact and approximate analytical solution pro-
cedures. In the first case an exact solution of the differential equations is carried
out. In the other case, the variational statement of the problem is, e.g., solved by
the Ritz or Galerkin method, and in general, the procedures yield in an approximate
analytical series solution.
Numerical solution procedures essentially consist of methods outgoing from the
differential equation or from the corresponding variational problem. The numeri-
cal solutions of differential equations may include such methods as finite difference
methods, Runge-Kutta methods and transfer matrix methods. The main representa-
tive for the second way is the finite element method (FEM). After a few remarks
in Sect. 10.3.1 about analytic solution possibilities for the here considered prob-
lems, the numerical solution procedure using the transfer matrix method is consid-
ered in detail in Sect. 10.3.2. The application of the FEM and the development of
special one-dimensional finite elements for beam shaped thin-walled structures are
discussed in Chap. 11.
10.3.1 Analytical Solutions

For the generalized beam model s given in Sect. 10.2 only for simplified special
cases anal ytical solutions are possible. If we use, for example, the structure model
D in connection with a symmetric cross-ply stacking in all plates, what mean s
that the differential equations are from the same type as in case of the isotropic
semi-moment shell theory of Vlasov, analytical solutions can be developed for spe-
cial cross-sections geometry. It is very useful to choo se orthogonal generalized co-
ordinate functions <p, t/J,5, becau se it yields the possibility of decompo sition of the
system of differential equations into some uncoupled partial systems. For example,
the generalized co-ordinate function s <p in Fig. 10.4 are complet ely orthogonal and
in this way the matrix .A 1 is a diagonal matrix. Therefore some couplings between
the single differential equations vanish.
A suitable method for construction an exact solution is the Krylov method or
the so-called method of initial parameters. The first step for the application of this
method is to convert the system of differential equations into an equivalent differen-
tial equation of n-th order.
n
L[y(x)] = E avY(v)(x) = rex) (10.3.1)
v=o
Its homogeneous solution shall be written as
Yh(X) = y (0)K1(x) + y'( 0)K2(X) + .. .+ y (n- 1)(O)Kn(x) (10.3 .2)
The free constants of the solution are expressed by the initial parameters, i.e. the
function y (x ) and its derivatives till the (n - l )th order at x = O. A particular
solution can be obtained with
!
x
y p(x ) = Kn(x - t)r (t ) dt (10.3.3)

a
or in case that ro(x ) is not defined for x 2: 0 but for x 2: Xo
x
y p(x) = II
X >X Q
!
XQ
Kn(x - t)r o(t) dt (10.3.4)
Equation (10.3.4) is a qua si closed analytical solution for the differential equation
of the structure model D and different functions ri(x) for respectively x > Xi, i =
0,1 , . . . ,n
y( x) = y(0)K1(x) + y'(0)K2(x) + ... + y(n- l )(O )Kn(x )
x x
+ 11 !Kn(X-t )ro(t)dt+11 !Kn(X-t )r1(t)dt ( 10.3.5)

X >XQ X> X l
XQ Xl
!
X
+ II Kn(x - t)r2(t ) d t + ...

X >X2
X2
Complete closed analyt ical solutions for isotropic double symmetric thin-wall ed
box-girders and general loads one can find in the monograph published by the au-
thors in 1994. Also analytical solution for a two-cellular box-girder including shear
lag effects is given there. But in the majority of engineering applications refer to
general laminated thin-walled structures, an analytical solution has to be ruled out.
10.3.2 Transfer Matrix Method
The differential equation s and their boundary conditions are the starting point of a
numerical solution by transfer matrix method. At first the system of higher order dif-
ferential equation s has to transfer into a system of differential equations of first order
using the natural boundary conditions as definitions of generalized cross-sectional
forces.
For sake of simplicity this solution method shall be demonstrated for the struc-
ture model D and for a symmetric cross-ply stacking in all plates of the structure.
Then the following system of differenti al equations and boundary conditions are
valid, see also Sect. 10.2.4 and Eqs. (10.2.32) and (10.2.33)
A1 U" -A 3 U -A 1S V ' + I , = 0
~T , ~ II ~ (10.3.6)
A 1SU +A 4V - A 12V + Is + In = 0
(10.3.7)
Equations (10.3.7) leads to the definitions of the generalized cross-sectional forces,

i.e. generalized longitudinal forces and transverse forces.
P = A 1U' (10.3.8)
~ T ~ ,
Q = A 1SU +A 4V (10.3.9)
It can be shown that we have with Eqs. (10.3.8), (10.3.9) really the definition s of
generalized forces
dj d,
P =L J
(i) 0
qJ(Tx;fidsi J
=L
(i) 0
qJNxjdsi
d, dj
Q= LJ tpTxs;fidsi = LJ tpNxsjd s i
(i) 0 (i) 0
In the here considered structure model we have only membrane stresses (Tx, and Txsj
because the longitudinal curvatures and longitudinal bending moments are neglected
in all plates. Additional with cross-ply stacking are A 16 = A26 = O. Therefore and
with Eqs. (10.2.4), (10.2.6), (10.2.11) we can write
N x; = All;E x; = All;u; = All;lpTU',

Nxs; = A 66;E xs; = A 66;(ui + v;) = A 66/lp eTU + l/JTV')
Considering (10.2.12) we obtain again the definitions of the generalized forces given
in (10.3.8) and (10.3.9)
d,
P = LJ
(i) a
All;lplpT dsM' = A 1U'
s,
Q = LJ A66;(l/Jlp
eTU
+ l/Jl/JTV')ds i = Aisu + A 4 V'
(i) a
The inversion of the Eqs . (10.3 .8) and (10.3.9) leads to
U' = A~lp (10.3.10)
(10.3.11)
With the first derivatives ofEqs. (10.3.8) and (10.3.9) and after the input of (10.3.10)
and (10.3.11) into (10 .3.6) we obtain the following system of differential equations
of first order
U' = A~lp
V' = -A4 Aisu +A~IQ
1
(10.3.12)
p' = (A3-AlSA~IAis)U+AlSA~IQ-lx
Q' = A 12 V - Is - In
respectively written in matrix notation
A-I
0 0 Al 0 0 U
A -1 AT A-I
In
-A 4 A 1s 0 0 A4 0 V
= A A A -1 AT A A-I P
(A 3 - A 1sA 4 A 1S ) 0 0 A 1SA 4 -Ix
A 12 0 Q
0 0 -Is - In
OT OT OT OT 1
0
y' = By (10.3.13)
B is the system matrix and y the so-called state vector containing all the generalized
displacement functions U and V and all the generalized forces P and Q. 0 and 0 in
the B-matrix are null matrices and vectors.
The next step is a discretization of the one-dimensional problem, see Fig. 10.6.
Between the state vectors at the point j + 1 and the point j we have generally the
relationship
Yj+l = WjYj (10.3 .14)

where W j is the transfer matrix for the structure section j - (j + 1) .
Fig. 10.6. Discretization of the one-dimensional structure
A first order differential equation

y'(x) = b y(x), b = canst
has the solution
y(x) = Ce bx
and with
y(xo) = Cebxo ---r C = y(xo)e- bxO,
we obtain
y(x) = y(xo)eb(x-xo)
In the same way the solution of the matrix differential equations is
y'(x) = By(x)
y(x) = y(xo)eB(x-xo)
and we find that eB(x-xo) can be defined as the transfer matrix from the point Xo to x .
Therefore the transfer matrix between two points Xj and Xj+l generally is obtained
as
W j = eB( Xj+l - Xj ) (10.3 .15)
The numerical calculation of transfer matrices can be carried out by series develop-
ment of the exponential function
Wi : I A ~JB2 +31
+L..:lj B +2f ~JB3 + ... 03
(1 . . 16)
and also by using a Runge-Kutta method
~.
Wj = 1+ -t(M 1j + 2M2j + 2M3j + M 4j) (10.3 .17)
M 1j = B(xj)
1 1
M 2j = B(xj + 2.~j)(I + 2.~jMlj)
1 1
M 3j = B(xj + 2.~j)(I + 2.~jM2j)
M 4j = B(xj + ~j)(I + ~jM3j)
In both equations I are unit matrices of the same rank as the system matrix. The
boundary conditions of the problem can be expressed by a matrix equation
Yo = Ax* (10.3.18)
Here A is the so-called start matrix containing the boundary conditions at x = Xo
and x* is the vector of the unknown boundary values there. In the last column of the
start matrix the known boundary values are included . For the unknown boundary
values the last column elements are zero, and by a unit in the corresponding row
the unknown value is associated with an element of the unknown vector x* . For
example, in Eq. (10.3.19) a start matrix is shown in case of a free structure end, it
means all the displacements are unknown and all forces are given.
UI 1 0
0
Urn 1 0
VI 1 0 x*I
0
Vn 1 0
PI PlO
(10.3.19)
Pm PmO
QI QlO
Qn QnO
1 0
1
Yo = Ao x*
Now the multiplications with the transfer matrices can be carried out over all sec-
tions (Xjl Xj+l) until x = xN . With the equation
(10.3.20)
the boundary conditions are formulated at x = xN . S is the so-called end ma-
trix containing in its last column the negative values of the given displacements or
forces. A unit in an other column of each row yields the association to an element
of the state vector YN. Equation (10.3.21) shows the end matrix for a clamped end,
where all displacements are given. This matrix equation leads to a system of linear
equations for the unknowns in the vector x*
UI
Um
VI
1 . .. - UlN 0
Vn
1 . .. -UmN 0
PI = (10.3 .21)
1 -VlN 0
Pm
1 ... -VnN 0
QI
Qn
1 N
The real parts of the eigenvalues of the system matrix B lead to numerical instable
solutions especially for long beam structures . From the mechanical point of view it
means that the influence of the boundary conditions of both structure ends to each
other are very low and with this we have a nearly singular system of linear equa-
tions. For the consolidation of this problem intermediate changes of the unknowns
are carried out, by formulation of a new start matrix A at such an intermediate
point. Usually the generalized displacements are chosen as the new unknowns. The
following equations show the general procedure schedule
Yo = Aoxo
YI WoYo = WoAoxo
first change of unknowns
Yj = FjXi_l
IYj = A/xi I Ith change of unknowns
nth change of unknowns

(10.3.22)
YN = FNX~
ISYN = 0 I system of linear equations for the solution of the unknowns x~

The multiplications of the state vector Yo with transfer matrices are carried out until
the first intermediate change of unknowns . The product of the transfer matrices and
the start matrix makes the matrix Fi . A new unknown vector xi is defined by the
new start matrix A 1 and this procedure is repeated at the following intermediate
points . General for the I-th intermediate change of unknowns the Eq. (10.3.23) is
current
FjXi_l = Alxi (10.3.23)
With a segmentation of the state vector Yj into the sub-vectors Yv for the displace-
ments and Yk for the forces
(10.3.24)
we obtain a separated form of Eq. (10.3.23)
[:¥j~] lid = [~¥::::] [il] (10.3.25)
With the assumption that the displacements are the new unknowns we find that the
sub-matrix All is a unit matrix and the sub-vector all is a null vector
All = I,all = a (10.3.26)
Thi s leads to
-* 1 +1 Ij = xI
F IjXI_ -* (10.3.27)
- * 1 = F-Ij 1 (-xI* -
xI_ I)
Ij' (10.3.28)
and than the second equation of (10.3.25) yields the structure of the new start matrix
F2jF~1(xi - Il j) + IZ j = A21xi +a21
(10.3.29)
A ZI = F2jF~l, a21 = 12j - FZjF~l/lj
Al = [F2j~~1
aT
IZ j - F~l~l/lj]
1
(10.3.30)
10.4 Problems 369
At such an intermediate change point it is also possible to consider the introduction

of concentrated generalized forces or the disposition of supports with given general-
ized displacements. Than the new start matrix must be modified additionally, in the
first case by a modification of the sub-vector a21 and in the second case by consid-
eration of the jump behavior of the forces at this point. But more details about this
shall not be given here.
With the end matrix S and the end state vector YN the relationship SYN yields
a system of linear equations for the last unknown vector x~ and after this all the
unknown vectors can be calculated by repeatedly using Eq. (10.3.28).
The transfer matrix method with intermediate changes of the unknown state vec-
tors yields in contrast to the classical transfer method a numerical stable procedure
also for long beam structures. From the mechanical point of view correspond each
intermediate change = x xi x ::; xi
a substitution of the structure section 0 ::; by
generalized elastic springs.
The transfer matrix procedure is also applicable to the analysis of eigen-
vibrations. There we have a modified system matrix B containing frequency de-
pendent terms
y' = B(wo)Y (10.3.31)
Therefore, the transfer matrices can be calculated only with assumed values for the
frequencies. The end matrix leads to a homogenous system of linear equations . Its
coefficient determinant must be zero. The assumed frequencies are to vary until this
condition is fulfilled sufficiently.
The transfer matrix method with numerical stabilization was applied success-
fully to several isotropic thin-walled box-beam structures. The structure model D
considered above has for a symmetrical cross-ply stacking of all plates an analogous
mathematical model structure as isotropic semi-moment shell structures. Therefore,
the procedure can be simply transferred to such laminated thin-walled beam struc-
tures. An application to other structure models, Sect. 10.2, is in principle possible
but rather expansive and not efficient.
The development and application of special finite elements and their implemen-
tation in a FEM-program system is more generally and more efficiently. FEM will
be discussed in detail in Chap. 11.
10.4 Problems
1. Establish the system of differential equations for the box-girder with a rectan-
gular cross-section, which is shown in Fig. lOA. It shall be supposed that its
dimensions are symmetric to both axes and therefore we have here
tl = t3 = ts.
i: = t4 = tG,
d 1 = d3 = ds,
d2 = d4 = dG,
Further we have a cross-ply stacking in all the plate strips. The stiffness of both
horizontally arranged strips (index G) are the same, but they are different from
the stiffness of the vertically arranged strips (index S), what means that
All 1 = A ll 3 = All 51
All 2 = All 4 = All GI
A 66 1 = A 663 = A 66 51
A 66 2 = A 66 4 = A 66 GI
D 22 l = D22 3 = D 22 51
D22 2 = D22 4 = D 22 G
For the calculation of this box girder the simplified structure model D shall be
used and because we have cross-ply stacking, the Eqs. (10.2.32) are valid
AlUIf - A3 U - A15V' + Ix = 0
AT , A If A
A 15U +A 4V - A 12V + I s+ In = 0
Solution:
At first we have to calculate the matrices AllA31A41A12 and A15 , their defi-
nitions are given in Eq. (10.2.12)
dj
Al = L 1 (i) 0
All ilf'lf'T ds .,
L1
dj
A3 = A 66 ilf'elf'e T ds .,
(i) 0
dj
A4 = L1 A 66 itptpT ds.,
(i) 0
dj
A12 = L1 D22 is·eS.. T ds.,

(i) 0
dj
A 15
A = "ILJ A 66 ilf' e tp T ds .,
(i) 0
The co-ordinate functions If', tp/S are also shown in Fig. 10.4. For solving the
integrals to obtain the A-matrices, the function s qJ, tp/S must be written as func-
tions of the co-ordinates s, of each strip. In accordance with Fig. 10.4 we find
10.4 Problem s 371
<Pi(Si) = O,i = 1/ 2/ 3/4;

<p2CSi) = '/J2 (s.), i = 1/ 2/3/ 4;
de
'/Jl (SI) = - 2 ; '/J2 (SI) = +1;
ds
'/Jl (S2) = -2; '/J2(S2) = 0;
de
'/JI (S3) = -2; '/J2(S3) = -1;
ds
'/JI(S4 ) = -2; '/J2(S4) = 0;
de
'/J3(SI) = 0; '/J4(SI) = -2;
ds
'/J3(S2) = -1; '/J4(S2) = +2;
de
'/J3(S3) = 0; '/J4(S3) = -2;
s d
'/J3 (S4) = +1; '/J4(S4) = +2;
51(51) = - d; [1-2 (~~)]; 5i-(5j) = o.. = 1,2,3,4;
51(52) = - d2G [1- 2(;~)];

51(53) = _d; [1-2 (~~)] ;
51(54) = _d~ [1-2 (;:)];
52(51) = 0; 5i-(5j) = O,i = 1,2,3,4;
52(52) = +1 ;
52(53) = 0;
52(54) = -1;
53(51) = +1; 53-(5j) = O,i = 1,2,3,4;
53(52) = 0;
53(53) = -1;
53(54) = 0;
Some additional considerations are necessary to determine the functions 54(s.) .

The generalized co-ordinate function 54 is corresponding to 1/J4 and repre-
sents therefore a double antisymmetric deflection state of the cross-section. The
cross-section is double symmetric in its geometry and in the elastic behavior.
Therefore we must have an antisymmetric function 54(5j) in each strip. It means
that the following conditions are valid
54(5j = 0) = 5iO, 54(5j = dd = -5iO,
5:(5j = 0) = ao, 5:(5j = d j ) = ao,
5:-(5j = 0) = KSjO, 5:-(5j = dj ) = -KsjO
Supposing a polynomial function of the third order, we can write
5:-( j) = (1 -2~:) ,
5 Ks jO
5:(5j) = j [(~:) - (~r] +ao,

Ksjod
Ks jodf [
54(5j) = - 6 - 3
(5dj 2- 2 (5dj 3] + aodj ds,j + 5iO
j ) j )
The condition 54(5j = dj) = -5iO leads to
Ks od f
aodj = - ( -'6- + 25iO )
and than we obtain
10.4 Problems 373
With the antisymmetric properties mentioned above we find

/(510 = /( 530 = /(50,
/(520 = /( 540 = /(co
The continuity of the rotation angles at the comers and the equilibrium equation
54(Sl = ds) = 54(S2 = 0),
54(S2 = dc) = 54(S3 = 0),
54(S3 = ds) = 54(S4 = 0),
54(S4 = dc) = 54(Sl = 0),
D22S/(SO = - D22C/(CO
lead to the unknown curvatures
12D 22c
/(50 - - -,----=----:----=--
- dCD22S + ds D22C'
and we obtain
lOA Problems 375
With all elements .AI··IJ we obtain the matrix Al to
with
A 111 = 2(A ll sd s + AllGdc),
d2
A 1 22 = : (All sdS + 3A ll Gd C)'
2
dC
A 133 = 6 (3A ll sd s + 3A ll Gdc),
d2d2
A 1 44 = ~4c (All sd s + 3AllGdc)
One can see that the generalized co-ordinate functions rpi are orthogonal to each
other and therefore the matrix A1 is a diagonal matrix
In the same way the other Ai matrices are obtained
..1 3 =
[ ~ 2A6~sds
0
o
0
0
~
2A66 GdC
0
dsd c
-2-(A66sdC
~
0
+ 3A66GdS)
]
,
A
4
r-1 0
BOO
0
0 2A66 sds
0
0
0
01
0
2A66 GdC 0 '
A
o 00 0
o 00 0
..1 12 = 0 00 0
dsd c 96D22GD22S
-2-(A66 s d C - A 66GdS) 00 d D d D
C 22 s + 5 22G
o0 2A 66sd
0
s 00 01
0
[o 0 2A66GdC 0
BOO A
with
dsdc dsdc
A = -2-(A66sdC + A 66cd s), B = -2-(A66sdC - A 66cd s)
Now the system of differential equations can be developed with the help ofEq.
(10 .2.32).
d] (All sd s + 3Allcdc)U~ - 2A66sds(U2 + VD = - !X2'

2A66sds(U~ + V~') = -(fs2 + !n2)'
d] (3A ll sds + Allcdc)U~ - 2A66cdc(U3 + V~) = - !X3'

2A 66cdc(U3+ Vn = -(fs3 + !n3)'
d~d~ "
2}i(A ll sdS + All cd c)U4
dsd c ,
--2-(A 66sdC + A66cds)(U4 + V4)
dsdc ,
--2-(A 66sdc - A 66Cds) VI = - !X4'
dsdc ( A 66sdc - A 66cd s )('

-2- U4 + V4")
dsd c "
+-2-(A 66sdc + A66cds)Vl = -(fSj + !n j)'
dsd c( A 66sdc
-2- + A 66cd s )('
U4 + V4")
dsd c( A
+-2- "
66sdc - A66cds)Vl
96D22cD22s
d D d D
C 22s + 5 22c
V4 = - (fs4 + !n4)
We can see, that the system of differential equations is divided into four decou-
pled partial system s. The first equation describes the longitudinal displacement,
the second and the third partial systems represent the bending about the global
y- and z-axes and the fourth - the torsion , the warping and the contour defor-
mation of the cross-section. An analytic solution of the fourth partial system is
more difficult like the solutions of the first three partial systems but it is pos-
sible too. The analytical solution of an analogous system for an isotropic box
girder is given in detail by Vlasov and by the authors of this book, see also the
remarks in 10.3.1.
11. Finite Element Analysis
The Finite Element Method (FEM) is one of the most effective methods for the nu-
merical solution of field problems formulated in partial differential equations. The
basic idea of the FEM is a discretization of the continuous structure into substruc-
tures. This is equivalent to replacing a domain having an infinite number of degrees
of freedom by a system having a finite number of degrees of freedom. The actual
continuum or structure is represented as an assembly of subdivisions called finite
elements. These elements are considered to be interconnected at specified joints
which are called nodes. The discretization is defined by the so-called finite element
mesh made up of elements and nodes.
We assume one-dimensional elements, when one dimension is very large in
comparison with the others, e.g. truss or beam clements, two-dimensional elements,
when one dimension is very small in comparison with the others, e.g. plate or shell
elements, and volume elements. From the mechanical point of view the nodes are
coupling points of the elements, where the displacements of the coupled elements
are compatible. On the other hand from the mathematical point of view the nodes are
the basic points for the approximate functions of the displacements inside a finite el-
ement and so at these nodes the displacements are compatible. It must be noted here
that all considerations are restricted to the displacement method . The force method
or hybrid methods are not considered in this book.
An important characteristic of the discretization of a structure is the number of
degrees of freedom . To every node, a number of degrees of freedom will be assigned .
These are nodal parameters which usually (but not necessarily) have a mechanical
or more general physical meaning. The number of degrees of freedom per element is
defined by the product of the number of nodes per element and degrees of freedom
per node. The number of degrees of freedom in the structure is the product of the
number of nodes and the number of degrees of freedom per node.
Chapter 11 contains an introduction to the general procedure of finite element
analysis in a condensed form (Sect. 11.1). For more detailed information see the
vast amount of literature. In Sects 11.2 and 11.3 the development of finite beam
elements and finite plate elements for the analysis of laminate structures is given.
Section 11.4 contains the development of generalized finite beam elements based on
a generalized structure model for beam shaped thin-walled folded structures given
in Sect. 10.2. In Sect. 11.5 the results of some numerical applications show the
influences of chosen parameters on the behavior of laminate structures .
378 II . FiniteElement Analysis
11.1 Introduction
The principle of the total minimum potential energy and the Hamilton's principle are
given in Section 2.2.2 in connection with analytical variational approaches, they are
also the theoretical basis of the FEM solutions of elastostatic and of dynamic prob-
lems. In this way we have variational problems. For such problem s the Ritz method
may be used as a so-called direct solution method (see Sect. 2.2.3). In the class ical
Ritz method the approximation functions are defined for the whole structure, and
so for complex geometries it is difficult to realize the requirements of satisfying
the boundary conditions and of the linear independence and completeness of these
function s.
One way to overcome these difficulties is by the discreti zation of the structure
into a number of substructures, if possible of the same kind (finite elements). Then
the approximation function s can be defined for the elements only and they must sat-
isfy the conditions of geometrical compatibility at the element boundaries. Because
it is usual to define different types of finite elements, we have special types of ap-
proximation functions for each element type. Here the approximation functions are
denoted N i , the so-called shape functions . They are arranged in a matrix N , the ma-
trix of the shape functions of the particular element type. The following introduction
to the FEM procedure is given in a general but conden sed form and illustrates that
the step-by-step finite element procedure can be stated as follows :
• Discreti zation of the structure
• Selection of a suitable element displacement model
• Derivation of element stiffness matrices and load vectors
• Assembly of element equations to obtain the system equations
• Calculation of the system equations for the unknown nodal displacements
• Computation of element strains and stresses
11.1.1 FEM Procedure
The starting point for elasto static problems is the total potential energy given in Eq.
(2.2.28). In accordance with the Ritz method the approximation
u(x) = N(x)v (ll.l.l)
is used for the displacement field vector u . Here N is the matrix of the shape func-
tions, they are function s of the position vector x , and v is the element displacement
vector. The matrix N has the same number of rows as the displacement vector u
has components and the same number of columns as the element displacement vec-
tor v has components. If the element has n KE nodes and the degree of freedom
for each node is n p, the element displacement vector v contain s n KE subvectors
V i, i = 1, ... , nKE with tt]: components in each, and so v has nKEn F components.
The number of components of the displacement field vector u is n u . Then the struc-
ture of the matrix N is generally
11 .1 Introduction 379
(11.1.2)
with I nu as unit matrice s of the size (n u , n u ) . Therefore the size of N is genera lly
(n u , nKEnF). In dependence on the kind of continuity at the element boundaries, the
so-called C(OL or C(1Lcontinuity, see below, two cases can be distinguished. In the
case of C(OLcontinuity n r equal s n u and therefore fi is equal n KE , we have only
nKE shape functions N j , whereas we can have up to n KEnF shape functions in the
case of C(1Lcontinuity.
For the stresses and the strains we obtain from (11.1.1)
u (x ) = O : (x ) = CDN (x )v,
(1 1.1.3)
e(x) = Du(x ) = DN(x )v = B(x )v
With the approximation (11.1.1) the total potential energy is a function of all the
nodal displacement components arranged in the element displacement vector v , e.g.
Tl = Tl (v) . The variation of the total potential energy
on = ov
T
(I
v
BTCBvd V - 1
v
N Tpd V - 1
Aq
N Tqd A) (1 1.1.4)
leads with on = 0 to
ovT( Kv - /p - f q) = 0 ( 11.1.5)
K is the symmetric stiffness matrix with the size (n KEnF, nKEnF)
K = 1
v
BTCBd V (11.1.6)
and f p and f q are the vectors of the volume forces and the surface force s
( 11.1.7)
If the compo nents of ov are independent of each other, we obtain from ( 11.1.5) a
system of linear equations
Kv=f, f =fp +fq (11.1.8)
For elastodynamic problems, we have to consider that forces and disp laceme nts are
also dependent on time and the Hamilton ' s principle is the starting point for the
FEM procedure. Assuming again the independence of the components of ov the
matrix equation is
Mv (t ) + Kv(t) = f (t ) (11.1.9)
for elastic systems without damping effects. M is symmetric mass matrix
(11.1.10)
380 II . FiniteElementAnalysis
and f (t) the vector of the time dependent nodal forces. Assuming the damping pro-
portional to the relative velocities, an additional term Cov(t) can be supplemented
formally in Eq. (11.1.9)
Mv(t) + Cov(t) + Kv(t) = f(t), (l1.1.11)
where Co is the damping matrix . Co has the same size as the matrices K and M
and usually it is formulated approximately as a linear combination of K and M. The
factors a and 13 can be cho sen to give the correct damping at two frequencies
Co ~ fXM + 13K (l1.1.12)
In selecting the shape functions Ni(X) it must be remembered that these functions
must be continuous up to the (n - l)th derivative , if we have derivatives of the nth
order in the variational problem, i.e. in the total potential energy or in the Hamil-
ton 's function . In this case only the results of FEM approximations converge to the
real solutions by increasing the number of elements. For more-dimensional finite
elements in this way it is to realize that the displacements are compatible up to the
(n - l)th derivative at the boundaries of adjacent elements, if they are compatible
at the nodes.
In plane stress or plane strain problems and in general three-dimensional prob-
lems the vector u contains displacements only (no rotations) and the differential
operator D is of the I st order. In this way we must only satisfy the displacements
compatibility at the element boundaries that means the so-called C(ol-continuity.
By using beam or plate models especially of the classical Bernoulli beam model
or the classical Kirchhoff plate model, the rotation angles are expre ssed by deriva-
tives of the displacements of the midline or the midplane and the differential op-
erator D is of the second order. Then we have to satisfy the compatibility of dis-
placements and rotations at the element boundaries. In such cases we speak about a
C(1l-continuity and finding the shape functions N, is more difficult.
Because we have no differential operator in connection with the mass matrix M,
it would be possible to use other, more simple functions Nt for it. In such a case
the mass matrix would have another population, e.g. a diagonal matrix structure is
possible . Then we speak about a so-called condensed mass matrix , otherwise we
have a consistent mass matrix . By using the condensed mass matrix we have less
computational expen se than by using the consi stent mass matrix, but a decreasing
convergence to the real results is possible.
All equations considered above are only valid for a single element and strictly
they should have an additional index E. For example , we have the inner element
energy
1 T
UE = :2V E J BTCBdVV E = :2vEKEVE
IT (11.1.13)
VE
with the element stiffness matrix
K E = J BTCBdV (11.1.14)
vE
Since the energy is a scalar quantity, the potential energy of the whole structure can
be obtained by summing up the energies of the single elements. Previously a system
displacement vector containing the displacements of all nodes of the whole system
must be defined. By a so-called coincidence matrix LE the correct position of each
single element is determined. L E is a Boolean matrix of the size (nKEnFI nKnF)
with n« as the numbe r of nodes of the whole structure.
The element displacement vector 'OE is positioned into the system displacement
vector v by the equation
VE = LEV (11.1.15)
and we obtain the system equation by summing up over all elements
(~L&KiELiE) V = [~LiE(fiEP + f iEq)] (11.1.16)

Kv =f
The system stiffness matrix is also symmetric, but it is a singular matrix, if the
system is not fixed kinematically, i.e., we have no boundary conditions constraining
the rigid body motion . After con sideration of the boundary cond itions of the whole
system, K becomes a positive definite matrix and the system equation can be solved.
Then with the known displacements v the stresses and deformations are calculated
using the element equations (11.1.1) and (11.1.3).
For elastodynamic problems , the system stiffness matrix and the system mass
matrix are obtained in the same manner and we have the system equation
Mv(t) + CDv(t) + Kv(t) = f(t) (11.1.17)
For investigation of the eigen -frequencies of a system without damping harmonic
vibrations are assumed and with
v(t) = vcos(wt + cp) (11.1.18)
and CD = O,f(t) = 0 the matrix eigen-value problem follows
(K -w 2 M )v = 0 (11.1.19)
and the eigen -frequencies and the eigen-vectors characterizing the mode shapes can
be calculated.
11.1.2 Problems
A plane beam problem is given. The beam is divided into three plane two-node beam
elements . The number of nodal degrees of freedom is three (u , W, cp):
• What size are the element stiffness matrix and the system stiffness matrix before
the consideration of the boundary conditions?
• Show the coincidence matrix L2 of the second element lying between the nodes
2 and 3!
382 11. Finite Element Analysis
• Show the population of the system stiffness matrix and the boundary conditions,
if the beam is fixed at node 1 (cantilever beam)! Do the same as in the previous
case but consider that the beam is simply supported (node 1 is constrained for the
deflections u and w and node 4 only for the deflection w)!
Solution:
• With n K E = 2 and n F = 3 the element stiffness matrix has the size (6,6).
Because we have 4 nodes in« = 4) the size of the system stiffness matrix before
the consideration of the boundary conditions is (12,12) .
• The coincidence matrices in this case have the size (6,12). Because it must be
Vz = Lzv
we obtain the coincidence matrix for the element Nr. 2
000 100000000
000010000000
000001000000
000000100000
000000010000
000000001000
• The system stiffness matrix without consideration of the boundary conditions is
defined by
4
K= L,LTKiL i
i=l
In this case we obtain the following population of the matrix K
Ul wI 0/1 Uz Wz O/Z U3 w3 0/3 U4 w4 0/4
[(v)] [(v)] [(v) ] [(v)] [(v)] [(v)] [(0)] [(0)] [(0)] [(0)][(0)] [(0)] Ul
[(v)] [(v)] [(v )] [(v)] [(v) ] [(v)] [(0)] [(0)] [(0)] [(0)][(0)] [(0)] WI
[(v)] [(v)] (v) (v) (v ) (v) (0) (0) (0) (0) (0) (0) 0/1
[(v) ] [(v) ] (v) v + x v + xv + x x x x 0 [(0)] 0 Uz
[(v)] [(v)] (v) v +xv +xv +x x x x 0 [(0)] 0 Wz
[(v)] [(v)] (v) v + x v + x v + x x x x 0 [(0)] 0 o/z
[(0)] [(0) ] (0) x x x x+ z x+ z x+ z z [z] z U3
[(0)] [(0)] (0) x x x x+zx+zx+z z [z] z w3
[(0)] [(0)] (0) x x x x+ z x+ zx+ z z [z] z 0/3
[(0)] [(0)] (0) 0 0 0 z z z z [z] Z U4
[(0)] [(0)] [(0)] [(0)] [(0)] [(0)] [z] [z] [z] [z] [z] [z] w4
[(0)] [(0) ] [(0)] 0 0 0 z z z z [z]
0/4 Z
v - comp onent s of the stiffness matrix of element No.1 , x - components of the

stiffness matrix of element No.2, z - component s of the stiffness matrix of ele-
ment No.3.
Consid ering the boundary conditions for a cantilever beam clamped at node 1
(Ul = 0, w I = 0,0/1 = 0) we have to cancel the first three rows and the first
three columns in the obtained matrix - characterized by brackets (.. .) . If we have

a simply supported beam with UI = 0, WI = 0 and W4 = 0, the first two rows
and columns and the row and the column No . 11 must be deleted - characterized
by square brackets [. . .].
11.2 Finite Beam Elements
A beam is a quasi one-dimensional structure, the dimensions of the cross-section

of it are very small in comparison to its length. The connection of the centers of
the cross-sectional areas is called the midline of the beam. We distinguish between
straight beams and beams with an in-plane or spatial curved midline, respectively.
Here we consider beams with a straight midline only.
Generally such a beam can be loaded by tension/compression, one- or two-axial
bending and torsion. Especially with respect to the use of laminate beams the fol-
lowing investigations are restricted to tension/compression and one-axial bending.
For two-axial bending and torsion, laminate beams are not so predestined.
Laminate beams consist of UD-Iaminae mostly have a rectangular cross-section
of the dimension b (width) and h (hight) and very often the laminae are arranged
symmetrically to the midline. We will assume this special case for the following
development of finite laminate beam elements. In this way we have no coupling of
tension and bending and we can divide our considerations into the development of
laminate elements for tension/compression, so-called laminate truss elements, and
laminate beam elements for bending only.
11.2.1 Laminate Truss Elements
The laminate truss element is a very simple element. It is assumed to be a straight

structure of the length I with a constant cross-sectional area A . The nodal degree of
freedom is one - the displacement U in axial direction (Fig . 11.1). In the potential
energy we have only the first derivative and so we can use a two-node truss element
with linear shape functions Ni(XI) and Nj(XI), which satisfies C(OLcontinuity
U(XI) = NVE, vI = lUi Uj], N = [Ni(xd Nj(XI)] (11.2.1)
IIi
>
-c
Fig. 11.1. Laminate truss element

384 11. Finite Eleme nt Analysis
N; Nj
1.0 1.0 ,/
/
-,
./
0.5 0.5
XI
XI
o I o . I
o 1.0 o 1.0
Fi g. 11.2. Shape functions of the two-node truss element
The two shape functions (see also Fig. 11.2) are

Xl Xl
N ;(XI) = 1 - T' Nj(XI) = T (11.2.2)
With the stress resultant

- - du _ n (k)
N(xt} = J
A
£TdA = A l1 EI (xt} = A l1 dXI' A l1 = b L el1 hk
k= l
(11.2 .3)
and the longitudinal load per length n(x I) the total potential energy can be written
as
II(u) ="21 J-,2 J

I
A l1u dXI -
I
n(XI)udxI (11.2.4)
o 0
and for the element stiffness matrix we obtain
I _
KE = A 11 J N ,TN' d
Xl
= A111 [
- 1
1 - 1]
1 (11.2 .5)
o
The element force vector is defined as
I
fn E = J
o
N Tn (xI )d x I
If we assume that n(xI) is a linear function with n, and nj as the intensities at the
nodes
n(X I) = N [ ~; ]
then
(11.2.6)
In case of nodal forces f PE = (Fi Fj]T , the vector f PE must be added to the vector
f nE
f E = f nE + f PE (11.2.7)
The system equation can be obtained in dependence on the structure of the whole
system , defined by a coincidence matrix together with the transformation of all el-
ement equations into a globa l coordi nate system . Con sidering the boundary con-
dition s, the system equation can be solved and with the known displacements the
stresses can be calculated for each element.
For vibration analysis, the element mass matrix (11.1.10) has to be used
I
ME = J
V
pNTNdV = J
0
pNTNdxJ,
All parts of the cross-section have the same translation u and the corresponding
acceleration ii multiplied by the distributed mass produces a distributed axial inertia
force . Instead of handling the distributed mass directly, we gene rate fictitious nodal
masses contained in the consi stent mass matrix
M
E
=PAI
6
[21]
12
(11.2 .8)
With the system equation, obtained in the same manner as for elastostatic prob lems,
the eigen -frequencies and mode shapes can be calculated.
11.2.2 La mina te Beam Elements
For the analysis of laminate beams in this book two theories are considered, the
classical laminate theory and the shear deformation theory . The classical laminate
theory is based on the Bernoulli beam model and the shear deformation theory on
the Timoshenko beam model. The Bernoulli beam model neglects the shear strains
in the bending plane and so it seems to be less realistic for the calculation of laminate
beams. Therefore it is better to use the Timoshenko beam model , which includes the
shear strains in a simple form (Chap. 7).
In the followi ng discussion, only the shear deformation theory is used and we
assume a simple rectangular cross-sectio n with a symmetric arrangement of the UD-
laminae . This means that we have no coupling of tension and bending. The main
advantage of the shear deform ation theory in comparison with the Bernoulli theory
is that the cross-sectional rotation angle tjJ is independent of the displacement wand
therefore the differential operator D in the strain energy is of the Ist order. In this
way we can use elements with C(OLcontinuity, and a two-node element with linear
shape function s is possible. The nodal degrees of freedom are 2 (w, tjJ). In Fig. 11.3
such a two-node beam element is shown. The element displacement vector is
vI = [Wi tjJi Wj tjJjJ (11.2.9)
For the displacement vector u the approximation ( 11.2.11) is used
tPj
<
Fig. 11.3. Two-node beamelement
U(XI ) = [;g:?J = NV E, (11.2.1 0)
where the matrix of the shape functions is
N = [Ni(XI ) [~ n Nj(xd [~ n J (11.2.11)
with the shape functions (11.2 .2), see also Fig. 11.2.
A better element accuracy can be expected, if we consider a three-node element,
as shown in Fig. 11.4. Then the eleme nt disp lacement vector is
vI = [Wi tfli Wj tflj Wk tflk ] (11.2.12)
and for the matrix N we obtain
N = [Ni(XI) [~n Nj(xd [~ n Nk(XI) [ ~ nJ (11.2.13)
with the shape functions
Xl Xl2 2 2
Ni(xd = 1- 3 y +2[2' Nj(XI) = "tXl - 4[2'
Xl Xl Xl
Nk(xd = - y + 2[2,(11.2.14)
which are shown in Fig. 11.5. A further increase in the element accuracy can be
A
X3
Wi
')., tP;
XI
1/2 1/2
-c >-<
Fig. 11.4.Three-node beam element

N;
1.0 1.0
0.5 0.5
\
0 \ XI
o T
-0. 125
o 1.0
0 1.0
Nk
1.0
0.5
0
-0. 125
0 1.0
Fig. 11.5. Shape functions of the three-node element
achieved with a four-node element, see Fig. 11.6. Here the element displacement
vector and the matrix of the shape functions are
vI = [Wi t/Ji Wj t/Jj Wk t/Jk Wz t/JZ ] (11.2.15)
N = ri(XI) [~~] Nj(XI) [~~] Nk(XI) [~ ~] NZ(XI) [~ ~]] (11.2.16)
with the shape functions
N, = 1 _ 11 Xl + 9 (Xl ) 2 _ ~ (Xl ) 3
2 I I 2 I I
N. = 9 Xl _ 45 (Xl ) 2 + 27 ( Xl ) 3
J I 2 I 2 I I
(11.2.17)
~ Xl + 18 (XI )2 _ 27 (XI)3
Nk = 2 I I 2 I I
u, = ~l ~ (~l )2+ ~ (~l f

which are shown in Fig. 11.7. The three types of beam elements given above show
the possibility of using elements of different accuracy. Of course, using the element
with higher number of nodes means that less elements and a more coarse mesh
388 11. FiniteElementAnalysis
Wi W,
1/3 1/3 1/3
-
Fig. 11.6. Four-node beamelement
can be used, but the calculations of the element stiffness matrices will be more
computationally expensive.
The further relationships are developed formally independent of the chosen
number of element nodes . The element stiffness matrix is obtained with (11.1.6)
1 1
KE =/ BTCBdxl =/ NTVTCDNdxl 01.2.18)

o 0
Here
D = [~~~1] I
01.2.19)
dx ,
with the stiffness
n
o 11 -- ~ ~ C(k) ( (k) 3 _ (k _ l )3 ) A ss = b E C~~)h(k) (11.2.20)
3 LJ 11 x 3 x3 I
k=l k=l
and the shear correction factor k S given in (7.3.20).
For calculation of the element force vector, we assume that the element is loaded
by a distributed transverse load per length q(Xl) and we can write the external work
as
1
WE = / q(XdW(Xl)dxl = vIlE
o
and with
Nj Nj
1.0 1.2
1.0
0.8
0.8
0.6
0.6
0.4 0.4
0.2
0.2
0.0
0.0 •
- 0.2
- 0.2 XI - 0.4 XI
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 T 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 T
Nt Nj
1.2 1.0
1.0
0.8
0.8
0.6
0.6
0.4 0.4
0.2
0.2
0.0
- 0.2
0.0
I
•
- 0.4
0.0 0.2
--
0.4
-
0.6
-
0.8 1.0 T
xI - 0.2
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
XI
T
Fig. 11.7. Shape functions of the four-node element
W(Xl) = [wtp] [~] =uTR = v I N TR (11.2 .21)
the element force vector f E is obtained
!
I
IE = N TRq(xd dxl (11.2 .22)

a
If single nodal forces or moments are acting, they must be added .
The system equation can be obtained in dependence on the structure of the whole
system defined by a coincidence matrix together with the transformation of all el-
ement equations into a global coordinate system . After considering the boundary
conditions, the system equation can be solved . After this the stress resultants are
obtained for all elements
(J'E = [ ~ ] E = C DNv E (11.2 .23)

For elastodynamic problems the mass matrix must be calculated. The Timoshenko
beam model includes in the general case axial, transversal and rotational inertia
forces and moments . So it must be noted that the laminae of the beam have different
velocities in xl-direction
I biZ x~n)
TE =~/ / / p(u
Z
+ wZ)dxldxZdx3, u = Uo + X3tP (11.2.24)
o -biZ x(O )
3
After integration with respect to dxz and dX3 follow

I
h = ~/ [po(u6 + w Z) + 2PIUOtP + PZtP Z] dXI (11.2.25)

o
with the so-called generalized densities
~ (k) ( (k) _ (k-l))

b z:
Po = P X3 X3 '
k=l
_ b~ ~ (k) ( (k)Z _ (k-I)Z)
PI - 2 c: P x3 x3 ' (11.2.26)
k=l
_ b 1 ~ (k) (k)3
pz - :3 c: P x 3 - x 3(k-I)3)
k=l
p(k) is the density of the kth lamina.
Because we assumed a symmetric arrangement of the laminae in the cross-
section it follows that
PI = 0, Uo = 0
and therefore
= 2l/ .
I I
l/( pow.z + pz!/J·z)dXI
TE = 2 U
T .
Roudxl (11.2.27)
o 0
with the matrix R o
o
R = [~o ~z] (11.2.28)
Using (11.1.1)
I
TE = ~/ VtNTRoNvEdxl
o
the element mass matrix ME is obtained
ME = ! o
N TRoN d xl (11.2.29)
The system equation is established in the same manner as for elastostatic problems,
and with the assumption of harmonic vibration s, the eigen-frequencies and the mode
shapes can be calculated.
11.2.3 Problems
• Calculate the element stiffness matrix for a two-node beam element by analytical
integration!
• Calculate the element force vector for a two-node beam element, loaded by a
linear distributed transverse load per length q(x d . The intensities at the nodes
are qi and qj!
• Calculate the element mass matrix for a two-node beam element!
Solution:
• In the case of a two-node beam element the matrix of the shape functions is
with Ni(Xl) = 1 - (xl/I ), Nj(xd = Xl/i. The element stiffness matrix is de-
fined by (11.2.18)
K= ! o
1
N TDTCDNd xl ,
where in (11.2.19) are given
D=[l +] , dx,
C = [ D0
11
kSAss
0 ]
with D11 and kSAs s in according to (11.2 .20). After execution the matrix opera-
tions we obtain for the stiffness matrix
- dNi dNj
kS As s ( dNi ) 2 0 kSAs s - - 0
dx- dXl d Xl
_ dN dNj
1 0 D11 (dNi ) 2 0 D 11 - i -
KE = ! 0
- dN dNj
kSAss -i -
dXl
0 _ (dNj) 2
kS As s dx }
dx , dXl
0
d Xl
dXl dx}
- dN dNj j) 2
0 D 11 - - i - - 0 D_11 (dN
- -
dXl d x } dx}
392 II. Finite Element Analysis
• The element force vector to calculate with respect to (11.2.22)

I
fe= J
o
NTRq(Xl)dxl with R= [~]
For the loading function q(xd we can write
q(Xl) = [Ni(Xl) Nj(Xl)] [:~]

and then we find
• The element mass matrix for such a two-node beam element we find in according
to (11.2 .29)
I
ME = J
o
NTRoNdxl, R = o [~o ~2]
with the generalized densities Po and P2 (11.2.26).
Inserting the matrix of the shape functions given above and executing the matrix
operations we obtain
and after integration the element mass matrix is in this case
PO a Po a 1
ME = i 2a 2P2 a P2
6 [ Po a 2po a
a P2 a 2P2
11.3 Finite Plate Elements
Plates are two-dimensional structures that means that one dimension, the thickness,
is very small in comparison to the others and in the unloaded state they are plane .
Usually, the midplane between the top and the bottom plate surfaces is defined as
the reference plane and is taken as the plane of x - y. The z-direction corresponds
to the thickness direction. To avoid double indexes in the following relationships in
this section we will use the coordinates x, y, z instead of Xl, x2, x3. Laminate plates
consist of a number of bonded single layers . We assume that the single layer as
quasi-homogeneous and orthotropic. In each layer we can have different materials,
different thicknesses and especially different angle orientations of the fibres. The
whole plate is assumed to be a continuous structure. The stacking sequence of the
single layers has a great influence on the deformation behavior of the plate. Plates
can be loaded by distributed and concentrated loads in all directions, so called in-
plane and out of plane loading . In a special case of laminate plates, if we have an
arrangement of the single layers symmetric to the midplane, the in-plane and out of
plane states are decoupled.
In Chap. 8 the modelling of laminate plates is given and it distinguishes between
the classical laminate theory and the shear deformation theory like the modelling of
beams. The plate model based on the classical laminate theory usually is called
Kirchhoff plate with its main assumption that points lying on a line orthogonal to
the midplane before deformation are lying on such a normal line after deformation.
This assumption is an extended Bernoulli hypothesis of the beam model to two-
dimensional structures.
The application of the classical laminate theory should be restricted to the anal-
ysis of very thin plates only. For moderate thick plates it is better to use the shear
deformation theory . The plate model based on this theory is called the Mindlin plate
model. The following development of finite laminate plate elements will be carried
out for both models. Here we will be restricted to symmetric laminate plates in both
cases, it means that we have no coupling of membrane and bending/twisting states
and we will consider bending only.
In both cases we consider a triangular finite plate element. The approxima-
tion of complicated geometric forms , especially of curved boundaries, can be done
easily with triangular elements. Usually special coordinates are used for triangu-
lar elements. The triangle is defined by the coordinates of the three comer points
Pi(Xi, Yi), i = 1,2,3. A point P(x, y) within the triangle is also defined by the
natural triangle coordinates t.; L 2, L3, P(L l, L 2, L 3), see Fig. 11.8. There
Al A2 A3
Ll = ALl.' L2 = A Ll.' L3 = ALl. (11.3.1)
with the triangle area ALl. and the partial areas AI, A 2, A3' ALl. = Al + A 2 + A3 .
Therefore
(11.3.2)
The areas AI, A2, A 3, ALl. can be expressed by determinants
3(k)
A
y •
.2(j )
x
>
Fig. 11.8. Natural triangle coordinates
1 xl Yl 1X Y
AL\, = 1 X2 Y2, Al = 1 x2 Y2 ,
1 x3 Y3 1 x3 Y3
(11.3.3)
1 Xl Yl 1 Xl Yl
A2 = 1X Y A3 = 1 X2 Y2
1 X3 Y3 1X Y
and for the coordinates L l , L2 , L3 of the point P(x, y)
1
L l = 2AL\, [(X2Y3 - X3Y2) + (Y2 - Y3)X + (X3 - X2)Y],
1
L 2 = 2AL\, [(X3Yl - XlY3) + (Y3 - Yl)X + (Xl - X3)Y], (11.3.4)
1
L 3 = 2AL\, [(XlY2 - x2yd + (Yl - Y2)X + (X2 - Xl)Y]
and the coordinates x, Y can be expressed by
X = xlL l + X2L2 + X3L3, Y = ylL l + Y2L2 + Y3 L3 (11.3.5)
Considering Eq. (11.3.2) we obtain for cartesian coordinates
X = L l (Xl - X3) + L2(X2 - X3) + X3,
(11.3 .6)
Y = L l (Yl - Y3) + L2(Y2 - Y3) + Y3
In Fig. 11.9 the natural triangle coordinates L l , L2, L3 are illustrated for some spe-
cial points : the comer points and the points in the middle of the sides.
Because the shape functions N, used for the approximation of the deformation
field in a triangular plate element are usually written as functions of the natural
element coordinates, it is necessary to find relationships for the derivatives of the
shape functions with respect to the global cartesian coordinates. At first the deriva-
tives of the shape functions N, are given by the natural triangle coordinates L l and
A 3(k) • (0; 0; 1)
y
6(n )
5(m)
(0.5; 0; 0.5 ) •
• (0; 0.5; 0.5)
l (i)
4(1 )
(1; 0; 0) •
•
(0.5; 0.5; 0)
2(j)
• (0; 1;0)
>
x
Fig. 11.9. Natural triangle coordinates of special points
Lz. L3 depends from L1 and Lz, see (11.3 .2). So we consider only two independent
coordinates. Here we have
~~] = [::1 aaz1] [aa~i] = I[ aa~i] (11.3 .7)

[ aNi ax ay aNi aNi
aLz aLz aL z ay ay
I is the Jacobi matrix of the coordinate transformation
1= aa:1 :Z11 [c,-b']

ax ay -Ci b,
[aLz
= J J (11.3 .8)
aLz J
and the expressions b i, bj, c., Cj are
b, = yz - Y3, bj = Y3 - Y1, c, = x3 - xz, Cj = Xl - x3 (11.3 .9)
With
Detl = cjb i - bjCi = ..1 (11.3.10)
it follows that
I- I = ~ [b i bj ] (11.3 .11)
..1 c, Cj
and then we obtain for the derivatives of the shape functions N, with respect to the
cartesian coordinates x and y
(11.3.12)
In case of the classical laminate theory , the second partial derivatives

a 2N i a 2N i a 2N i
aLi' aL l L2' aq
are also required. For this we must put the result for aNi/aLl instead of N, into the
first row of Eq. (11.3.7), and we obtain
2 2 2 2
a Ni _ ( ax ) 2 a Ni + 2 ax ay a Ni + ( ay ) 2 a Ni
aLi - aLl ax 2 aLl aLl axay aLl a y2 (11.3.13 )
In the same manner we can do so with aNi/aL 2 and the second row of Eq. (11.3.7)
and for the mixed second partially derivative with aNi/aL 2 and the first row or vice
versa. The three relationships obtained can be written in matrix form
a 2N i a2Ni
ax 2 aL 21
* a2Ni a 2N i
J - axay- a a
t., L2
(11.3.14)
a2Ni a 2Ni
a y2 aq
where 1* is a modified or extended Jacobi matrix
ax ) 2 2 ax ay ( ay ) 2
( aLl aLl aLl aLl
*= ax ax ax ay + ax ay ay ay
J :>
uL :> :>:>
l uL 2 uL2 uLl
:>:>
uL :> :>
l uL2 uL l uL2
(11.3.15)
ax ) 2 2 ax ay ( ay ) 2
( a~ a~a~ a~
Now the second partial derivative s of the shape function s by the cartesian coordi-
nates can be calculated
a 2N i a2Ni
ax 2 aL 21
a2Ni =
axay
r:' 2N
a i
aL laL2 (11.3.16)
a2 Ni a2 Ni
a y2 aq
Of course, by consequently using the natural triangle coordinates it follows that the
integrands in the energy terms are function s of these coordin ates. Therefore we have
to consider for the variables of integration the relationship
dA = dxdy = DetJ dL l dL2 = .1dL l dL2 (11.3.17 )
In Sects 11.3.1 and 11.3.2 the development of triangular finite plate elements will
be shown in a conden sed way for the classical laminate theory and for the shear
deformation theory, respectively.
11.3.1 Classical Laminate Theory
The starting point is the total potential energy of an symmetric laminate plate , see
also (8.2.24)
1
II( w) = 2" ![ 2W)
0 11 (aaX2 2
+ 0 22 (a2W)
ay2 2
A
a2Wa2W (a 2W)2
+ 2012 ax2 ay2 + 4066 axay (11.3 .18)
+ 4 (0 16~:~ + 0 26~:~) ::~] dA - !

A
pzwdA
with the stiffness O ij, i, j = 1,2,6, see Table 8.3. The strain energy simplifies the
couplings, if we assume special orthotropic laminates (e.g. cross-ply-laminates). We
have no bending-twisting coupling, i.e. 016 = 0 26 = O. Supposing in other cases
these coupling terms as very small, especially if we have a great number of very thin
layers, we use the following simplified strain energy approximately
II(w) = 2"1 ! [ (aax~

0 11
2
) 2 (a 2
+ 0 22 ay~ ) 2
A (11.3 .19)
+ 20 12 ~w~w (~W)2
ax2 ay2 + 4066 axay -
]
2p z w d A
The total potential energy of the classical plate model contain s second derivatives
and so we have to realize C (l Lcontinuity at the element boundaries. Thi s mean s,
continuity of the deflections and the derivative s in normal direction to the bound-
aries. It must be noted that we do not have C (1 Lcontinuity, if the first derivatives
at the comer points of adjacent elements are equal becau se we have to guarantee
the continuity of the derivatives in the normal direction at all boundary points of
adjacent elements.
It can be shown that we have to use a polynomial with minimum of 18 coeffi-
cients, and because we want to have a complete polynomial, we choose a polyno-
mial of fifth order with 21 coefficients. Therefore we define a triangular finite plate
element with 6 nodes as shown in Fig. 11.10. At the comer nodes 1,2,3 (i, j, k)
we have 6 degrees of freedom, the deflection, the first derivatives in both directions
and the three curvatures, but at the mid-side nodes the first derivatives in normal
direction only.
It is a disadvantage when using this element in a general program system that we
have a different number of degree s of freedom at the nodes. Therefore an elimina-
tion, a so-called static condensation of the nodal parameters of the mid-side nodes,
can be done and then we have only 18 degrees of freedom for the element. The ele-
ment is converted into a three-node element, the nodes 4, 5, 6 (1 , m, n) vanish. The
polynomial approximation of the displacement field in the finite element is given
by a special 5th order polynomial, it contains however a complete polynomial of
398 II. FiniteElement Analysis
A • 3(k)
Y
6(n ) • • 5(m)
1(i) • 4(1)
• .2(j )
x
>
Fig. 11.10.Six-node plateelement
4th order. In this way we obtain 18 shape functions Ni(L I, Lz, L3), i = 1,2, . .. ,18
which are not illustrated here. Because the coordinates LI , Lz, L3 are not indepen-
dent, see (11.3.2), L3 usually is eliminated by
L3 = 1- LI - Lz (11.3.20)
According to (11.1.1) we have the approximation
w(x, y) = N(LI' Lz)v (11.3.21)
with N as the matrix ofthe 18 shape functions (here it has only one row) and the el-
ement displacement vector v including 18 components. For the differential operator
DOP must be written
D OP
az aZ aZ] T
- z- 2 - - (11.3.22)
-
[
- ax ayz axay
and after this, see also Eq. (11.1.3), the matrix B leads to
B= DOPN (11.3.23)
Since the shape functions are functions of the natural triangle coordinates L 1 and Lz,
for the derivatives by the cartesian coordinates we have to take into consideration
(11.3.16) . The element stiffness matrix follows according to (11.1.6)
KE = J BTDBdA
AE
and with the substitution of the integration variable Eq. (11.3.17)
1 I-L j
KE = JJ BTDB~dLzdLI
o 0
(11.3.24)
Here D is the matrix of the plate stiffness, the coupling of bending and twisting is
neglected (D 16 = DZ6 = 0)
11.3 Finite PlateElements 399
D = [g~~ g~~ ~ ]
a a D66
According to (11.1.7) we obtain the element force vector
1 l-L 1
IE = f
AE
NT pdA = ff
0 0
NT p~dL2dLl (11.3.25)
where p(x, y) = P(Ll, L2) is the element surface load.

For the flexural vibration analysis of plates the element mass matrix must be
calculated. According to (11.1.10), the element mass matrix reduces to
1 l-Ll
ME = f pNTNdV = f f pNTNh~dL2dLl (11.3.26)

VE 0 0
with p as an average density
p = -1 E
n
p(k)h(k) (11.3.27)
h k=l
Note that the classical laminate theory does not consider the rotary kinetic energy.
The integrations in the (11.3.24) for the element stiffness matrix KE, (11.3 .25)
for the element force vector IE and (11.3.26) for the element mass matrix must be
carried out numerically. Only the force vector IE can be calculated analytically, if
we have a constant surface loading p(x, y) = canst. For the numerical solutions
it is recommended that integration formulae of the same order are used like the
polynomials for the shape functions, in this case of the fifth order.
11.3.2 Shear Deformation Theory
The Mindlin plate model, which is based on the first order shear deformation theory,
considers the shear deformation in a simplified form. In the Mindlin plate model
the Kirchhoff's hypotheses are relaxed. Transverse normals to the midplane do not
remain perpendicular to the middle surface after deformation . In Sect. 8.3 the basic
equations are given for this plate model.
Here the starting point is the total potential energy, and if we restrict ourselves
to symmetric and special orthotropic laminates, we have
400 11. FiniteElement Analysis
2
II(W,1/J1,1/J2) = ~J
2
[0 11 (a1/J1)2 +20 12 (a1/J1 a1/J 2) +022 (a1/J 2)
ax ax ay ay
A
a1/J1 a1/J2 ) 2 s ( aw ) 2
+ 06 6 ( ay + ax + kssA ss 1/J1 + ax
+ k~4A44 ( 1/J2 + ~;) 2] dxdy - J

A
pzwdxdy
JII(w, 1/J1, 1/J2) =0

(11.3.28)
or written in matrix form
II(w, 1/J1, 1/J2) = ~ J (KTDK + esTNeS)dxdy - J p3wd xdy (11.3.29)

A A
The matrices of the plate stiffness for this case (0 16 = 026 = 0) and the shear
stiffness with A 4S = 0 are, see also (8.3.7),
o = [g~~ g~~ ~ ], (11.3.30)

o 0 066
The stiffness are given in detail in (4.2.15) and for the shear correction factor see
Sect. 8.3. Note that we have, in the elastic potential three independent deformation
components (the deflection wand the rotations 1/J1 and 1/J2), so the displacement field
vector u has three components (n u = 3), see also (11.1.2) .
For the curvatures and the shear strains we have
K= tr». eS = DSu (11.3.31)
where Db and D" are the matrices of the differential operators
o~ 0
ax
10
o 0
ay
~ a 1
D'~ [ ZOl (11.3.32)
O~~
ay ax
The most important property of the elastic potential however is that it contains first
derivatives only. Therefore, we have to guarantee only C(Ol-continuity at the element
boundaries and it will be possible to take a three-node finite element with linear
shape functions, but it shall be not done here.
Due to the better approximation properties we will choose a six-node element
with polynomials of the second order as shape functions . The six-node element with
its nodal degrees of freedom is shown in Fig. 11.11. Then we have the nodal and the
element displacement vectors
x
Fig. 11.11. Six-node finite plate element with nodal degrees of freedom
vi = [Wi 1fJxi 1fJyi], vI = [vi vJ vI vT v~ v~] (11.3.33)

and according to (11.1.2) with n u = n p , ii = nKE the matrix of the shape functions
is given by
N = [Ni13 Ni3 Nk1 3 N113 N m1 3 Nn1 3], (11.3.34)
where 13 are unit matrices of the size (3,3). The shape functions are
N, = (2L 1 - 1)L 11 N j = (2L z - l)L zl N k = (2L 3 - 1)L 31
(11.3.35)
N1 = 4L1LZI N m = 4LzL31 N n = 4L 1L3
They are functions of the natural triangle co-ordinates L11LZ I L3, see (11.3.1) -
(11.3.4) .
The curvatures and the shear strains in (11.3.29) can be expressed by
x = tv« = DbNv£ = Bbv£1 Bb = DbN
(11.3.36)
eS = DSu = DSNv£ = BSv£, BS = DSN
and consideration of (11.3.12) leads to the element stiffness matrix, see also (11.1.6)
consisting of two parts
Ke = KEb + KS£1 Kb£ = J BbTDBbdxdYI K~ = J BsTNBSdxdy (11.3 .37)

AE AE
Because the shape functions in N are functions of the natural triangle co-ordinates,
the integration variables must be substituted by (11.3.17), and then we find
K~ = i
o
7LIBbTDB b ,1dLz d L11
0
K~ = i
0
7LIBSTNBs ,1dLzdL1 (11.3 .38)
0
To obtain the element force vector f £ a load vector q must be defined with the same
number of components as the displacement field vector u. Because only surface
loading p(x, y) is considered here, it leads to
402 II . Finite Element Analysis
qT=[pOO ]
and then the element force vector is
I I -L j
IE = J N Tqdxdy, I E= JJ
o 0
N TqL1dLzdL I (1 1.3.39)
AE
with the substitution of integration variables.
The integration s in (11.3.39 ) can be done analytically only in the case of constant
surface loading p = canst. In the other cases it must be calculated numericall y. For
the numerical integration it is recommended to apply integration formulae of the
same order as used for shape polynomi als, here of the second order. It must be done
in this manner for the first part K~ of the stiffness matrix, for the second part of K~
a lower order can be used. Such a different kind of integration for the two parts of
the stiffness matrix is called selective integration.
For dynamic analysis the element mass matrix M E must also be calculated .
For the shear deform ation theory the rotatory kinetic energy is usually taken into
consideration. The kinetic energy of an element is then
11
2
TE = ~ J
VE
puTudV =~ JJ
AE _~
p(ui + tP¥+ tP~)dzdA (1 1.3.40)
If the so called generalized densities are used
Po = Ln p(k)[z(k) - z(k-I) ] = Ln p(k)h(k),

k=1 k=1
1 n z
PI = - L
p(k)[z(k) - z(k- I) ],
Z
(11.3.41)
2 k=l
1 n
pz = - L 3 3
p(k)[z(k) - z(k-I) ]
3 k=1
and it is noted here that PI = 0, because we have assumed symmetric laminates
only, then for the kinetic energy we obtain
TE = ~ J iJTRoildA (11.3.42)
AE
R o is a matrix of the generalized densities
Ro = [P~ ~z ~] (11.3.43)
o 0 pz
Using the approximation for the displacement field vector according to Eq. (11.1.1)
we obtain
1
TE = 2VE T! TRoNdAvE
N (11.3.44)
AE
and the element mass matrix is
1 l-L J
ME =! !
o 0
NTRoNL1dLldL2 (11.3.45)
with substitution of the integration variables.

The finite laminate plate element developed above is called PLI8, where the
number 18 gives the degrees of freedom of all element nodes . This element can be
used only for laminate plates with laminae arranged symmetrically to the midplane,
where we have no coupling of membrane and bending/twisting states and we have
no in-plane loading.
In many cases we have nonsymmetric laminates and we have a coupl ing of mem-
brane and bending/twisting states or there are in-plane and out-of-plane loadings .
Then an element is necessary where the nodal degrees of freedom also include the
deflections in x- and y-direction u, v. For such an clement, assuming six nodes
again, the nodal and the element displacement vectors are
vT = lUi Vi ui; 1/Jxi 1/Jyi], vI = [vT vJ vI vI v~ v~] (11.3.46)
The structure of the matrix of the shape function s N is in this more general case
(11.3.47)
with Is as unit matrices of the size (5,5), the shape functions remain unchanged.
The total potential energy for this case is, see also (8.3.15),
II(u, v, W, 1/Jl, 1/J2) = ~ ! (eTAe + KTBe + eTBK + KTDK

A
+ esTASeS)dxldx2 - ! pzW dxdy
(11.3.48)
A
and we have to take into consideration the membrane stiffness matrix A and the
coupling matrix B additionally, the element stiffness matrix consists of four parts
K E = K E+KEb + K~ + K1 (11.3.49)
representing the membrane state (K E),
the coupling of membrane and bending states
(K E ), the bending state (K~) and the transverse shear state (K1).
b
The general form for the element force vector (I 1.3.39) is unchanged, it must be
noted that the loading vector q here has another structure containing loads in three
direction s
qT = [Px py pz 0 0] (11.3.50)
the general form for the element mass matrix is the same as in (11.3.45) , but here
the matrix of the generalized densities Ro is
a Poa aa PIa]
Po
a PI
Ro = a a Po a a (11.3 .51)
PI a a P2 a
a PI a a P2
The remarks about the realization of the integrations remains unchanged here. Of
course they are all more complicated for this element. Such an extended element
would be called PL30 , because the degree of freedom of all nodal displacements is
30 . Further detail s about this extended element are not given here .
11.4 Generalized Finite Beam Elements
In civil engineering and also in mechanical engineering a special kind of struc-

tures are used very often structures consisting of thin-walled elements with sig-
nificant larger dimensions in one direction (length) in comparison with the dimen-
sions in the transverse direction. They are called beam shaped shell structu res. Beam
shaped shell structures include folded plate structures as the most important class
of such structures. In Chap. 10 the modelling of folded plate structures was con-
sidered and there a generalized beam model was developed by the reduction of the
two-dimensional problem to an one-dimensional one following the way of Vlasov-
Kantorovich. This folded structure model contains all the energy terms of the mem-
brane stress state and of the bending/twisting stress state under the validity of the
Kirchhoff hypotheses. Outgoing from this complete folded structure model some
simplified structure models were developed (see Sect. 10.2.4) by neglecting of se-
lected energy term s in the potential function e.g. the terms caused by the longitudinal
curvatures KX i' the shear strains fX Si' the torsional curvatures KXSi or the transversal
strains f Si of the strips . Because the influence of the longitudinal curvatures K Xi of
the single strips to the deformation state and the stress state of the whole structure
is very small for beam shaped structures, they are neglected generally. The shear
strains f XSi of the strips can be neglected for structures with open cross-sections,
but not in the case of closed cross-sections. In opposite to this the torsional curva-
tures KX Si can be neglected for closed cross-sections, but not for open cross-sections.
Therefore, because we had in mind to find a generalized beam model as well the
shear strains as the torsional curvatures are considered. Although the influence of
the transversal strains in most cases is very small , they are considered too, because
with this we have a possibility to define the generalized co-ordinate functions for a
general cro ss-section systematically. Therefore as a generalized structure model for
beam shaped thin-walled folded plate structures the structure model A (see Sects
10.2.4 and 10.2.5) is chosen, in which only the longitudinal curvatures K Xi of the
strips are neglected.
11.4 Generalized FiniteBeamElements 405
11.4.1 Foundations
The starting point for the development of generalized finite beam elements is the
potential energy, see equation (10.2.10). Because in all strips the longitudinal cur-
vatures K x ; are neglected all terms containing w;'
have to vanish. It leads together
with equations (10.2.11), (10.2.12) and with A 7 = 0, As = 0, A10 = 0, A 17 = 0,
A20 = 0, A 23 = 0, A 26 = 0 to a simplification of the potential energy equation
(10.2.10)
l
tt = ~! [U,TA 1U' + V TA 6V + U TA 3U + 2U TA 2SV'

o
+ V,TA 4V' + V TA 12 V + 4V, TA 9V'
+ 2U,T A 14V + 2UTA 2U' + 2U,TA 13V'
- 2U,T A I9V - 4U,TA 1SV' + 2U,T A I6V (11.4 .1)
TA, TA TA,
+ 2V AsV - 2V A 2SV - 4V A 27V
- 2U TA 22V - 2V,TA2SV - 4U TA 21V'
- 4V,T A 24V' +4V TA ll V' - 2(U TI, + V TIs + VTln)] dx

- (UTr x + VTr s + VTr n) Ix=o - (UTr x + VTr s + VTr n) Ix=l
We can see that the one-dimensional energy function contains only derivatives of
the first order.
11.4.2 Element Definitions
Outgoing from Eq. (11.4 .1) a one-dimensional finite element can be defined . Be-
cause we have no higher derivatives than of the first order in the potential energy
only a C(O) continu ity is to satisfy at the element boundaries and therefore it would
be possible to use a two-node element with linear shape functions . To have a better
accuracy here we will take a three-node element using second order polynomials as
shape functions, Fig. 11.12. The shape functions are again like (11.2.15)
2 3
01-- - - - - -:8:- - - - - ....8
o-_ _ x
I· .\
Fig. 11.12.Three-node generalized beamelement
2 4 3 6 4
X X
W
X
YI 55
I
58
T
5 X
I
!
z
Y 8 X
53 57
0- X o
6 7 7
o - main profile nodes (MPN)
X - secondary profile nodes SPN)
Fig. 11.13. Description of a general cross-section
X x2 X x2
N, (X) =1- 3- + 2[2' N 2(x ) =4y - 4[2'
They are shown in Fig . 11.5.
Because a generalized finite beam element with a general cross-section shall be
developed at first we must find a rule to define the cross-section topology. We will
use for it the profile node concept. For this we will see the midlines of all strips as the
cross -sections profile line. The start- and the endpoints of each strip on this profile
line are defined as the so-called main profile nodes. In the middle of each strip there
are additional profile nodes, they are called secondary profile node s. Figure 11.13
shows an example for it. The topology of the thin-walled cross-section is described
sufficiently by the co-ordinates of the main profile nodes . Additionally the stiffness
parameters of each strip must be given. The connections of the strips in the main
profile nodes are supposed as rigid .
For the generation of the generalized deflection co-ordinate functions cp, 1jJ, ~ is
assumed that a main profi le node has four degrees of freedom, the disp lacements
in the directions of the global co-ordinate axes X, y, z and the rotation about the
global X axis , see Fig . 11.14. The displacements of the main profile nodes lead
linear generalized co-o rdi nate functions cp,1jJ and cubic functions ~ between the
adjacent nodes . For an increasing the accuracy the activation of the secondary profile
node degrees of freedom is optional, they are shown in Fig . 11.15. In this case cp
and 1jJ are quadratic and ~ polynomials of 4th and 5th order between the adjacent
main nodes. Therefore a more comp lex deformation kinematics of the cross-section
is considerable. The generalized co-ordinate functio ns for any thin-walled cross-
section are here defined as follows :
I. Main node displacements or rotations result in non-zero co-ordinate functions
only in the adjacent intervals of the profile line
2. Secondary node disp lacements or rotations result in non-zero co-ordinate func-
tions only in the interval between the adjacent main nodes .
deflection in x-direction
~ '--_I--
deflection in y-direction
...J
deflection in z-direction rotation about x-axis

Fig. 11.14. Main profile node degrees of freedom
In Fig. 11.16 the generalized coordinate functions for axial parallel arranged strips
are shown. Figure 11.17 gives the supplements for slanting arranged strips .
11.4.3 Element Equations
In the case of non-activated degrees of freedom of the secondary profile nodes we

have a degree of freedom of an element node of four times the number of main
profile nodes (4 nMPN) and the element displacement vector consists of 12 n MP N
components
[~jJ'
v]· = v ·
]
(11.4 .3)
t8_
second order v-deflection
\J_
second order u-deflection
.\]_
fourth order w-deflection fifth order w -deflection
Fig. 11.15. Secondary profile node degrees of freedom
1 3 2
X, II
- - - - - ()
/I , IV
I d I
j - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -j
main profile node functions secondary profile node function s
II -deflections
I~ O O ~l O~O
0.25
= d5- (5)2
5
0/1 =1- -
d 0/3 d
v-deflections
::::::::::= 0
I ~O O ~l
0 00::::::::::::: )(
0.25
t/J1 = 1 - -
5
t/J2
5
= -d t/J3 = d -
5 (5)2
d
d
51 = 0 52 =0 53 =0
IV-deflections
O ~O
I ~O O ~1
1/ 16
55 = 3 (J) 2 - 2 (J) 3
t/J5 = 0
A l/Sd
~o o~ O ~O
59 = ( ~) 2 _ 4 ( ~) 3
d 4 d 5
+5(J) -2(J)
t/J4 =0
Fig. 11.16. Generalized co-ordinate functions for axial parallel arranged strips
r
x y X,1I I
II,W
S
tf!2 = d cos It
S2 = - [3G)2 - 2Gf] si n a
= (1- si n It
tf!4 J)
S4 = [1- 3 (J) 2 + 2 (J) 3] COS It
s .
tf!5 = d sin c
S5 = [3 G)2 - 2 (Jf] cos It
Fig. 11.17. Supplements for slanting arranged strips
Uj , Vj contain the values of the generalized displacement functions at the node j.

The displacement vector u (x ) contains here the generalized displacement functions
U (x ) and V (x ) and in accordance with Eq. (11. 1.1) we obtain forthe interpolation
u (x ) = [~i~~ ] = Nv (11.4.4)
The matrix of the shape functions for the chosen three-node element is
(11.4.5)
where 1 are the unit matrices of the size 4 nMPN and with this the matrix N has
the format (4 nMPN, 12 nMPN). Following the equation (11.4.4) for the generalized
displacement functions we have to write
(11.4 .6)
with the matrices
Lio = [10], L6I = [01] (11.4.7)
In the first case (L I O) 1 is a unit matrix ofthe size nMNP and the null matrix has the
format (nMPN, 3 nMPN), in the second case (L OI ) 1 is a unit matrix of the size 3
nMPN and the null matrix has the format (3 nMPN, nMPN).
Of course in the case of activated degrees of freedom of the secondary pro-
file nodes all the dimensions given above are increased correspondingly. Inserting
the generalized displacement functions (11.4.6) into the potential energy equation
(11.4.1) we obtain
1
rr = -vTKv - fT v
2
(11.4.8)
The condition
arr =0 (11.4.9)
av
leads to the element equation
KV=f (11.4.10)
with the symmetric element stiffness matrix
K= [~r: ~:: ~::] (11.4.11 )

Ki3 KI3 K 33
For the sub-matrices K mn we find the general equation
AIhlmnl (A 13h - 2A l 8h)Imnl

+A 2hlmn2 +(A I5h - 2A2Ihlmn2
-T
+A2hlmn3 +(A I4h - A l 9h)Imn3
+A3hlmn4 +(A I6h - A 22h)Imn4
3
L
h=1
(11.4.12)
with
I I
I mn1 = ! NhN~N~dx,
o
Imn2 = ! NhNmN~dx,
o
I I
I mn3 = ! NhN~Nndx,
o
I mn4 = !
o
NhNmNndx
To include approximately slight non-prismatic structures the matrices of the stiff-

ness parameters Ai, see Eq. (10.2.12), are interpolated in the element in the same
manner as the displacements
3
Ai = E A ihNh (11.4.13)
h=l
Aih are the matrices at the nodes h = 1,2,3.

The element force vector is obtained as
(11.4.14)
with the sub-vectors
3
!m= L I
(11.4.15)
h=l
(Ish + fnh) !
o
NhNmdx
Here !xh,!sh,!nh are the generalized load vectors, see Eq. (10.2.13), at the nodes
h=I,2,3.
11.4.4 System Equations and Solution
The system equations can be obtained by using the Eqs. (11.1.15) and (11.1.16) with
the coincidence matrices, determining the position of each element in the whole
structure. In the so founded system stiffness matrix the boundary conditions of the
whole structure are to consider, otherwise this matrix is singular, if the structure
is not fixed kinematically. The solution of the system equations lead to the nodal
displacements and with them the strains and curvatures in the single strips of each
element can be calculated, see Eqs. (10.2.6) and (10.2.11),
3
fx ( X , Si) = L N~Uh qJ,
h= l
3
fs(X,Si) = L
NhVhtp·,
h=l
3
f xs(X,Si) = L(NhUhqJ· N~Vhtp),
+ (11.4.16)
h=l
3
Ks(X,Si) = - L
Nhvrs··,
h=l
3
Kxs(X, Si) = -2 N~VhS-L
h=l
Now we can obtain the stress resultants in the kth lamina, which has the distance nk
from the mid plane of the strip
Xk] l2k 16k]

N
N sk = [AUk A A
A l2k A 22k A 26k
[
lO s+lOxnkKs ] (11.4.17)
[
N xsk A 16k A 26k A 66k f xs + nkKxs
These stress resultants are related on the strip co-ordinate axes x and Si . Therefore,
it is necessary to transform them into the material co-ordinate system of the kth
lamina (for the transformation relationship see Table 4.1)
2 2
NLk ] [ cos (X k sin (X k 2 sin (X k cos (Xk ] [ N xk ]
NTk = sin 2 (Xk 2
COS (X k -2sin(Xkcos(Xk N sk (11.4 .18)
[
N LTk - sin (Xk cos (Xk sin (X k cos (Xk cos 2 (X k - sin 2 (Xk N xsk
Than the stresses of the kth lamina are obtained

NLk NTk N LTk
O"Lk = - - , O"Tk = - - , T LTk = - - (11.4.19)
tk tk tk
In some cases the strains in the kth lamina related to the material co-ordinate system
are important for the failure assessment of the lamina. Then they can be calculated
with help of the following matrix equation
f Lk ]
fTk = Q~ -1 N Tk
[NLk] (11.4.20)
[
fLTk N LTk
There Q' is the reduced stiffness matrix of the kth lamina.
11.4.5 Equations for the Free Vibration Analysis
The variation statement given by the Hamilton's principle, see Eq. (10.2.41) leads
with the Lagrange function (10.2.39) and the assumption of harmonic vibrations for
the considered generalized beam element to the element equation
(11.4.21)
11.5 Numerical Results 413
K is the element stiffness matrix, see Eqs. (11.4.11) and (11.4 .12), and M is
the element mass matrix. The element mass matrix is obtained with the matrices
BI I B21 B3' see Eqs. (10.2.38)
M = [~r: ~:: ~::] (11.4.22)

M[3 MI3 M33
with
3
L
A
M - [Blhlmn4 0 ] (11.4.23)
mn - h=l 0 (B 2h + B3h)Imn4
There the B matrices are also interpolated in the element by using the shape func-
tions. In this way slight non-prismatic structures are considerable too. The system
equations can be developed in a similar way as it was done for a static analysis . Here
we have to find a system stiffness matrix and a system mass matrix . After consider-
ation the boundary conditions the eigen-value problem can be solved and the mode
shapes can be estimated .
11.5 Numerical Results
Additional to a great number of special FEM programs general purpose FEM pro-
gram systems are available. The significance of universal FEM program packages
is increasing. In universal FEM program systems we have generally the possibility
to consider anisotropic material properties, e.g. in the program system COSMOS/M
we can use volume elements with general anisotropic material behavior and plane
stress elements can have orthotropic properties.
Laminate shell elements are available e.g. in the universal FEM program systems
ANSYS, NASTRAN or COSMOSIM. In many program systems we have no spe-
cial laminate plate elements, the laminate shell elements are used also for the anal-
ysis of laminate and sandwich plates. Perhaps, because of the higher significance
of two-dimensional laminate structures in comparison with beam shaped structures
laminate beam elements are missing in nearly all universal FEM program systems.
The generalized beam elements, Sect. 11.4, are e.g. implemented only in the FEM
program system COSAR.
For the following numerical examples the program system COSMOSIM is used.
Therefore a short overview about the laminate shell elements available in COS-
MOSIM and their handling is given below.
11.5.1 Laminate Shell Elements in the Program System COSMOS/M
The element SHELL3L is a three node thin laminate shell element. Each node has
6 degrees of freedom. The element can consist of up to 50 layers. Each layer can
have different material constants, different thicknesses and especially different an-
gles of fibre directions. We have no restrictions in the stacking structure, symmetric,
antisymmetric and nonsymmetric structures are possible.
The rule for positioning of the local co-ordinate system is that in the plane which
is defined by the nodes 1,2,3 its x-axis goes from node 1 to node 2 of the element,
the local y-axis lies perpendicularly to the x-axis pointing to node 3, and the z-ax is
completes a right hand system. The fibre angles tx.k in all the layers are related to
the local x-axis, see Fig. 11.18. The element can be used for bending, buckling and
vibration analysis.
Generally the element has 8 options, where the options No. 1,4 and 8 are not
used :
Option No.2 is the number of layers (NL) (1 - 50)
Option No.3 is characterizing the direction of the calculated stresses.
Possible are
= 0 : Stresses calculated in the global co-ordinate system
= 1 : Stresses calculated in the local co-ordinate system
= 2 : Stres ses calculated in the material defined
co-ordinate system (a, b)
Option No.5 stays for linear elastic materi al by using the default value
~ y
/
/ (4)
/
[3]
[I]
[2] x
Fig. 11.18. Laminate shell element SHELL3L in COSMOSIM

11 .5 Numerical Results 415
Option No.6 stays for geometric linear analysis (smal1 displacement

formulation) by using the default value.
Option No.7 is prompted only in case of NL = 3 in option No.2
and means
=0: Laminate plate
= I: Sandwich plate
In COSMOSIM a special sandwich plate is available which has only isotropic mate-
rials in the core and the cover sheets. If we have an orthotropic material in the cover
sheets, we must model the sandwich plate as a laminate plate (option No.7 = 1 ).
By the so-called real constants the properties of the element are defined. The
fol1owing real constants are to give, where we have to distinguish two cases :
A: Option No.2 is not equal 3 or option No.7 is equal 0, what means that we have
a laminate shel1 or plate.
r1 Distance from reference to upper surface (in z-direction)
rz Temperature gradient r: = (L1Trop - L1TBor)/h
r3 Thickness for layer I
r4 Material set number associated with layer 1
r5 Fibre angle a: for layer 1
r6 Thickness for layer 2
r7 Material set number associated with layer 2
rs Fibre angle a: for layer 2
r [3(NL-1)+3] Thickness for layer NL

r[3( NL-1)+4] Material set number associated with layer NL
r[3(NL-1)+5] Fibre angle a: for layer NL
B: Option 2 is equal 3 and option 7 is equall, what means that we have a sandwich
plate with isotropic layers.
r1 Distance from reference to upper surface (in z-direction)
r2 Temperature gradient
r3 Thickness for layers 1 and 3
r4 Material set number of layers 1 and 3
r5 Thickness for layer 2
r6 Material set number of layer 2
For the explanation of the real constants see also Fig. 11.19. The material properties
are defined set-wise in the following kind:
EX, EY Young's moduli in the first and the second material direction
NUXY Poisson's ratio v xy
The corresponded value v yx is calculated by the program
GXY Shear modulus
ALPX, ALPY Coefficients of thermal expansion in both directions
DENS Density p
Additional to the regular loading by nodal forces can be defined element loadings .
There are possible thermal loading, gravitational loading and pressure loading ap-
•z
N
. -
N -l
x 11
reference plane 3
2
t-.TBOT
Fig. 11.19. Real constants for laminate shell elements in COSMOSIM
plied to element faces, e.g. to face (4) or (5) as shown in Fig. 11.18. For the output
of the results it should be marked that the calculated stresses are available dependent
from the option No.3 on top and bottom surfaces of each layer.
A second laminate shell element in COSMOS/M is called SHELL4L. The ele-
ment SHELL4L is a quadrilateral thin-walled element with 4 nodes. Each node has
6 degrees of freedom and this element can consist also of up to 50 layers. The 4
nodes of this element must not arranged in a plane. By the program in such case a
separation is done into two or four triangular partial elements (Quad-2- or Quad-e-
element) . This alternative possibility can be chosen by the option No.1:
Option No.1 : Element type option
= 0: Quad-2-element
= I: Quad-4-element
All the other options, the real constants definitions, the material properties, the load-
ing possibilities and the output options are the same like for the element SHELL3L.
The FEM program system COSMOS/M has a further laminate shell element
SHELL9L. It is a quadrilateral shell element consisting of up to 50 layers with
9 nodes. It has additional nodes at the middles of the four boundaries and in the
middle of the element. Each node has 6 degrees of freedom . The boundaries are
curved (isoparametric concept). In this element the interpolation functions have a
higher order.
The volume element SOLID in COSMOS/M allows, how it was mentioned
above, the consideration of general three-dimensional anisotropic material behavior.
It can be used for three-dimensional anisotropic structures, which are elementwise
homogeneous. It is not available for laminated structures. Further COSMOS/M has
the element SOLIDL. This is a three-dimensional laminate element with 8 nodes.
The degree of freedom of the nodes is three only. This element can consider a lin-
early varying element thickness in opposite to the SHELL9L elements . More de-
11.5 Numeri cal Results 417
tailed information about the SHELL9L, SOLID and SOLIDL is beyond the scope
of this chapter, because only the elements SHELL3L and SHELL4L are used for the
following examples.
11.5.2 Examples for the use of Laminated Shell Elements
By the following four examples the application of the laminate shell element
SHELL4L shall be demonstrated. At first a thin-walled beam shaped laminate struc-
ture with L-cross-section under a concentrated force loading is considered, and the
second example is a thin-walled laminate pipe under torsional loading . In both cases
the influence of the fibre angles in the layers is tested. The use of the laminate shell
element for the static and dynamic analysis of a sandwich plate is shown in the third
example . A buckling analysis of a laminate plate is demonstrated by the fourth ex-
ample. In all 4 cases an overview of the input commands and a selection of results
is given.
Ca ntilever Beam. A cantilever beam with L-cross-section consists of 3 layers
with the given material constants Ex, E Y1 v XY1 v y x1 Gxy . It is loaded by a concen-
trated force F, see Fig. 11.20. The material parameters are Ex = 1.53 104 kN/cm 2 ,
Ey = 1.09 103 kN/cm 2 , Gxy = 560 kN/cm 2 , v xy = 0.30, v yx = 0.021. The fibre
angle It shall be varied: It = 0° 10° 20° 30° 140°.
I I I
By the following session file the organization of the problem in COSMOSIM is

demonstrated .
__ v
10 400
+11: A
3
- 11: 4
- y
300
+11: 3
Fig . 11.20. Cantilever beam: cross-section and stacking structure (F =4.5 kN, L =4 m, all
other geometrical values in mm)
C* COSMOS/M Geostar V2 . 5 0
C* Problem : Cantilever Beam
C*
PT,1,0,40,0 (Definition of a point)
CREXTR, 1 , 1 , 1 , X, 4 0 0 (Extrusion of a curve)
SF EXTR, 1 , 1 , 1 , Z,3 0 (Extrusion of surfaces)
SFEXTR,2,2,1,Y,-40
M_SF, 1, 1, 1, 4, 50, 5, 1, 1 (Meshing of surfaces)
M_SF, 2,2, 1, 4,50, 8, 1, 1
NMERGE,1,765,1,0.0001, 0, 1,0 (Merging and compression
of nodes)
NCOMPRESS,1, 765
EGROUP,1,SHELL4L,1, 3,2,0,0,0,0,0
(Definition of the used element
type: SHELL4L, Quad-4, 3 layers,
stress calculation in the material
coordinate system)
MPROP, 1, EX, 1. 5 3E4 (Input of the material properties)
MPROP,1,EY, 1. 0 9E 3
MP ROP , 1 , NUXY,0. 3
MPROP,1,GXY, 5 6 0
RCONS T , 1 , 1 , 1 , 1 0 ,0 . 5 , 0 , O. 3 , 1 ,3 0 , 0. 4 , 1 , -30 , 0 . 3 , 1
RCONST, 1, 1, 1 1, 1, 3 0 (Input of the real constants
for IX = 30°)
DCR, 3, AL, 0, 6 , 3 (Boundary conditions : All degrees

of freedom are fixed on curves 3
and 6)
FC R , 7, FY, - 0 . 5 , 7 , 1 (Force loading, the force is
distributed on 9 nodes of curve 7)
c * COSMOS /M Ge o s tar V2.50
C* Problem: Cantile ver Be a m
C*
The FEM model after the input of all properties into COSMOS/M is illustrated in
Fig. 11.21. The computing yields a lot of results . In Fig. 11.22, e.g., is shown the
deformed shape for a fibre angle of IX = 30° . Here should be selected only the dis-
placements of the corner node at the free edge (node No. 306) in y- and z-direction
and the maximal stresses in fibre direction (CTx) and perpendicular to it (CTy) for the
left side of the vertical part of the cross-section (layer No. I, bottom):
V306.y = -2,204 em, V306 .z = -1,805 cm,
2 2
CTlayl .max ,x = 7,487 kN/cm , CTlayl ,max,y = 0,824 kN/cm
In the same manner the displacements and stresses for the fibre angles IX =
0° 10°,20° /40° are calculated, and the results are shown in Figs. 11.23 and 11.24.
I
Fig. 11.21. FE-model of cantilever beam in COSMOSIM (650 elemen ts, 714 nodes)
The results show that for such a beam shaped structure the main stresses are lying in
the longitudinal direction and therefor e the fibre angle 0° leads to the most effective
solution.
Laminate Pipe. A laminate pipe consisting of 2 layers with the given material
constants Ex, E y, v xy, v yx , G xy is fixed at its left end and is loaded by a torsional
moment, see Fig. 11.25. The material parameters are the same as in the previ-
ous example of a L-shape beam: Ex = 1,53 104 kNlcm 2 , E y = 1,09 103 kN/cm 2 ,
G xy = 560 kN/cm 2 , v xy = 0,30, v yx = 0,021. The fibre angle a shall be varied :
a = 0°,15°,30°,45°.
defined.
Fig. 11.22. Cantilever beam deformed shape

4.5
4
3.5
s::
J;!
~ 3
ti
~ 2.5
u
"" ')
c..
.:!:-
o
1.5
0.5
20°
Fibre Angle
Vy Vz
Fig. 11.23. Displacements of the comer point at the free edge
10
I i
8
i
_·'.'.-~-'.-r-'-"---/---
I
N
s:: 6
J;!
Z
..:<:
'"
<l)
I --+-_ .
'"
'" 4
~--- j_
~
Vi
2 -
I
0
Fibre Angle
Fig. 11.24. Max imal stres ses at the bottom of layer No. I
M,
A
+a 3
X
- a 3
D v
Fig . 11.25. Laminate pipe: cross-section and stacking sequence (M, = 1200 kNcm, L = 2 m,
D = 200 mm)
C* COSMOS /M Geo st ar V2 .50

C* Prob l em : La min a t e P ipe
C*
PT ,l ,O ,O ,O (Definition of points)
P T , 2 , O,lO ,O
P LANE , X,O , l (Definition of a plane for
positioning of a circle)
CRPC I RCLE , 1 , 1 ,2 , 10 ,360 , 4 (Creating a circle with the
radius 10 em consisting of
4 segments)
SFEXTR,1 ,4 , 1 ,X ,200 (Extrusion of 4 surfaces)
M_SF , 1, 4, 1 , 4 , 4 , 5 0 , 1, 1 (Meshing the 4 surfaces)
NMERGE , 1 , 1020 , 1 , O.OOO l ,O , 1 ,O (Merging and compression
NCOMPRESS ,1 ,1 01 9 of the nodes)
EGROUP,1,SHELL4L ,1, 2, 2,O ,O ,O ,O,O (Defini tion of the used
element type: SHELL4L,
2 Quad-4 , layers, stress
calculation in the material
coordinate system)
MPROP , 1 , EX, 1 . 53 E4 (Input of the material
MPROP , 1 , EY, 1 .09 E3 properties)
MPROP , 1 , NUXY ,0 .3
PROP ,1 ,GXY ,560
422 II. FiniteElementAnalysis
Fig. 11.26. FE-model of LaminatePipe in COSMOSIM (800 elements, 816 nodes)
RCONST, 1, 1, 1, 8, 0.3,0, 0.3,1,45, 0.3,1, -45

(Input of the real
constants for a: = 45°)
DCR,1,AL,0,4,1 (Boundary conditions: All
degrees of freedom are
fixed on curves 1-4)
FND,663,FY,-30,663,1 (Force loading, the torsional
After
FND,255,FY,30,255, 1 moment by forces
FND,251,FZ,-30,251,1 in couples)
FND,459,FZ,30,459,1
C*
C* COSMOS/M Geostar V2.5 0
C* Problem: Laminate Pipe
C*
the input of all parameters and properties into COSMOS/M the FEM model can be
illustrated (Fig. 11.26).
From the results of the analysis only the twisting angle of the free edge shall
be considered here . For this we have to list the results for the displacements in y-
direction of two nodes at the free edge, lying in opposite to each other, e.g. the nodes
255 and 663. The twisting angle is calculated by
q> = (V y,255 - V y,663)/D
Carrying out the analysis for all fibre angles we obtain the results, given in Fig .
11.27. The diagram demonstrates the well known fact that in case of pure shear
loading the main normal stresses are lying in a direction with an angle of 45° to the
shear stresses. Therefore here the fibre angels of +45°/ - 45° to the longitudinal
axis are the most effective arrangements, because these fibre angels yield the greatest
shear rigidity.
Sandwich Plate. The sandwich plate (Fig. 11.28) is clamped at both short bound-
aries and simply supported at one of the long boundaries. The cover sheets consist
of an aluminium alloy and the core of foam of polyurethan. The material constants
'"
0iJ
=
-c
ell
.s 4
.~
~
Fibre Angle
Fig. 11.27. Twisting angle of the free edge

.................................... ........................
l' = 1200 1 1m2 4.0m
6.0 m
J'Sfrag repl.dccmt'nts
aluminium alloy
24 30 mm
J
D
polyurcthan foam
Fig. 11.28. Sandwich plate (p = 1200 N/m 2 )

424 I I. Finite Element Analysis
are :
AlZ nMgCuO.5F450: p = 2.7 10 3 kg/m''
E = 7.010 10 N/m 2
v = 0.34
polyurethan foam : P = 150 kg/m '
E = 4.2 10 7 N/m 2
v = 0.30
Additional to a stress ana lysis of the plate under constant pre ssure loading p, a
vibration ana lysis will be performed is asked. We have to calc ulate the 4 lowest
eigenfrequencies and the mode shapes, respectively. Note that we use in this exam-
ple only the basic units of the Sl-systern, so we avoid the calculatio n of correctio n
facto rs for the obtained eigenfreq uencies .
By the follow ing sess ion file the orga niza tion of the problem in COSMOS/M is
shown here again.
c' COSMOS/ M Ge ost ar V2 .S 0
c' Pr ob lem : S an d wi c h P la te
C'
PT , l , 0 , 0 ,°
CREXTR, 1 ,1 ,1, X, 6
(Defin ition of a point)
(Extrusion of a curve)
SF EXTR , 1 , 1 , 1 , Z, 4 (Extrusion of a surface)
M_SF , 1, 1 , 1 , 4 , 3 0 , 2 0 , 1 , 1 (Meshing the surface)
EGROUP , I ,S HELL4L , I , 3 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 1 ,0
(Definition of the used
element type :
SHELL4L, Quad-4, 3 layers,
stress calculation in the glob al
coordinate system,
sandwich plate)
MP ROP ,I , EX, 7 .1 EI0 (Input of the material
MPROP , I , NUXY , 0 . 3 4 properties)
MP ROP , I , DENS , 2 .7E 3
MP ROP , 2 , EX, 4 . 2 E7
MP ROP ,2 ,NUX Y,0 . 3
MPROP , 2 ,DENS,I S 0
RCONST,I,I ,I, 6, 0 .0IS , 0 , 3E - 3 , 1 ,24E- 3, 2
(Input of the rea l constan ts)
DCR,I ,UY, O, I , I , (Bo undary conditions: fixing

DCR,3 , AL ,0 , 4 , 1 for u y of curve I and of all
degrees of freedom of the
curves 3 and 4)
P SF , 1 , - 1 2 0 0 , 1 , 1, -1 200 , - 1 2 0 0 , 2 (Definition of pre ssure
loading)
11,5 Numerical Results 425
~
:: . :'
...:,.::... : : :.
" ,
. . ......
-r '
Fig. 11.29. FE-model of Sandwich Plate in COSMOSIM (600 elements, 651 nodes)
c·
C· COSMOS / M Geos t a r V2 . 50 (Static analysis)
c· Pr o blem: S a n d wi c h Plate
C·
C· R.S TAT IC
C·
C· COSMOS /M Geost a r V2 .50
C· Pr oblem : San dw ic h Plate
C·
A. FREQUENCY, 4 ,S , l OO, O, O, O, O, l E- 0 0 5 , O, l E- 0 06 ,
0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0 (Definition of the frequency
options:
4 eigenfrequencies, Subspace
iteration, maxima l 100
iterations, tolerance 5 10- 6 )
C· R-FR EQUENCY (Frequency analysis)
C·
C· COSMOS/M Geo s t a r V2 . 5 0
c· Prob lem : Sa n d wi c h Pla te
C·
The FE-model is given in Fig. 11.29. The static analysis leads the displacements
and stresses. We consider only the stresses of the bottom of the lower cover sheet
(layer 3, top). The Figs. 11.30 and 11.31 show the plots of stress distributions for the
flexural stresses O"x and O"z, Fig. 11.32 the distribution of the von Mises equivalent
stress. The lowest 4 eigenfrequencies and their 4 mode shapes are shown in the
following Fig. 11.33. The static and frequency compu tations confirm the successful
application of the SHELL4L element for a sandwich plate.
Buckling Analysis of a Laminate Plate. For a rectangular laminate plate consist-
ing of 4 layers with the given material constants a buckling analysis shall be carried
--
-4.8396E+OO7
-3.9382E+OO7
1?~~~~~~
-1.2340E+OO7
-
-3.3255E+006
5.68870E+006
1.47030E+OO7
2.37170E+OO7
Fig. 11.30. Stresses in x-direction for the bottom of the lower cover sheet
--- -1.6455E+OO7
-1.2934E+OO7
:HM~~~
-2.3719E+006
I. I4880E+006
4.66950E+006
8.19020E+OO6
1.I7110E+OO7
Fig. 11.31. Stresses in z-direction for the bottom of the lower cover sheet
von Mises
4.3715E+006
9.349610+006
1 :~3~~~~
-_ 2.4284E+OO7
2.9262E+OO7
- 3.4240E+OO7
- 3.9218E+OO7
- 4.4196E+OO7
Fig. 11.32. Von Mises stress for the bottom of the lower cover sheet
v v
Fig. 11.33. Mode shapes for the lowest four eigenfrequencies: II = 5, 926 Hz (top-left),
[z = 12,438 Hz (top-right), h = 13,561 Hz (bottom-left), 14 = 19,397 Hz (bottom-right)
out. The plate is simply supported at all boundaries and loaded by a uniaxial uniform
load, see Fig. 11.34. Material constants are again the same as in the previous exam-
ples Ex = 1.53 10 4 kN/cm 2 , E y = 1.09 10 3 kN/cm 2 , Vxy = 0.30, vyx = 0.021; G xy
= 560 kN/cm 2 . For the stacking structure two cases shall be considered, a sym-
metric and a antisymmetric laminate structure, I and II in Fig. 11.34. The fibre
angle is to vary: it = 0°,15°,30°,45°,60°,75°,90°. For the buckling analysis in
COSMOSIM a unit pressure loading must be created, and the program calculates a
buckling factor VB to multiply the unit loading for obtaining the buckling load.
given for the symmetric laminate and the fibre angle it = 30° .
c*
c* COSMOS /M Geostar V2.50
C* Problem: Buckling
C*
PT,l,O,O,O (Definition of a point)
CREXTR,1,1,1,X,150 (Extrusion of a curve)
SFEXTR,l,l,l,Z,lOO (Extrusion of a surface)
M_SF, 1, 1, 1, 4, 30, 20, 1, 1 (Meshing the surface)
EGROUP,1,SHELL4L,1,4,O,O,O,O,O,O (Definition of the used
element: SHELL4L,
Quad-4,4Iayers)
1.0 m
1.5 m
- ,-
+ It
- It
4 x25
+ It
- It
Fig. 11.34. Rectangular laminate plate

MPROP , 1 , EX, 1 . 53 E4 (Input of material

MPROP , 1 , EY ,1 .09E 3 properties)
MPROP,1 ,NUXY, 0 . 3 0
MPROP , 1 ,GXY,560
RCONS T, 1 , 1 ,1 , 10 ,0 .5 ,0 ,0 .2 5 , 1 ,30 ,0 .2 5 , 1 , -30 ,0 .25 , 1
RCONS T, 1 , 1 , 11 , 4 , -3 0 , 0 .2 5 , 1 , 3 0 (Input of real cons tants)
OCR, 3 , AU, 0 , 3 , 1 , (Boundary conditions: all
OCR, 1 , UY , 0 ,2 , 1 , translations are fixed at
OCR , 4 , UY , 0 , 4 , 1 , curve 3, translations in
y-direction are fixed at
curves 1,2,4.)
PCR,4 , -1 .0 ,4 ,1 , -1. 0 ,1 (Unit pressure loading in

x-direction at curve 4)
PCR, 4 , -1 .0 ,4 , 1, - 1 .0 , 1 (Unit pressure loading in
x-direction at curve 4)
A_BU CKLING ,1 , S ,1 00 , 0 , 0 , 0 ,l E-005 ,0 ,l E-00 6 ,0 ,O ,O ,O ,0
(Options for buckling
analysis: first buckling
load only;
subspace iteration;
maximal 100 iterations;
tolerance 10- 6 )
c * R_CHECK, BUCKLI NG (Run check)
c*
c* COSMOS/M Geo sta r V2 . 5 0
c * P rob l e m: Buc k l ing
The FE-model created in COSMOS/M by the input of all properties and param-
eters is shown in Fig. 11.35. The calculation for tl: = 30° leads to a buckling factor
VB = 1, 647 and to the buckling mode shown in Fig. 11.36. In the same manner
the calculations for the other fibre angels and for the antisymmetric laminate were
performed. The results for the buckling factors are shown in a diagram in Fig. 11.37.
The buckling modes are symmetric to the symmetric axis in loading direction. For
the symmetric laminates the buckling modes for tl: = 0°, IS O, 30° are nearly the
~. < .~ .
;.
--:. -
. :.-..:~. :- - -
.. .
.. .-
Fig. 11.35. FE-model of the laminate plate in COSMOSIM (600 elements, 65 1 nodes)
Fig. 11.36. Buckling modes for symmetric laminates it = 30° (top-left), it = 45° (top-right),
it= 60° (middle-left), it = 75° (middle-right), it = 90° (bottom)
2.2
1.8
":::
~ 1.6
01)
.s
=3
:::
1.4
00
1.2
o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Fibre Angle
~ Il .symm. - - u.unrim.
Fig. 11.37. Results of the Buckling Analysis

same, see Fig. 11.36. For fibre angles 45°,60°,75°,90° the buckling modes have
different shapes, they are shown in the following figures. The buckling modes for
the antisymmetric laminate are very similar but not identical to the buckling modes
of the symmetric laminates . They are not given here. A fibre angle near 45° leads to
the highest buckling load for a quadratic plate. It shall be noted that the antimetric
stacking sequence of the laminate improved the buckling stability.
11.5.3 Examples of the use of Generalized beam Elements
Generalized finite elements for the analysis of thin-walled beam shaped plate struc-
tures, Sect. 11.4, were implemented and tested in the frame of the general purpose
FEM-program system CaSAR. The real handling of the FEM-procedures are not
given here, but two simple examples shall demonstrate the possibilities of these el-
ements for global static or dynamic structure analysis.
Figure 11.38 shows thin-walled cantilever beams with open or closed cross-
sections and different loadings . All these beam structure models have equal length,
hight and width and also the total thicknesses of all laminate strips are equal, inde-
pendent of the number of the layers.
The stacking structure may be symmetric or antisymmetric. Figure 11.39 shows
the two considered variants: case A with three laminae and symmetric stacking and
case B with two laminae and antisymmetric stacking. The fibre reinforced material
is characterized again by the following effective moduli
EL = 153000 N/mm 2 , VLT = 0.30,
ET = 10900 Nzmrrr', vri. = 0.021,
GLY = 5600 Nzmrrr'. p = 2 g/cm'
The fibre angles shall be varied.
Figure 11.40 shows the profile nodes. There are four main profile nodes for both
cross-sections but three secondary profile nodes for the open and four for the closed
cross-section . The numerical analysis shall demonstrate the influence of the stacking
structure. Figure 11.41 illustrates the relative changes of the cantilever beam in the
loaded point, if the symmetric stacking structure (WA) is change to the antisymmet-
ric one (WB). The antisymmetric layer stacking leads to higher values of the vertical
deflections WB in comparison to the W A values in the case of symmetric stacking .
Generally, only two degrees of freedom of secondary profile nodes were activated.
In a separate analysis the influence of a higher degrees of freedom in the sec-
ondary profile nodes was considered . As a result it can be recommended that for
antisymmetric layer structures and for open profiles more than two degrees of free-
dom should be activated. Ignoring the activation of secondary profile node degrees
of freedom leads to nonrealistic structure stiffness. The structure model is to stiff
and therefore the deflections are to small.
The second example concerned the eigen-vibration analysis. For the closed
cross-section with symmetric layer stacking the influences of the degree of free-
dom of secondary profile nodes and of the variation of the fibre angles were con-
sidered. As a result it can be stated that the influence of higher degrees of freedom
F = 260 kN
/; _ _ _- _ _._._ _ - _.._._ _ _ - ._.-f-- -

x
.: !,
y i
!
x
......"f __ _.._ _ __..__ _ _ _ _.._._ .
y I,,
!
z
5000
x ~ 800
x y
800
z k- z
400
Fig. 11.38. Cantilever beams, geometry and loading

+ 11:
+11
- 11:
s - s
- 11:
+ 11: L.-. ...I
,
II II
a b
Fig. 11.39. Stacking structure of the laminate s. a Symmetric sandwich, b two-layer
3 3 4 2 2 3
"'"
"
2 ," ... 3
.. .,
"
2 4 4
Fig. 11.40. Cross-sect ions with main profile nodes (e) and secondary profile nodes ( x)
of the secondary profile nodes is negligible but the influence of the fibre angles is
significant. Figure 11.42 illustrates the influence of the fibre angle variations on the
eigenfrequencies of the beam, which can be used for structure optimization.
Summarizing Sect. 11.5 one have to say that only a small selection of one- and
two-dimensional finite elements was considered. Many finite plate and shell ele-
ments were developed using equivalent single layer theories for laminated struc-
tures but also multi-layered theories are used. Recent review articles give a detailed
overview on the development, implementation and testing of different finite lami-
nate and sandwich elements.
Llw 14
%
12 r-.
10 / \
8 I \ ", -,t
6
7/1\ I"-.
4 IV/ ~\\ ~ 6 <,r-.

2
j lib ~\ ~~
-,
~
o IF
O' 10' 20' 30' 40'
~
50'
t--
60' 70' 80'
r-.90'
Fig. 11.41. Relative changes (WB - W A) j w II = llw (a ) of the vertical deflections wA and
wB
140
Hz
120 /
/"
L----- r-. /
V
100
[7
IX
80
V
r-,
~
r-,
------- I. EF
2. EF
60
40
1.7
V
~ f--- -- 3. EF
4. EF
<;
<, <;
20
o
O' 10' 20'
--.
30'
'----
40'
--
50' 60' 70' 80' 90'
Fig . 11.42. Influence of the fibre angle on the first four eigen-frequencies of the cantilever
box-beam
A. Matrix Operations
The following short review of the basic matrix definitions and operations will pro-
vide a quick reference and ensure that the particular use of vector-matrix notations
in this textbook is correct understood.
A.I Definitions
1. Rectangular matrix
A = [:;~ :;~ . . :;: ] = [aij]
a~l a~2 . : .. : . a~n

Rectangul ar matrix with i = 1,2, ... , m rows and j = 1,2, ... , n columns, i.e.
a rectangular-ordered array of quantities with m rows and n columns . m x n or
often (m, n) is the order of the matrix, aij is called the (i, j)-element of A.
m x 1 matrix or column vector.
1 x n matrix or row vector.

With a respectively aT a matrix A can be written
1j
a ]
aj = . : , j = 1, ... , n
[
436 A. Matrix Operations
If n = m the matrix is square of the order n x n. For a square matrix the

elements aij with i = j define the principal matrix diagonal and are located on
it.
2. Determinant of a square matrix A
au al2 ai n
a2I an a2n
IAI =
anI a-a ann
The determinant of a matrix A with elements aij is given by
IAI = aUMll - al2 Ml2 + a13M13 - . .. (-l)1+nalnMln
where the minor M ij is the determinant of the matrix IAI with missing row i
and column j . Note the following properties of determinants:
• Interchanging two rows or two columns changing the sign of IAI
• If all elements in a row or a column of A are zero then IAI = 0
• Multiplication by a constant factor c of all elements in a row or column of A
multiplies IAI by c
• Adding a constant multiple of row or column k to row or column 1 does not
change the determinant
• If one row k is a linear combination of the rows 1 and m then the determinant
must be zero
3. Regular matrix
A square matrix A is regular if IAI f:. O.
4. Singular matrix
A square matrix A is singular if IAI = O.
5. Trace of a matrix
The trace of a square matrix A is the sum of all elements of the principal diag-
onal, i.e.
m
trA = L akk
k=1
6. Rank ofa matrix
The rank r( A) of a m x n matrix A is the largest value of r for which there exist
a r x r submatrix of A that is non-singular. Submatrices are smaller arrays of
k x k elements aij of the matrix A, i.e. k ::; m if m ::; n or k ::; n if n ::; m.
A.2 Special Matrices
In the following the Oij denotes the Kronecker symbol
_{Oif:.j
Oij - 1 i= j
A.3 Matrix Algebra and Analysis 437
1. Null matrix 0
All elements a ij of a m x n matrix are identically equal zero
a ij == 0, i = I, ... , m, j = I, . . . , n
2. Diagonal matrix D = diag[aii] = diag[aiA j]
A diagonal matrix is a square matrix in which all elements are zero except those
on the principal diagonal
a ij = 0, i f:. j, a ij f:. 0, i = j
3. Unit matrix I = [Oij]
A unit or identity matrix is a special case of the diagonal matrix for which
a ij = 1 when i = j .
4. Transpose AT of a matrix A
The transpose of a matrix A is found by interchanging rows and columns . If
A = [aij] follow AT = [a ~] with a~ = aji ' A transposed matrix is denoted by
a superscript T. Note (A T)T = A
5. Symmetric matrix A S
A square matrix A is said to be symmetric if for all i f:. j a ij = aj i , i.e. A = AT .
6. Skew-symmetric matrix A A
A square matrix A is said to be skew-symmetric if all principal diagonal ele-
ments are equal zero and for all i f:. j a ij = -aj i , i.e. A = _AT.
A.3 Matrix Algebra and Analysis
I. Addition and subtraction

A m x n matrix A can be added or subtracted to a m x n matrix B to form a
m x n matrix C
a ij ± bij = cu. i = 1, ... , m, j = 1, . . . , n
Note A ±B = B ±A, (A ±B)T = AT ±BT .
2. Multiplication
• Multiplication the matrix A by a scalar IX involves the multiplication of each
and every element of the matrix by the scalar
IXA = AIX = [lXaij],
(IX ± f3)A = IXA ± f3A,
IX (A ± B) = IXA ± IXB
• The product of a (1 x n) matrix (row vector aT) and a (n x 1) matrix (col-
umn vector b) forms a (1 x 1) matrix, i.e. a scalar IX
n
aTb = bTa = IX, IX = L akbk
k= l
• The product of a (n x l ) matrix (column vector a) and a (1 x n) matrix (row

vector b T ) forms a (n x n) matrix
ab T = C, Cij = a.b,
The product of a (m x n) matrix A and a (n x l ) column vector b forms a
(m x l ) column vector c
Ab = C, c; = aijb j = ailbl + ai2b2 + ...+ ainbn, i = 1,2, .. . , m
The forgoing product is only possible if the number of columns of A is equal
the number of rows of b.
Note: bT A = CT .
• If A is a (m x n) matrix and B a (p x q)matri x the product AB = C exists
if n = p, in which case C is a (m x q) matrix. For n = p the matrix A and
B are said to be conformable for multiplic ation. The elements of the matrix
Care
n= p
Cij = E aikbkj, i = 1,2, . .. , m, j = 1,2, . . . , q
k=1
Note: AB f. BA, A(B ± C) = AB ± AC , (AB) T = BTA T
(l xm)( m x n)( nxp) (l x p)
ABC = D
3. Division and inversion
AI = IA = A, A- 1A = AA- 1 = I, (A-I) -1 =A
Matrix division is not defined, but use is made of a process called matrix inver-
sion which relies on the existence of a n x n unit matrix I and a square n x n
matrix A . A- I is the inverse of A with respect to matrix multiplication. If A-1
exist, the matrix A is invertible or regular, otherwise non-invertible or singular.
Note: (ABC)- 1 = C- lB-IA- l.
• Cofactor matrix
With the minors M ij introduc ed above to define the determinant IA I of a
matrix A a so-called cofactor matrix A C= [A ijJ can be defined, where
A ij = (_I) i+j M ij
• Adjoint or adjugate matrix
The adjoint matrix of the square matrix A is the transpose of the cofactor
matrix
adjA = (A c)T
Note: Because symmetrical matrices possess symmetrical cofactor matrices
the adjo int of a symmetrical matrix is the cofactor matrix itself
adjA S = (A S)C
It may be shown that
A(adjA) = IAII
i.e.
A(adjA) = I = AA - 1 A-I = adjA
IAI ~ IAI
Inverse matrices have some important properties
(A T) - 1 = (A-I) T
A.3 Matrix Algebra and Analysis 439
and if A = AT
A- 1=(A-1)T
i.e. the inverse matrix of a symmetrical matrix A is also symmetrical.
Note: Symmetrical matrices posses symmetrical transposes, symmetrical co-
factors, symmetrical adjoints and symmetrical inverses.
4. Powers and roots ofsquare matrices
A n x n matrix A is conformable with itself for multiplication, one may define
its powers
An = AA .. . A, (A")" = A mn, AmA n = A m+n, Ak = V'A,
5. Matrix eigenvalue problems

The standard eigenvalue problem of a quadratic n x n matrix A is of the form
AX=AX or (A-AI)x=O
K = [A - AI] is called the characteristic matrix of A, detK = 0 is called
the characteristic determinant or function of A. The characteristic determinant
produces a characteristic polynomial with powers of A up to Anand therefore
when it set equal zero having n roots which are called the eigenvalues. If the
characteristic equation has n distinct roots, the polynomial can be factorized in
the form
If we put A = 0 in the characteristic equation we get

detA = A1A2 .. . An
Injecting any root Ai back into the standard eigenvalue equation leads to a so-
lution
[A - A)]Xi = 0, i = 1,2, ... , n
A nontrivial solution exists if and only if
A general eigenvalue problem is given in the form

Ax = ABx
which can be premultiplied b y B-1 to produce the standard form
B- 1 Ax = B- 1 ABx = (B- 1A)x = AIx = Ax
6. Differentiating and integrating
• To differentiate a matrix one differentiates each matrix element aij in the
conventual manner.
• To integrate a matrix one integrates each matrix element a ij in the conven-

tual manner. For definite integrals, each term is evaluated for the limits of
integration. Note
T
x Ax = u,
au
ax = 2Ax,
aax2u __ 2A
2
7. Partitioning of matri ces A useful operation with matrices is partitioning into
submatrices. These submatri ces may be treated as elements of the parent matrix
and manipulated by the standard matrix rules reviewed above. The partitioning
is usually indicated by dashed partitioning lines entirely through the matrix
For a m x n matrix M we may have submatrices AU x j) , B(i x p), C(k x j),

D(k x p) with i + k = m, j + p = n, i.e.
M mx n =
Ai >: j B i x (n- j)
...
1
[
C (m-i) xj : D (m-i) x (n- j)
[:.O:} [:-;·:1 [:.::..:::1

[: ·:1 [::1 [::::: :::::1
The multiplications are only defined if the correspondent matrice s are con-
formable for multiplication
[':0:1' ~ [::·::1
If the matrix
M = [::1
is symmetric follows A = A T, D = D T, B = C T , C = B T
B. Stress and strain transformations
Stress and strain transformations under general orthogonal coordinate transforma-

.
non eI = R e or eiI = Ril r
1. £T~ = T;q£Tq. The matrix [T;q] is defined by
Rrl Rr2 Rr 3 2R 12R13 2R n R13 2R n R12
R~l R~2 R~3 2 R 22 R 23 2R2lR23 2R 2lR22
R~l R~2 R~3 2R32R33 2R31R33 2R 3lR32
2. £~ = T~q £q . The matrix [T~q] is defined by
Rr l Rr2 Rr 3 R 12R 13 Rn Rl3 R nR 12
R~l R~2 R~3 R 22R 23 R 2lR23 R 2lR 22
R~l R~2 R~3 R 32 R 33 R 3l R 33 R 3lR 32
3. With (T = (TIT)-l u' and e = (TE)-l e' the inverse transformation matrices
(TIT )- l and (TE) -l can be simple defined with the help of the transposed matri-
ces (TIT) T and (TE) T.
442 B. Stress and strain transformations
4. Rotation about the e l -direction, Fig . B.1:
e'
~" '"
<, / 'e'
.'
3 •••• •••••• 2
e2
Fig. B.1. Rotation about the el -direction
1
e' =Re
1 0 0 oa 0
0 c2 52 oa 2C5
1 o 52 c2 -2C5 0 a
1
if =T CT (T
[T;q] = o -C5 C5 c2 - 52 0 a
0 a a 0 C -5
a a 0 a 5 C
1 0 0 a o0
0 c2 52 C5 o0
1
0 52 c2 -C5 o a 1
=T£ e
[T~q] = £.'
o- 2C5 2C5 c2 - 52 a a
0 a 0 0 C - 5
0 a 0 0 5 C
C. Differential Operators for Rectangular Plates
(Classical Plate Theory)
1. General unsymmetric laminates
Lll L
12
L13]
L 22 L 23
[U]
v = [0]
a
[
sym L33 w P
L 23 = -
a3 + 3B26~
B22~
a3 + (B12 + 2B66 ):;-z;-
a3 + B16~
a3 ]
[ aX 2 aXl aX 2 aX 1 aX2 aX l
2. General symmetric laminate s
[
L ll
sym
~~~ L~ [~]
w
= [~]
]
P
33
B ij = 0, i.e. L 13 = L 31 = 0/ L 23 = L 32 = O. Lll, L22, L33, L12 as above in 1.
3. Balanced symmetric laminates
L ll L 12 a]
L 22 a
[
sym L33
444 C. Differential Operators for Rectangular Plates (Classical Plate Theory)
In addition to 2. both A 16 and A26 are zero, i.e. L13 = L31 = 0, L23 = L32 = 0
and Lu, L22 and L33 simplify with A 16 = A 26 = O.
4. Cross-ply symmetric laminates
Lu
[ sym
~~~ L33~ ] [~]
w
[~]p
In addition to 3. both 0 16 and 0 26 are zero, i.e. L33 simplifies .
5. Balanced unsymmetric laminates
Lu
[ sym
~~~ L33
~~~] [~]
w
[~]P
With A 16 = A26 = 0 only the operators Lu, L22 and L12 of 1. can be simpli-
fied.
6. Cross-ply unsymmetric laminates
Lu
[ sym
~~~ L33
t~] [~]
w
[~]
p
In addition to 5., 0 16,026 , B16 and B26 are zero, i.e. all operators of 1. can be
simplified.
D. Differential Operators for Rectangular Plates
(Shear Deformation Theory)
1. General unsymmetrical laminate s
[[11 ~\2 ~13 ~14

L22 L2 3 L24 0 ] [U]
V
=
m
[ 33 [ 34 [ 35 0/1
[44 [45 0/2
S y M [ 55 W
446 D. Differential Operators for Rectangular Plates (Shear Deformation Theory)
2. General symmetric laminates

Bij = 0, i.e. [13 = [31, [14 = [41, [23 = [32 and [24 = [42 are zero
U~~ E~~] [~] = 0
3. Cross-ply symmetric laminates

In addition to 2. both D 16, D26 and A 16 , A26, A 45 are zero.
E. Differential Operators for Circular Cylindrical
shells (Classical Shell Theory)
1. General unsymmetri cal laminates

L 2
L 11L12 13 ]
L22 L23
[U]
V = -
[px]
p,
a
+ Po at [U]
v
[ 2
SYM L 33 w pz W
a2 a2 a2
L11 = All ax2 + 2A axas + A as 2 '
16 66
2
- 1 ) (J2 ) a
L12 = ( A 16 + R B16 -a2
Xl
+( -1 -1
A 12 + R B12 + A 66 + R B66 -aa
X S
a2
+ (A26 + R- 1B26) as2 '
L13 = R- 1A16-
a + R - 1A26-a - B11-
a3
- 3B 16 -2as
(p
-
ax as 3 ax ax
a3 a3
- (B12 + B66) axas 2 - B26 as 3 '
axa 2
2
L 22 = (A 66 + 2R- 1B66 + R- 20 66)
a2
+ 2(A26 + 2R - 1B26 + 2R- 2026) axas
+ (A22 + 2R- 1B22 + R- 20 22) as 2 '
a2
L23 = R- 1(A 26 + R- 1B26) axa + R- 1(A22 + R- 1B22) asa

1 a3 1(012 a3
- (B16 + R- 0 16)ax3 - [B12 + 2B66 + R- + 20 66)] ax2as
10 a3 10 a3
- 3(B26 + R- 26) axas 2 - (B22 + R- 22) as 3
2(A 1 1 a2 1 a2 1 a2
L33 = R- 22 + R- B22) + 2R- B12 ax 2 + 4R- B26 axas + 2R- B22 as 2
448 E. Differential Operators for Circular Cylindrical shells (Classical Shell Theory)
d4 d4 d4
- 011 dx 4 - 16
40 dx 3ds - 2( 012 20
+ 66) dx 2ds2
d4 d4
26 22
- 40 dxds 3 - 0 ds4
2. General symmetrical laminate s
All Bij = 0, but the matrix [LijJ is full populated, i.e. all [LijJ are nonequal
zero. Note that for general symmetrically laminated circular cylindrical shells
there is a coupling of the in-plane and out-of-plane displacements and stress
resultants .
3. Cross-ply symmetrical laminates
Bij = 0, A 16 = A26 = 0, 0 16 = 0 26 = a
4. Cross-ply antisymmetrical laminate s
B22 = -B 11 , all other Bij = 0, A 16 = A26 = 0, 0 16 = 0 26 = a
5. Axisymmetric deformations of symmetrical cross-ply laminates
Additional to 3. all derivative dIds and v are taken zero and yield
L12 = L13 = L23 =a
F. Differential Operators for Circular Cylindrical
Shells (Shear Deformation Theory)
1. General unsymmetrical laminates

450 F. Differential Operators for Circular Cylindrical Shells (Shear Deformation Theory)
- (J2 d2 d2 s
L 44 = D 66 dx2 + 2D 26 dXds + D 22 ds2 - A 44,
- 45
L ( 1
= B26 R
s)ddX + (B22 R1 - A 44s)ddS'
- A 45
_ d2 d2 1
L55 = Ass dx 2 + 2A45 dXds - A 22) R2
LSI = - LIS, L52 = - L25 , L53 = - L35 , L54 = - L45 ,

A~4 = ~4A44, A§5 = k§5 A55' A~5 = Jk~4k§5A45
2. Cross-ply symmetrical laminates
Bij = 0, i, j = 1,2,6,
A 16 = A 26 = A 45 = 0, D 16 = D 26 = 0
3. Cross-ply antisymmetrical laminates
B22 = - B11 , all other Bij = 0, i. j = 1,2,6,
A 16 = A 26 = A 45 = 0, D 16 = D 26 = 0
G. Solution Forms of the Differential Equation
w"" - kiw" + k~w == 0
I. k~ > ki
1\:1 = -1\:2 = a + ib, 1\:3 = -1\:4 = a - ib,
a= 2.1 (k22 + k2)1 ' b= ~(k2

2 2
_k2 )
1
'h = cosh ax cos bx, P2 = sinh ax sin bx,

P3 = cosh ax sin bx, P4 = sinh ax cos bx
or
PI = e- ax cos bx, P2 = e- ax sin bx,
P3 = eax sin bx, P4 = eax cos bx
PI = cosh ax, P2 = cosh bx,

P3 = sinh ax, P4 = sinh bx
or
PI = e- ax , P2 = e- bx,
P3 = eax , P4 = e
bx
1\:1 = 1\:2 = a,
PI = coshax, P2 = x sinh ax,

P3 = sinh ax, P4 = x cosh ax
or
PI = e- ax , P2 = xeax ,
P3 = eax , P4 = xeax
452 G. Solution Forms of the Differential Equation w"" - kiw" + k~w = a
Relationships for the functions q,i, k~ < kI

a) Symmetric solutions
q,(x) = q,(-x)
~ q,1 = cosh ax cos bx, q,2 = sinh ax sin bx, q,3 = q,4 = 0,
Phi'; = aq,4 - bq,3,
q,~ = (a2 - b2)q,1 - 2abq,2,
q,~' = a(a2 - 3b2)q,4 + b(b2 - 3a2)q,3,
q,; = aq,3 + bq,4,
q,~ = (a2 - b2)q,2 + 2abq,I,
q,~' = a(a 2 - 3b2)q,3 - b(b2 - 3a2)q,4
b) Solutions with negative exponents

q,1 = e- ax cos bx, q,2 = e- ax sin bx,
q,~ = -(bq,2 +aq,I), q,; = -(bq,1 +aq,2),
q,~ = _(a 2 - b2)q,1 + 2abq,2, q,~ = (a2 - b2)q,2 - 2aM I,
q,~' = -a(a 2 - 3b2)q,1 + b(b2 - 3a2)q,2,
q,~' = -a(a 2 - 3b 2)q,2 - b(b2 - 3a2)q,1

H. Material's properties
Below material properties for classical materials, for the constituents of various
composites and for unidirectional layers are presented . The information about the
properties were taken from different sources. Amon g others the following Hand-
books. Textbooks and Monograph s are used:
I. W. Beitz, K.-H. Kuttner (Eds): Dubbel- Taschenbuch fur den Maschinenbau . -
Springer: Berlin et aI., 1990
2. J.-M- Berthelot: Composite Materials. Springer: New York, 1999
3. H. Czichos (Ed.): Hutte - Die Grundlagen der Ingenieurwi ssenschaften . -
Springer: Berlin et aI., 1991
4. M.W. Hyer: Stress Analysis of Fiber-Reinforced Composite Materials. - Boston
et al.: McGraw-Hill, 1998
5. Y.Y. Vasiliev and E.Y. Morozov: Mechanics and Analysis of Composite Mate-
rials. - Amsterdam: Elsevier, 200 I
6. G.I. Zagainov and G.E. Lozino-Lozinski (Eds): Comp osite Materials in
Aerospace Design. - London et al.: Chapman & Hall, 1996
Note that the presentation of material data in a unique way is not so easy due to the
incompleteness of material data in the original sources. This means that there are
some empty places in the above following tables. The authors of this textbook were
unable to fill out these places. Another problem is connected with the different unit
systems in the original sources. For recalculation approximate relation s are used
(e.g. I kgf ~ 10 N).
With respect to the quick changes in application compo site material s all material
data are only examples showing the main tendencies. Every year new materials are
developed and for the material data one have to contact directly the companies.
.j>.
VI
.j>.
;:r:
Table B.1. Ma terial prope rties of convent ion al mat erials at roo m temperature (bulk form ), after [I] and [3] z
~
::I.
Den sity Youn g 's modulus Maximum specific Ultimate strength Maximu m spe cific Coe fficient of therm al
modulus strength
e
rJo'
expa nsion
'0
p E E/p CTu CTu /p It
(g/c rrr") (GPa ) (MN m/k g) (MP a) (kNm/kg) (10 - 6 / 0 K)
.g
a.
Ol
rJo
Ste el 7.8-7 .85 180-210 27 340-2100 270 13
Gray cas t iro n 7.1-7.4 64-1 8 1 25 140-490 69 9-12
Alu minium 2.7-2.85 69-72 27 140-620 230 23
Titan ium 4.4-4. 5 110 25 1000-1200 273 II
Magnesium 1.8 40 22 260 144 26
Beryllium 1.8- 1.85 300-320 173 620-700 389
Nickel 8.9 200 22 400-500 56 13
Zirconium 6.5 100 15 390 60 5 .9
Tantalum 16.6 180 II 275 17 6.5
Tungsten 19.3 350 18 1100-4100 2 12 6.5
Glass 2.5 70 28 700-2 100 840 3.5-5 .5
Table B.2. Material properties of fibre materials, after [4]
Density Young's Maximum Ultimate Maximum specific Coefficient of thermal Diameter

modulu s specific modulus strength strength expansion (fibre direction)
p E E/p CTu CTu/p IX d
(g/crrr') (GPa) (MNm/kg) (MPa) (kNm/kg) (10- 6 / 0 K (fl m)
E-Glass 2.54 72.4 29 3450 1358 5 8-14

C-Glass 2.49 68.9 28 3160 1269 7.2
S-Glass 2.49 85.5 34 4600 1847 5.6 10
Carbon
Intermediate 1.78- 1.82 228-276 155 2410-2930 1646 -0.1- -0.5 8-9
modulu s
High modulu s 1.67-1.9 331-400 240 2070-2900 1736 -1- -4 5-7
High strength 1.85 240 130 3500 1892 -1- -4 5-7
Polymeric fibres p::

Kevlar-29 1.44 62 43 2760 1917 -2 12 a::~
(l>
Aramid (Kevlar-49) 1.48 131 89 2800-3792 2562 -2 12 ::1.
Spec tra 900 0.97 117 121 2580 2660 38
e:.
,,:
"0
Boron 2.63 385 146 2800 1065 4 100-140

.g
Boron Carbide 2.5 480 192 2100-2500 1000 50 ~.
[Il
Boron Nitride 1.9 90 47 1400 737 7

Titanium Carbide 4.9 450 92 1500 306 280 .j:>.
Ul
Ul
Table B.3. Material properties of matrix and core materials, after [4] +:>
VI
0'1
Density Young's modulus Shear modulus Young's modulus Ultimate strength Coefficient of thermal
(tension) (compres sion) expansion ::r:
p Et G £C (Ju IX
(g/cm-') (GPa) (GPa) (GPa) (MPa) (10- 6 / 0 K)
a::
~
;:l .
~
",'
Thermosetting polymer s
Polyester 1.2-1.3 3-4.2 0.7-2 90-250 40-90 80-150 a
"0
<0
Vinyl ester 1.15 3-4 127 65-90 80-150 ;::l,
Bismaleimide 1.32 3.6 1.8 200 48-78 49

s
'"
Polyimide 1.43-1.89 3.1-4.9 70-120 90
Epoxy 1.1-1.6 3-6 1.1-1.2 100-200 30-100 45-80
Thermoplastic polymers
PEEK 1.32 3.6 1.38 140 92-100 47
PPS 1.34 2.5 70-75 54-100
Polysulfone 1.24 2.5 70-75 56-100
Polypropylene 0.9 1-1.4 0.38-0 .54 25-38 110
Nylon 1.14 1.4-2.8 0.54-1.08 34 60-75 90
Polcarbonate 1.06-1.2 2.2-2.4 86 45-70 70
Ceramics
Borosilicate glass 2.3 64 26.4 100 3
Balsa wood 0.1-0.19 2-6 8-18

Polyst yrene 0.03-0.07 0.02-0.03 0.25-1.25
Table B.4. Material properties of selected unidirectional composites
E-Glassl S-Glassl Kevlarl Boronl Carbon

epoxy epoxy epoxy epoxy epoxy
Fibre volume fraction vf 0.55 0.50 0.6 0.5 0.63

Density (g/cm'' ) 2.1 2.0 1.38 2.03 1.58
Longitudinal modulus EL (GPa) 39 43 87 20 1 142
Transverse modulus ET (GPa) 8.6 8.9 5.5 21.7 10.3
In-plane shear modulu s GLT(GPa) 3.8 4.5 2.2 5.4 7.2
Major Poisson' s ratio VLT 0.28 0.27 0.34 0.17 0.27
Minor Poisson's ratio vtt. 0.06 0.06 0.02 0.02 0.02
Longitudinal ultimate stress CTLu (MPa) 1080 1280 1280 1380 2280 ;:r:
Transverse ultimate stress CTTu (MPa) 39 49 30 56 57 ~
~
In-plane ultimate shear stress CTLTu (MPa) 89 69 49 62 71 g.
e:..
Longitudinal thermal expansion coefficients «i. (10- 6 /° K) 7 5 -2 6.1 -0.9 ""
'"0
Transverse thermal expansion coefficient «t (10- 6 /° K) 21 26 60 30 27

0
'"0
(1)
a.
(1)
'"
.j:>
Ul
-.J
oj:>.
Ul
00
;I:
~
~
(;
Table B.5. Typical properties of unidirectional composites as functions of the fibre volume fraction, after [5] ;:l .
eo.
Glass/ Carboni Carboni Aramid/ Boronl Boron/ Carboni A1203/ ""
'0
epoxy epoxy PEEK epoxy epoxy aluminium carbon aluminium a
'0
co
::<
Fibre volume fraction vf 0.65 0.62 0.6 1 0.6 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.6 o'
'"
Density p (g/crrr') 2. 1 1.55 1.6 1.32 2.1 2.65 1.75 3.45
Longitudinal modulus EL (OPa) 60 140 140 95 210 260 170 260
Transverse modul us ET (OPa) 13 II 10 5.1 19 140 19 150
In-plane shear modulu s GLY (OPa) 3.4 5.5 5.1 1.8 4.8 60 9 60
Major Poisson 's ratio VLT 0.3 0.27 0.3 0.34 0.21 0.3 0.3 0.24
Longitudinal ultimate tensile stress (lL (GPa) 1.8 2 2.1 2.5 1.3 1.3 0.34 0.7
Longitudinal ultimate compressive stress (lEu (OPa) 0.65 1.2 1.2 0.3 2 2 0.18 3.4
Transverse ultimate tensile stress (l}u (OPa) 0.04 0.05 0.075 0.03 0.07 0.14 0.007 0.19
Transverse ultimate compressive stress (lfu (OPa) 0.09 0.17 0.25 0.13 0.3 0.3 0.05 0.4
In-plane ultimate shear stress CTLTu (OPa) 0.05 0.07 0.16 0.03 0.08 0.09 0.03 0.12
I. References
1.1 Selected Textbooks and Monographs on Composite

Mechanics
1. Adams, D.P., L.A. Carlsson, R.B. Pipes: Experimental Characterization of

Advanced Composite Materials . CRC Press, Boca Raton, 3rd edition, 2003.
2. Agarwal, B.D., LJ. Broutman: Analysis and Performance ofFibre Composites .
John Wiley & Sons, New York et al., 2. edition, 1990.
3. Altenbach, H., J. Altenbach, R. Rikards : Einfiihrung in die Mechanik
der Laminat- und Sandwichtragwerke - Modellierung und Berechnung von
Balken und Platten aus Verbundwerkstoffen. Dt. VerI. fur Grundstoffindustrie,
Stuttgart, 1996.
4. Altenbach, H., J. Altenbach, W. Kissing: Structural Analysis of Laminate and
Sandwich Beams and Plates. Lubelskie Towarzystwo Naukove, Lublin, 2001.
5. Altenbach, H., W. Becker (Eds): Modern Trends in Composite Laminates Me-
chanics. CISM Courses and Lectures . Springer, Wien, New York, 2003.
6. Ashbee K.: Fundamental Principles of Reinforced Composites. Technomic,
Lancaster, Basel, 1994.
7. Becker, W.: Beitrdge zur analytischen Behandlun g ebener Laminate . HabiI.-
Schrift, TH Darmstadt 1993.
8. Bergmann, H.W.: Konstruktionsgrundlagen fur Faserverbundbaute ile. Sprin-
ger, Berlin u.a., 1992.
9. Berthelot, J.-M.: Composite Materials. Mechanical Behaviour and Structure
Analysis . Springer, New York et aI., 1999.
10. Bogdanovich, A.E., CM. Pastore: Mechanics of Textile and Laminated Com-
posite. With Applications to Structural Analysis. Chapman & Hall, London ,
1996.
II. Buhl, H. (Ed.): Advanced Aerospace Materials . Materials Research and Engi-
neering. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, 1992.
12. Chawla, K.K.: Composite Materials . Materials Research and Engineering.
Springer, New York et aI., 1987.
13. Chou, T.- W.: Microstructural Design ofFibre Composites. Cambridge Univer-
sity Press, Cambridge, 1992.
14. Chung, D.D.L.: Composite Materials: Functional Materials for Modern Tech-
nologies . Springer, London, 2003.
460 I. References
15. Daniel, I.M., O. Ishai: Engineering Mechani cs of Composite Materials. Oxford

University Press, New York, Oxford, 1994.
16. Davie s, J.M. (Ed.): Lightweight Sandw ich Construction . Blackwell Science,
Oxford et al., 2001.
17. Decolon, C.: Analysis of Composite Structures. HPS, London , 2002.
18. Delh aes, P. (Ed.): Fibres and Composites. Taylor & Francis , London, 2003 .
19. Dimitrienko, Yu.I.: Thermomechanics of Comp osites under High Temperature.
Kluwer Academi c Publishers, Dordrecht, 1999
20. Ehren stein , G.W.: Faserverbund -Kunststoffe. Hanser, Miinch en, Wien, 1992.
21. Friedri ch,.K. (Ed.): Application ofFracture Mechan ics to Composite Materials.
Bd.6 Composite Material Series Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1991.
22. Gay, D.: Composite Mat erials: Design and Applications . CRC Press, Boca
Raton , 200 2.
23. Geier, M.H.: Quality Handb ookfor Composite Mat erials . Chapman & Hall,
London et al., 1994.
24. Gibson , R.E : Principles ofComposite Material Mechani cs. McGraw-Hill, New
York et al., 1994.
25. Gibson, R.E: Dynam ic Mechanical Behavior of Compo site Materials and
Structures. CRC Press, Boca Raton, 2002.
26. Gurtal, Z., Haftka, R.T., Hajela, P.: Design and Optimization of Lami nated
Comp osite Mat erials. John Willy & Sons Inc. New-York, 1999.
27. Harper, C.A . (Ed.): Handbook of Plastics. Elastomers. and Composites.
McGraw-Hill, New York et al., 4th edition, 2002 .
28. Harri s, B.: Engineering Composite Material s. 10M Communi cations Ltd.,
Lond on, 2nd edition , 1999.
29. Hoa, S.Y.: Analysis f or Design of Fiber Reinforced Plastic Vessels and Pipes.
Techn ornic, Lancaster, Basel, 1991.
30. Hoa, S.Y., Wei Fang: Hyb rid Finite Element Methodfor Stress Ana lysis of Lam -
inated Comp osites. Kluwer Academic Publi shers. Dordrecht, 1998.
31. Holl away, L.: Polymer Composites for Civil and Structural Engineering.
Blacki e Academic & Professional, London et al., 1993.
32. Hult , J., EG. Rammersdorfer (Eds): Engineering Mechani cs of Fibre Rein-
f orced Polymers and Composite Structures. CISM Courses and Lectures No.
348. Springer, Wien, New York, 1994.
33. Hyer, M.W.: Stress Analysis of Fibre-R einforced Composite Materials.
McGraw-Hill, 1998.
34. Hull , D., T.W. Clyne: An Introdu ction to Comp osite Material s. Camb ridge Uni-
versity Press. 2nd Ed., 1996.
35. Jones, R.M.: Mechanics of Composite Materials. Taylor & Francis, London,
1999.
36. Kachanov, L.M .: Delam ination Buckling of Comp osite Mat erials. Mechanics
of Elastic Stabil ity, Vol. 14. Kluwer, Dordrecht, Boston, London, 1988.
37. Kalamkarov, A.L. : Comp osite and Reinf orced Elements of Construction . Wiley
& Sons, Chich ester et al., 1992.
1.1 Selected Textbooks and Monographs on Composite Mechanics 461
38. Kaw, AK: Mechanics of Composite Materials. CRC Press, Boca Rotan, New
York, 1997.
39. Kim, D.-H.: Composite Structures for Civil and Architectural Engineering.
E&FN SPaN, London et aI., 1995.
40. Kollar, L.P., G.S. Springer: Mechani cs of Composite Structures. Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge, 2003.
41. Matthews, EL., R.D. Rawlings: Composite Materials: Engineering and Sci-
ence . Chapman & Hall, London et aI., 1994.
42. Matthews, EL. , Davies, G.AO., Hitching, D., Soutis, e.: Finite Element Mod-
elling of Composite Materials and Structures. CRC Press. Woodhead Publish-
ing Limited, Cambridge, 2000.
43. Michaeli, W., D. Huybrechts, M. Wegener: Dimensionieren mit Faserverbund-
kunststoffen. Hanser, Miinchen, Wien, 1994.
44. Milton, G. w.: The Theory of Composites. Cambridge University Press, Cam-
bridge, 2002.
45. Moser, K : Faser-Kunststoff- Verbund. VDI-Verlag, DUsseldorf, 1992.
46. Nawaz, G.M. (Ed.): Delamination in Advanced Composites. Technomic, Lan-
caster, 1991.
47. Nethercot, D.A: Composite Construction. Spon Press, New York, 2003.
48. Ochoa, 0 .0., J.N. Reddy: Finite Element Analysis of Composite Laminates.
Solid Mechanics and its Applications, Vol. 7. Kluwer , Dordrecht, Boston, Lon-
don, 1992.
49. Plantema, EJ. : Sandwich Constructions. John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1966.
50. Powell, P.e. : Engineering with Fibre-polymer Laminates. Chapman & Hall,
London et aI., 1994.
51. Puck, A : Festigkeitsanalyse an Faser-Matrix-Laminaten: Realistische
Bruchkriterien und Degradationsmodelle . Hanser, M"unchen, 1996.
52. Reddy, J.N.: Mechanics ofLaminated Composite Plates - Theory and Analysis.
CRC Press, Boca Rotan et aI., 1997.
53. Reddy, J.N., A Miravete: Practical Analysis of Composite Laminates. CRC
Press, Boca Rotan et aI., 1995.
54. Rohwer, K.: Modelle und Methoden zur Berechnung von Lam inaten aus unidi-
rektionalen Faserverbunden . Fortschriu-Berichte VDI: Reihe 1 Konstruktion-
stechnik, Maschinenelemente Nr. 264. VDI-Verlag, DUsseldorf, 1996.
55. Schulte, K, B. Fiedler:: Structure and Properties of Composite Materials.
TUHH-Technologie GmbH, Hamburg, 2003.
56. Sih, G.e., A. Carpinteri, G. Surace (Eds): Advanced Technology for Design
and Fabrication ofComposite Materials and Structures. Engng. AppI. of Fract.
Mech., Vo1.l4. Kluwer Academic PubI., Dordrecht, Boston, London, 1995.
57. Sih, G.e., AM. Skudra (Eds): Failure Mechanics of Composites. Handbook of
Composites, Bd. 3. North-Holland , Amsterdam, New York, Oxford, 1985.
58. Talreja, R. (Ed.): Damage Mechanics of Composite Materials. Composite
Materials Series, Vol. 9. Elsevier, Amsterdam et aI., 1994.
462 I. References
59 . Tamopolski, Y.M., T. Kinci s: Test Methods f or Composites. Van Nostrand

Reinhold, New York , 1985.
60. Tsai, S.w.: Composites Design. Think Composites, Dayton, Paris, Tokyo,
1988.
61. Thurley, OJ ., Marshall, I.H. : Buckling and Postbuckling of Composite Plates.
Chapm an & Hall, London, 1995.
62 . Vasiliev, Y.Y. , Jones, R.M. (EngI. Ed. Editor): Mechanics of Composite Struc-
tures. Taylor & Francis, Washington, 1993.
63. Vasiliev, Y.Y. , Moro zov, E.Y.: Mechanics and Analysis of Composite Materials.
Elsevier, Lond on, 2001.
64. Vinson , J.R.: The Behavior of Shells Composed of Isotropic and Composite
Materials. Solid Mechanics and its Applications, Vol. 18. Kluwer, Dordre cht ,
Boston, London, 1993.
65 . Vinson , J.R ., R.L. Sierakowski: The Behavior of Structures Composed of Com-
posite Materials. Kluwer, Dordrecht et aI., 2nd edition, 2002 .
66 . Whitney, J.M., R.L. McCullough : Micromechanical Materials Modelling.
Delaware Composites Design Encyclo pedia, Bd. 2. Techn omic, Lancaster,
Basel, 1990 .
67. Whitney, J.M .: Structural Analysis of Laminated Anisotropic Plates. Technomic
Publ ishing Co. Inc., Lancaster, 1987.
68 . Ye, J.: Laminated Composi te Plates and Shells: 3D Modelling. Sprin ger , Lon -
don et aI., 2003 .
69 . Zweben, c., H.T. Hahn , T.-W. Chou : Mechanical Behavior and Properties
of Composite Materials. Delaware Composites Design Enc yclopedia, Bd. I.
Technomic, Lanc aster, Basel, 1989.
1.2 Supplementary Literature for Further Reading

1. Altenb ach, H., J. Alte nbac h, K. Naumenko: Ebene Fliichentragwerke - Grund-
lagen der Modellierung und Berechnung von Scheiben und Platten. Springer-
Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg , New York , 1998.
2. Altenbach, J., H. Altenbach: Einfiihrun g in die Kontinuumsmechanik. Teubner
Studi enbiicher Mechanik , B.O. Teubn er, Stuttgart, 1994
3. Altenbach, J., W. Kissing, H. Altenb ach : Diinnwandige Stab- und Stabschalen-
tragwerke. Vieweg-Verlag , BraunschweiglWiesbaden, 1994.
4. Altenbach, H., 1. Altenbach, A. Zoloch evsky: Erweiterte Def ormationsmodelle
und Versagenskriterien der Werkstoffm echanik. Deutscher Verlag fiir Grund-
stoffindustrie, Stuttgart, 1995.
5. Ambarcum yan , S.A .: Theory ofAnisotropic Plates: Strength, Stability, and Vi-
brations. Hemispher Publ ishin g, Washington, 1991.
6. Betten, J.: Kontinuumsmechanik. Springer-Verlag. Berlin , Heidelberg, New
York , 2nd edition, 2001.
7 . Bett en, J. Finite Elemente fu r Ingenieure - Grundlagen, Matrixmethoden, Kon-
tinuum. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heid elberg, New York, 2nd edit ion, 2003 .
1.3 Selected Review Articles 463
8. Haupt, P.: Continuum Mechanics and Theory of Materials. Springer-Verlag.

Berlin, Heidelberg, New York, 2nd edition, 2002
9. Lekhnitskii , S.G.: Anisotropic Plates. Gordon and Breach Science Publishers,
London, 1968 .
10. Lekhnitskij , S.G .: Theory of Elasticity ofan Anisotropic Body . Mir Publishers,
Mo scow, 1981.
II. Lewin ski, T., J.1. Telega : Plates, Laminates and Shells Asymptotic Analysis and
Homogenization. World Scientific, Singapore, 2000.
12. Wlassow, V.S.: Allgemeine Schalentheorie und ihre Anwendun g in der Technik.
Akademie-Verlag, Berlin , 1958.
13. Zienkiewicz, o.c., R.L. Taylo r: The Finite Element Method, Vol. 2: Solid Me-
chanics. McGraw Hill , Oxford, 5th edition, 2000.
1.3 Selected Review Articles

I. Altenbach, H.: Modelli erung des Deformationsverhaltens mehrs chichtiger Flii-
chentragwerke - ein Uberblick zu Forschungsrichtungen und -tendenzen. Wiss.
Ztschr. TH Magdebu rg 32(4): 86 - 94, 1988 .
2. Bert , C.W.A. A critical evaluation of new plate theories applied to laminated
composites. Compo Struc. 2, 329 - 347, 1984.
3. Carrera, E., L. Dem asi, M. Manganello : Assessment of plate elements on bendi -
jng and vibration of composite structures. Mech. of Adv. Mat. and Struct. 9, 333
- 357, 2002.
4. Chri sten son, R.M.: A survey ofand evaluation methodologyfor Fiber Compos-
ite Material Failure Theories. In "Mechanics for a New Millennium", Eds H.
Aref and J.W Philips, 25 - 40, 1998.
5. Ha , K.H.: Finite element analysis of sandwich construction: a critical review.
Sandwich Con struction 1,69 - 85, 1989.
6. Failure criteria in fibre-reinforced polymer composites. Special Issue of Com-
posites Science and Technology 58, 1998.
7. Hashin , Z.: Analysis of composite materials - A Survey. Trans. AS ME. J. Appl.
Mech. 50 : 481 - 505 , 1983.
8. Hohe, J., W. Becker: Effective stress-strain relations for two-dim ensional cel-
lular sandwich cores: Homogeni zation, material models, and properties. Appl.
Mech. Rev. 54 : 61 - 87, 2001.
9. Irschik, H.: On vibration of layered beams and plates. ZAMM 73 (4-5), T34-
T45 ,1993.
10. Leissa, WW : A review of laminated composite plate bucklin g. Appl. Mech .
Rev. 40 (5), 575 - 590, 1987.
II . Lui, M ., P. Habip: A survey of modem developments in the analysis ofsandwich
structures. Appl. Mech. Rev. 18(2),93 - 98 ,1965 .
12. Mall ikarguwa, T. Kant: A critical review and some results of recently devel-
oped refined theories of fiber-reinforced laminated compos ites and sandwiches.
Compo Structures 23, 293 - 312 ,1993.
464 I. References
13. Nahas, M.N.: Survey offailure and post-failure theories of laminated fibre-
reinforced composi tes. J. Compo sites Technology & Research 8: 138 - 153,
1986.
14. Naumenko, K., J. Altenbach, H. Altenbach, Y.K. Naumenko: Closed and ap-
proximate analytical solutions for rectangular Mindlin plates. Acta Mechanica
147: 153 - 172, 2001.
15. Noor, A.K., W.S. Burton : Ass essment of shear def ormation theories f or multi-
layered composi te plates. Appl. Mech. Rev. 41(1): 1 - 13, 1989.
16. Noor, A.K., W.S. Burton, C.W. Bert: Computational models f or sandwich pan -
els and shells. Appl. Mech. Rev. 49(3), 155 - 199,1996.
17. Noor, A.K., W.S. Burton , J.U . Peters: Assessment of computational models
for multilayered composite cylinders. Int. J. Solids Structure s, 27 (10), 1269
- 1286, 1991.
18. Vinson, J.R.: Sandwi ch structures. Appl. Mech . Rev. 54(3), 201 - 214,2001 .
19. Redd y, J.N.: A review of refined theories of laminated composite plates. Shock
Vibr. Dig. 22: 3 - 17, 1990.
20. Redd y, J.N.: An evaluation of equivalent-single-layer and layer theories of com-
po site laminat es. Composite Structures 25, 21 - 35, 1993.
21. Redd y, J.N., Robbins Jr., D.H. Theories and computational models fo r compos -
ite laminates. Appl. Mech. Rev. 47 (6) 147 - 169,1 994.
22. Rohwer, K. Computational models fo r laminated composites. Z. Flugwiss. Wel-
traumforsch. 17, 323 - 330 , 1993.
Index
Airy stress function, 262 collocation method, 66

analytical approximate solutions, compatibility conditions, 55
- Galerkin's method, 66 compliance hypermatrix , 126
- Kantorovich's method , 66 compliance matrix, 23, 25, 32
- Ritz' method, 62 compliance modulus, 18
- Vlasov's method , 66 compliance submatrix, 126
anisotropy constitutive equations, 55
- curvilinear, 45 - of the lamina resultants, 109
- cylindrical, 45 contraction, 18
- general, 2 1 coordinate functions, 63
- rectilinear, 45 coupling inertia term, 270
approximation function, 63 curvatures, 166,253, 254
cylindrical bending, 278, 292
beam,
- Bernoulli 's model, 206 d' Alambert principle, 61
- generalized model, 34 1, 343 damping matrix, 380
- Timoshenko's model, 206 delamination, 184
- Vlasov' s model, 341 density, 7
beam equations, 210, 222 displacement, 54
beam resultants, 207, 2 10 - virtual, 57
beam shaped shell, 339 displacement method, 59
bending
- beam (CLT), 2 10 effective compliance, 19
- beam (FSDT), 222 effective hygrothermal coefficients, 96
- plate (CLT), 254 effective modu li, 16
- - cylindrical, 278 effective stiffness, 19
- plate (FSDT), 268 elastic constants, 37
- - cylindrical, 292 elasticity tensor, 21
- cylindrical shell (CLT), 3 19 energy principl es, 57
- cylindrical shell (FSDT), 329 engineering constants , 31
bending stress, 109 equilibrium equations
bending-layer solution, 322 - dynamic, 53, 56
buckling, - static, 53, 56
- beam (CLT), 2 15 equivalent single layer theory (ESLT), 161
- beam (FSDT), 225 - higher order, 162
- plate (CLT), 259, 266 extended Vlasov-Kantorowich method, 67
- plate (FSDT), 271 extensional strains, 17, 19
- cylindrical shell (CLT), 3 17 external virtual work, 57
- cylindrical shell (FSDT), 325 extrema l principles, 57
bulk modulus, 37
face wrinkling, 236
classical laminate theory (CLT), 161,252 failure,
466 Index
- basic modes, 188 kinetic energy, 61

- first ply, 188, 197 Kirchhoff's hypotheses, 252, 344
- last ply, 197 Kirchhoff' s plate, 252
failure criteria, Kirchhoff 's shear force resultant, 255
- Hoffman's criterion, 195 Krylov method, 362
- maximum strain criteri on, 191
- maximum stress criterion , 189 Lagrange function, 61
- Puck 's criterion, 200 Lame coefficients, 37
- Tsai-Hill criterion , 192, 193 lamina, 9
- Tsai-Wu criterion, 193 laminae
finite elements, 377 - unidirectional (UD), 92
- beam, 383 laminate, 9
- generalized beam, 404 - angle-ply, 122, 137
- plate, 393 - antisymmetric, 121, 138
finite element procedure, 378 - - balanced, 138
first order shear deformation theory (FSDT), - - cross-ply, 138
161, 163,220,267,273, 325,399 - asymmetric, 122
flexibility matrix , 23 - balanced, 122, 138
flexibility modulu s, 18 - cross-ply, 122, 138
folded plate structure, 339, 342 - general, 122, 138
force method, 59 - isotropic, 139
force resultant, 3 18 - quasi-isotropic, 138
forces - specially orthotropic, 252
- in-plane, 106 - stacking code, 121
- transverse, 108 - symmetric, 121, 122,1 35
fracture modes -- angle-ply, 121
- interlaminar, 184 - - balanced, 132
- intralaminar, 184 - - cross-ply, 131
- translaminar, 184 - - isotropic, 131
- unsymmetric, 121
Galerkin's method , 66
laminate beam
generalized beam, 404
- symmetric, 22 1
generalized coo rdinate function, 348
laminate plate, 252
generalized coordinates, 63
- arbitrary stacking, 254
generalized displacement function, 348
- symmetric, 257
generalized mass density, 270
laminate theory
Hamilton 's principl e, 6 1 - classical, 165
higher order theory, 162 - first order, 163
Hoffman' s criterion, 195 - second order, 163
Hooke's law, 18 - third order, 163
- generalized, 21 layer, 9
hybrid criteria, 188 layerwise theory, 176
hygrothennalloading, 143, 236, 275 least-squares method , 66
limit criteria, 188
in-plane stress resultant , 106 Love's first-approximation shell theory, 317
interactive crite ria, 188, 191
interactive tensor polynomial criterion of macro-mechanical level, 9
Tsai-Wu, 188 macro-mechanical modelling, 9 1
internal virtual work, 57 macroscopic approach, 77
macroscopic level, II
Jacobi matrix, 395 mass matrix
- condensed, 380
kinemati c equations, 54, 56 - consistent, 380
Index 467
- symmetric, 379 - specially orthotropic, 260

material - symmetric, 261
- ceramics , 2 - vibration, 265
- composite plate element, 393
- metals, 2 plate strip, 279
- polymers, 2 - symmetrical laminated , 280
- - classification, 3 - unsymmetric laminated , 280
-- matrix, 5 plate theory
- - reinforcement, 3 - classical, 161
material structure , - - Kirchhoff, 161
- heterogeneous, 2 ply, 9
- homogeneous, 2 Poisson's effect, 280
- inhomogeneous, 2 Poisson 's ratio, 18
- monolithic , 3 - major, 82
material symmetrie s, - minor, 82
- anisotropic , 2 potential energy, 58
- isotropic, 2, 30, principle of complementary virtual work, 59
- monoclinic , 27, 39 principle of virtual displacements, 59
- monotropic, 27 principle of virtual forces , 59
- orthotropic, 29 principle of virtual work, 57, 58
- transversely isotropic, 30 prismatic structure , 343
- triclinic, 27 profile node concept, 406
membrane stress, 109 profile nodes
membrane theory, 324 - main, 406
method of initial parameters , 362 - secondary, 406
micro-mechanical level, 9
microscopic approach , 77 Rayleigh-Ritz method , 62
microscopic level, II reduced compliances, 42
Mindlin plate, 267 reduced stiffness, 41
modelling Reissner's plate theory, 173, 267
- one-dimensional, 339 Reissner's variational theorem, 60
- three-dimensional, 339 resultant
- two-dimensional, 339 - in-plane force, 253
moment resultant, 107 - moment, 253
multidirectional laminate, 120
- transverse shear force, 253
resultant moment vector, 107
node, 377
Reuss' estimate, 81
normal stress, 18, 19
Reuss' model, 19,80,82,83
number of degrees of freedom, 377
Ritz' approximation, 63, 65
off-axis case, 94 Ritz' method, 62
off-axis .loaded UD-Iamina, 97 rotation matrix, 23
on-axis case, 93 rotatory inertia, 225, 258
rules of mixture , 78, 83
plane strain state, 42 - inverse, 81
plane stress state, 40 iso-strain condition, 80
plate, - iso-stress condition , 80
- Kirchhoff's model, 252
- Mindlin 's model, 267 sandwich, 9
- Reissner's model, 267 - assumptions, 154
plate, 251 - beam , 226
- bending , 263 - plate, 273
buckling, 266 sandwich composites, 153
- moderately thick, 267 shape function, 378
468 Index
shear correction factor, 172 tensile flexibility, 18

- energetic estimate, 173, 224 tensile stiffness, 18
- Reuss' estimate, 226 theorem of Castigliano, 59
- Voigt's estimate, 226 thin-walled beam, 339
shear deformation theory, 267 Timoshenko's beam model, 220
shear lag effect, 342 - specialized, 358
shear modulus, 18,37 total virtual work, 57
shear strains, 17 transfer matrix, 364
- engineering, 20 transfer matrix method, 362
- tensoria l, 20 transformation matrix, 23, 25
shear stress, 18 translatory inertia, 225
shell, transverse shear deformation, 220
- circular cylindrical, 3 15 transverse shear resultant, 108
- - Kirchhoff-Love model, 317 trial function , 67
- - shear deformation model, 325 Tsai-Hill criterion, 192
- - membrane model, 324 Tsai-Wu criterio n, 193
-- semi-membrane model, 324
shell eleme nt, 377 variational statements, 57
- laminate, 413, 416 - d' Alambert's principle, 6 1
stacking codes of laminates, 120 - extremal principles, 59
stiffness matrix, 23 -- Hamilton's principle, 61
- bending , 124 - - minimu m of the total complementary
- coupli ng, 124 energy, 59
- extensional, 124 -- minimum of the total potential energy,
- transverse shear, 125 58
stiffness submatrix, 126 - Hellinger-Reissner principle, 60
strain tensor, 21 variational iteration method, 67
strain vector, 21 variational operations, 57
strain-displacement relations, 54 vibration ,
stress resultants, - beam (CLT), 215
- beam, 207 - beam (FSDT), 225
- plate, 255, 256 - plate (CLT), 258, 265
- shell,3 18 - plate (FSDT), 27 1
stress tensor, 2 1 - cylindrical shell (CLT), 319
stress vector, 21 - cylindrical shell (FSDT), 329
structural behavior Vlasov hypotheses, 341
- global , 340 Voigt estimate, 80
- local,340 Voigt model, 19, 80, 82, 83
submatrix
- bending, 130 warping, 340
- coupling, 13 1 weak form of the model equations, 62
- extensional, 130 weighted residual methods, 62, 66
tensile co mpliance, 18 Young's modu lus, 18, 37

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Prof. Dr.-Ing. Habil. Holm Altenbach, - Mechanics of Composite Structural Elements-Springer-Verlag Berli

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H. Altenbach . J. Altenbach . W.

Mechanics of Composite Structural Elements

With 123 Figures and 23 Tables

Prof. Dr.-Ing . habil. Dr. h.c. Johannes Altenbach

Prof. Dr.-Ing. habil. Wolfgang Kissing

ISBN 978-3-642-07411-0 ISBN 978-3-662-08589-9 (eBook)

Cataloging-in-Publication Dat a applied for

1. Classification of Composite Materials 1

2. Linear Anisotropic Materials 15

3. Effective Material Moduli for Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 77

4. Elastic Behavior of Laminate and Sandwich Composites 91

5. Classical and Improved Theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 161

6. Failure Mechanisms and Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183

7. Modelling and Analysis of Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 205

8. Modelling and Analysis of Plates 251

9. Modelling and Analysis of Circular Cylindrical Shells 315

10. Modelling and Analysis of Thin-walled Folded Structures 339

11. Finite Element Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377

11.3 Finite Plate Elements 393

A. Matrix Operations 435

B. Stress and strain transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 441

C. Differential Operators for Rectangular Plates (Classical Plate Theory) 443

D. Differential Operators for Rectangular Plates (Shear Deformation

E. Differential Operators for Circular Cylindrical shells (Classical Shell

F. Differential Operators for Circular Cylindrical Shells (Shear Defor-

G. Solution Forms of the Differential Equation Willi - kiw" + k~w = 0451

H. Material's properties 453

1.1 Examples of composite materials with different forms of constituents

3.1 Experimental testing of the mechanical properties of an UD-layer . . . . . 78

4.1 Unidirectional lamina with principal material axi s Land T (on-axis) .. 93

4.6 Resultant moment vector and transverse shear resultants 108

7.1 Rod/column/beam 206

7.13 Reinforced concrete beam loaded by pure bending 240

8.1 Rectangular plate 251

9.1 Circular cylindrical shell 316

10.1 Thin-walled prismatic folded plate structures with open or closed

11.1 Laminate truss element 383

11.13 Description of a general cross-section 406

B.l Rotation about the el-direction 442

4.1 Transformation rules of the coordinates, displacements, strains and

8.1 Plate equation, boundary conditions and stress resultants of symmet-

B.l Material propertie s of conventional materials at room temperature

Fibre reinforced polymer composite systems have become increasing important in

limitations. The Appendix H contains some values of the material characteristics of

1.1 Definition and Characteristics

Material science classifies structural materials into three categories

Furthermore, a material can depend on several constituents or phases, single

fibre reinforced particle reinforced

unidirectional bidirectional spatial random preferred

Fig. 1.2. Classification of composites

tions particulate reinforced composites are considered to be randomly oriented and

1.2 Significance and Objectives

Development and applications of composite materials and structural elements com-

as structural design and analysis, material science, mechanics of materials, process

foam core balsa wood core

foam core with fillers balsa wood core with holes

folded plates core honeycomb core

Fig. 1.3. Sandwich materials with solid and hollow cores

1.4 Material Characteristics of the Constituents

1.5 Advantages and Limitations

Additional advantages in the material performances of composites are low ther-

1. What is a composite and how are composites classified?

so-called effective moduli result in an engineering formulation of constitutive equa-