Ubc 2001-71439X

E M T P Modelling of Control and
Power Electronic Devices

by
BENEDITO DONIZETI B O N A T T O
M.A.Sc. in Electrical Engineering, State University of Campinas, Brazil, 1995.
.A.Sc. in Electrical Engineering, Federal School of Engineering of Itajuba, Brazil, 1991.
A THESIS S U B M I T T E D IN P A R T I A L F U L F I L L M E N T O F
THE REQUIREMENTS FOR T H E D E G R E E OF
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
in
T H E F A C U L T Y O F G R A D U A T E STUDIES
(Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering)
We accept this thesis as conforming

to the required standard
T H E UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA
October 2001
© Benedito Donizeti Bonatto, 2001

In presenting this thesis in partial fulfilment of the requirements for an advanced
degree at the University of British Columbia, I agree that the Library shall make it
freely available for reference and study. I further agree that permission for extensive
copying of this thesis for scholarly purposes may be granted by the head of my
department or by his or her representatives. It is understood that copying or
publication of this thesis for financial gain shall not be allowed without my written
permission.
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering

The University of British Columbia
Vancouver, B.C., Canada
DE-6 (2/88)
Abstract
The quality of the electric power delivered to customers by utilities may not be acceptable
for some types of sensitive loads, -which are typically power,electronics- and computer-based
loads, particularly in the control of industrial processes.'"-'There are cases where the increas-
ing use of power electronics to enhance process efficiency and controllability creates power
quality problems. The growing application of shunt capacitors for voltage support, power
factor correction, and system loss reduction, as well as the use of series capacitors (fixed
or controlled, for line reactance compensation) will increase the potential risk of transient
disturbance amplifications and potential electrical and mechanical resonances in the presence
of more and more power electronic devices, and of steam, and gas turbines in distributed and
co-generation power plants. As the natural order of the system grows, so does its ability
to oscillate more! At the same time, new power electronic devices also offer the means for
adequate "power conditioning", to meet the special requirements of electric power quality in
a system.
To evaluate the promising solutions offered with the introduction of more and more power
electronic devices in transmission and distribution systems, such as FACTS (Flexible AC
Transmission Systems) Controllers and Custom, Power Controllers, as well as to analyze
their interaction and, impact on either the load, or the network side, computer programs
based on the EMTP (Electromagnetic Transients Program) are becoming more useful. The
development of new EMTP-based models for representation of controls and power electronic
devices has been the main subject of this Ph.D. thesis project. Its main contributions are
summarized as follows:
• development of a "simultaneous solution for linear and nonlinear control and electric
power system equations" (SSCPS) in EMTP-based programs, through the compensation
method and the Newton-Raphson iterative algorithm. This solution method eliminates
not only the one time step delay problem at the interface between the solution of power
and control circuits, but also all the internal delays, which may exist in methods based
on the transient analysis of control systems (TACS) since 1977. A "circuit approach"
was proposed in this thesis, as an innovative alternative to the solution presented by
A. E. A. Araujo in 1993;
• experimental implementation in MicroTran® (the UBC version of the EMTP), based

on SSCPS, of a "simultaneous solution" for: linear and, nonlinear current and voltage
dependent sources; independent current and voltage sources, which can also be con-
nected between two ungrounded nodes; hard and soft limiters; transfer functions; math-
ematical and transcendental FORTRAN functions; special control devices and some
digital logic gates; transformation of variables (such as the abc to a/30 transformation
ii
ABSTRACT iii
and its inverse); voltage-controlled switches; nonlinear model of a diode semiconductor;
• development of the subroutine "GATE" in MicroTran, allowing the dynamic control

of the turn-on and turn-off times of semiconductor devices (e.g., thyristors, GTO's,
IGBT's, etc.), which are modeled as EMTP-based voltage-controlled switches;
• development of power electronics simulation cases in MicroTran, using the simultaneous

solution approach (SSCPS) for the dynamic control of semiconductor switching devices
(as in a three-phase six-pulse thyristor-controlled bridge rectifier, and a three-phase
PWM voltage source inverter (VSI)) and evaluation of current and voltage waveforms;
• interaction with a Brazilian utility company and industries for the realization and anal-
ysis of field measurements of electromagnetic phenomena affecting the quality of power,
such as voltage sags and voltage swells; harmonic current and voltage distortions; tran-
sients, etc., with determination of causes, consequences and investigation of possible
solutions for power quality problems, as for example, the application of Custom. Power
Controllers;
• synthesis of simulation guidelines for the evaluation of the impact of power electronic
devices on the quality of power, based on realistic field measurements and EMTP time
and frequency domain simulations.
The assessment of electric power quality, with the use of EMTP-based programs, and the
evaluation of the technical impact of power electronic devices on the quality of power, can
hopefully be performed with the models developed in this Ph.D. thesis project.
Contents
Abstract ii
List of Tables vi
List of Figures vii
Acknowledgements xii
Quote xiv
1 Electric Power Quality and Power Electronic Devices: An Overview 1

1.1 Introduction: Better Electricity Q u a l i t y at "Possibly" Lower Prices? 1
1.1.1 Computer Analysis and Simulation of Electric Power Q u a l i t y Phenomena 3
1.1.2 Electric Power Q u a l i t y M o n i t o r i n g 4
1.1.3 Power Q u a l i t y Standards 6
1.1.4 C u s t o m Power Related Publications 9
1.2 M o t i v a t i o n for Thesis Research 12
1.3 Contributions of this Research Project 13
2 Simultaneous Solution of Control and Electric Power System Equations

(SSCPS) in EMTP-based Programs 15
2.1 Previous Developments on Transient Analysis of Control Systems ( T A C S ) . . 15
2.2 Current and Voltage Dependent Sources i n E M T P - b a s e d Programs 18
2.2.1 Compensation M e t h o d 18
2.2.2 Dependent Sources 21
2.2.3 Ideal Transformers 32
2.2.4 Independent Sources 33
2.2.5 Newton-Raphson A l g o r i t h m 36
iv
CONTENTS v
2.2.6 Possible Applications 40

2.3 Development of Control Transfer Functions in EMTP-based Programs . . . . 42
2.4 Development of Limiters for Control Systems in EMTP-based Programs . . . 48
2.5 Development of Intrinsic F O R T R A N Functions in EMTP-based Programs . 54
2.6 Development of Control Devices in EMTP-based Programs 58
3 Power Electronics Modelling in EMTP-based Simulations 64

3.1 Modelling Power Electronics in Electric Power Engineering Applications . . . 65
3.2 Simultaneous Solution for Voltage-Controlled Switches in EMTP-based Pro-
grams 74
3.3 Implementation of Nonlinear Diode Model in EMTP-based Programs . . . . 78
3.4 Control Modelling Aspects of Power Electronic Devices 88
4 Evaluation of the Impact of Power Electronic Devices on the Quality of

Power 90
4.1 Dynamic Interaction between Power Electronic Devices and Power Systems . 91
4.2 Power Quality Assessment through EMTP-based Programs 104
4.2.1 Induction Furnace Harmonic Study 104
4.2.2 Voltage Sag Analysis with EMTP-based Simulation 120
4.2.3 Welding Industry Voltage Fluctuation Study - A Visual Flicker Case 121
4.3 EMTP-based Simulation Cases with SSCPS 125
4.3.1 Basic Control and Control Devices Simulation Cases 125
4.3.2 Power Electronics Simulation Cases 133
4.4 Synthesis of Simulation Guidelines for Studies with EMTP-based Programs . 150
5 Conclusions and Recommendations for Future Work 153

5.1 Conclusions and Main Contributions 153
5.2 Recommendations for Future Work 156
Bibliography 160
List of Tables
3.1 Comparison between voltage and current in a diode as a function of its parametric values. 80
4.1 Global harmonic distortion limits for the system voltages recommended in Brazil 110
4.2 Comparison between field measurements and E M T P simulation results for the operating
condition with the harmonic passive filters turned O F F 119
4.3 Comparison between field measurements and E M T P simulation results for the operating
condition with the harmonic passive filters turned O N 120
vi
List of Figures
1.1 Typical Design Goals of Power-Conscious Computer Manufacturers. (Source: I E E E Std.

446-1987, "IEEE Recommended Practice for Emergency and Standby Power Systems for
Industrial and Commercial Applications.") 8
1.2 C B E M A curve revised by the Information Technology Industry Council (ITIC) 9
1.3 (a) Thyristor in an industrial power converter, (b) Thyristors in a high voltage direct
current, ( H V D C ) System 12
2.1 E M T P and T A C S interface with 1 time step delay 16
2.2 M-phase Thevenin equivalent circuit 19
2.3 Representation of branch equation A; as a voltage source in series with a resistance. . . . 20
2.4 Representation of branch equation k as a current source in parallel with a resistance. . . 21
2.5 Current-controlled voltage source ( C C V S ) 23
2.6 Current-controlled current source ( C C C S ) 24
2.7 Voltage-controlled voltage source ( V C V S ) 25
2.8 Symbol for operational amplifier 27
2.9 Inverting amplifier circuit 29
2.10 Non-inverting amplifier circuit 29
2.11 Adder circuit with operational amplifier 29
2.12 Ideal integrator circuit with operational amplifier 30
2.13 Generalization of inverter amplifier circuit 30
2.14 First-order lag circuit using ideal operational amplifier 31
2.15 Voltage-controlled current source ( V C C S ) 31
2.16 Ideal transformer 33
2.17 Independent current source 34
2.18 Independent voltage source 35
2.19 Newton-Raphson algorithm experimentally implemented in MicroTran 39
2.20 Circuit with ideal operational amplifier 41
vii
LIST O F F I G U R E S viii
2.21 Simulation results of circuit with ideal operational amplifier (noninverting amplifier circuit). 41
2.22 Transfer function 42
2.23 Observer form block-diagram of transfer function in equation 2.80 44
2.24 Possible computer implementation of the transfer function block-diagram in Fig. 2.23. . . 45
2.25 Block-diagram representation of a first-order transfer function 45
2.26 Observer form block-diagram of first-order transfer function of Fig. 2.25 46
2.27 Possible computer implementation of first-order transfer function of Fig. 2.25 46
2.28 Realistic first-order lag circuit 47
2.29 Time domain simulation of first-order transfer function 47
2.30 First-order transfer function with windup (static) limiter 49
2.31 First-order transfer function with non-windup (dynamic) limiter 49
2.32 Transient response of a first-order transfer function with windup and non-windup limiter. 50
2.33 Soft limits 52
2.34 Zero-order transfer function with soft limits 53
2.35 Time domain response for a sinusoidal excitation input u(t) illustrating the effects of hard
and soft limits on the output x(t) 53
2.36 Open loop control system with "supplemental devices SI,52 and 53" 54
2.37 Nonlinear control block-diagram with a sinusoidal intrinsic F O R T R A N function 55
2.38 Circuit implementation for the simultaneous solution of a sinusoidal F O R T R A N function. 55

2.39 Transport delay control device 58
2.40 Circuit implementation for the simultaneous solution of a transport delay control device. . 59
2.41 Transient simulation of a transport delay control device 60
2.42 Transient simulation of a pulse delay control device 61
2.43 Pulse delay control device with arbitrary input signal 62
2.44 Logic gate " N O T " 62
2.45 Circuit implementation of a logic gate " N O T " for simultaneous solution 63
3.1 Power semiconductor devices 66
3.2 Voltage-controlled switch in E M T P - b a s e d programs 70
3.3 Test cases for transient simulation of voltage-controlled, bipolar in voltage and bidirectional
current flowing switch, thyristor and G T O 71
3.4 Simulation of a voltage-controlled bidirectional current flowing switch 72
3.5 Simulation of a simplified model for thyristors 72
3.6 Simulation of a simplified model for G T O ' s 73

LIST O F F I G U R E S ix
3.7 Circuit with "simultaneous solution" of a voltage-controlled switch 76
3.8 Simulation with simultaneous solution of a voltage-controlled switch 76
3.9 One time step delay in E M T P - b a s e d switches 77
3.10 Diode symbol 78
3.11 V - I diode characteristic and network Thevenin equivalent circuit equation 81
3.12 Circuit implementation for the simultaneous solution of a nonlinear diode model 82
3.13 V - I diode characteristic and different network Thevenin equivalents 82
3.14 Dc-dc converter 85
3.15 Half-wave rectifier with freewheeling diode 85
3.16 Electric circuit with a nonlinear diode model 86
3.17 Transient simulation of a nonlinear diode model in an E M T P - b a s e d program. . . . . . . 86
3.18 Detail of the transient simulation of a nonlinear diode model in an E M T P - b a s e d program. 87
3.19 V - I nonlinear characteristic of the diode resulting from the E M T P simulation 87
4.1 Circuit with a single-phase diode-bridge rectifier 93
4.2 Current drawn from the source by a single-phase diode-bridge rectifier 94
4.3 Harmonic amplitude spectrum of the current drawn from the source by a single-phase
diode-bridge rectifier 95
4.4 Current through and voltage across the total inductance, and voltage waveform distortion
at the point of common coupling ( P C C ) 96
4.5 Harmonic amplitude spectrum of the voltage waveform distortion at the point of common
coupling ( P C C ) 97
4.6 Four-wire, three-phase system with "balanced" single-phase diode-bridge rectifiers 97
4.7 Current flowing through the neutral conductor 98
4.8 Harmonic amplitude spectrum of the current flowing through the neutral conductor. . . . 99
4.9 Voltage waveshape measured at the outlet of the Power Electronics Laboratory of the
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering at U B C , Vancouver, B . C . , Canada. . 100
4.10 Measured voltage waveshape, its fundamental component and its harmonic distortion. . . 101
4.11 Harmonic amplitude spectrum of the outlet waveshape voltage 102
4.12 Phase-angle of the harmonic components of the outlet waveshape voltage 103
4.13 (a) Metal melting by an induction furnace, (b) Induction furnace operation 106
4.14 Current measurements in a distribution feeder supplying induction furnaces at the time of
maximum voltage distortion 107
4.15 (a) Phase " A " current measured with harmonic passive filters turned off. (b) Phase-to-phase
" A - B " voltage measured with harmonic passive filters turned off 108
LIST O F F I G U R E S x
4.16 (a) Phase "A" current measured with harmonic passive filters turned on. (b) Phase-to-phase
"A-B" voltage measured with harmonic passive filters turned on 109
4.17 THD harmonic trend, with harmonic passive filters turned off from 12:00 midnight to 06:00am. 109
4.18 THD harmonic trend, with harmonic passive filters turned on all the time 110
4.19 Distribution substation 113
4.20 Current-source, parallel-resonant inverter for induction heating 114
4.21 Amplitude of the positive sequence system impedance at the P C C with harmonic filters. . 114
4.22 Phase angle of the positive sequence system impedance at the PCC with harmonic filters. 115
4.23 (a) Phase "A" current simulated with harmonic passive filters turned off. (b) Phase-to-
phase "A-B" voltage simulated with harmonic passive filters turned off 116
4.24 (a) Phase "A" current measured with harmonic passive filters turned off. (b) Phase-to-phase
"A-B" voltage measured with harmonic passive filters turned off 116
4.25 (a) Phase "A" current simulated with harmonic passive filters turned on. (b) Phase-to-
phase "A-B" voltage simulated with harmonic passive filters turned on 117
4.26 (a) Phase "A" current measured with harmonic passive filters turned on. (b) Phase-to-phase
"A-B" voltage measured with harmonic passive filters turned on 117
4.27 Instantaneous ideal compensation current to be "injected" by a shunt active filter 118
4.28 Voltage sag measurements (%RMS versus time duration) with an overlay of the C B E M A
curve. For time durations less than 1 cycle the equipment seems to measure peak values. . 122
4.29 (a) Phase-to-phase "A-B" measured voltage sag. (b) Phase-to-phase "A-B" simulated volt-
age sag 123
4.30 Instantaneous voltage fluctuations causing light flickering effect 124
4.31 Modulated voltage and respective amplitude frequency spectrum 124
4.32 Control block diagram of a second order differential equation with poles on the imaginary
axis of the complex plane 126
4.33 Solution of system with bounded resonance oscillations 126
4.34 Introduction of a one time step delay in the control block diagram 127
4.35 Solution of system with unstable resonance oscillations caused by the introduction of one
time step delay 127
4.36 Classical linearized "swing equation", used in power system small-signal stability studies of
a single machine connected to an infinite bus 130
4.37 Simulation results of the synchronous machine rotor angle deviation, in the presence of a
positive damping torque coefficient 130
4.38 Simulation results of the synchronous machine rotor angle deviation, in the presence of
negative damping torque coefficient 131
4.39 Canonical second order transfer function representation of the single-machine infinite bus
system 131
LIST O F F I G U R E S ' xi
4.40 Circuit for the dynamic control of the firing angle ("a") of a thyristor 135
4.41 Voltages and currents in a circuit with dynamic control of the firing angle of a thyristor. . 136
4.42 Circuit for the dynamic control of the firing angles of a three-phase six-pulse thyristor-bridge
rectifier 138
4.43 Voltages and currents with dynamic control of the firing angles of a three-phase six-pulse
thyristor-bridge rectifier 139
4.44 Dynamic control of the firing angles of a three-phase six-pulse thyristor-bridge rectifier. . 140
4.45 Dynamic voltage control signals at the output of the proportional-integral (PI) and the
limiter control blocks 141
4.46 Circuit for the dynamic control of three-phase P W M voltage source inverter (VSI). . . . 144
4.47 Phase " A " modulation and triangular carrier waveforms for generation of gating signals
through sinusoidal pulse width modulation ( P W M ) 145
4.48 Node voltage "VSA" generated by a three-phase P W M voltage source inverter (VSI). . . . 146
4.49 Voltage across the load "VSA-NEUTR" and current supplied to the load by a three-phase
P W M voltage source inverter (VSI) 147
4.50 Load currents supplied by a three-phase P W M voltage source inverter (VSI) 148
4.51 Line-to-line voltage generated by a three-phase P W M voltage source inverter (VSI). . . . 149
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank God for the gift of learning. M y most sincere thanks to my parents,
Dorival and Isolina, and to all my relatives for their unconditional love and support. To my
wife, Luciana, and my daughters, Alexa and Aline, my love and my heartfelt thanks for their
strong participation in this life project altogether. I dedicate a very special note of thanks
to our special friends Wany, Fernando, Fulvia, Alexandre, Martha, and Richard for their
careful and kindness personal assistance.
I owe a tremendous debt of gratitude to Dr. Hermann W. Dommel, my Ph.D. thesis
supervisor, for all his personal and professional encouragement, share of wisdom and support
for the development of this thesis. (The responsibility for any remaining errors is solely
mine.) I also thank Dr. Dommel for the honor and opportunities of have being his teaching
assistant.
I also thank Dr. William G . Dunford for kindly accepting to be my Ph.D. thesis co-
supervisor, with Dr. Dommel becoming a Professor Emeritus at U B C . I have also learned
with Dr. Jose R. Marti, who has excellent teaching skills. Professor Sandoval Carneiro
Jr. from the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ) Brazil, has gently been very
supportive, right from the start of this Ph.D. program in Canada.
I most specially appreciate the help, acceptance and advice of many individuals without
whom this opportunity would never have become fruitful. Professors, staff members, past
and present colleagues and friends at the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
of the University of British Columbia (UBC) have been the source of inspiration and support
to pursue scientific and personal growth. I also thank my former Brazilian professors and
colleagues at the State University of Campinas ( U N I C A M P ) , and at the Federal School of
Engineering of Itajuba (EFEI), for building and enhancing the foundation of my knowledge
in science and engineering.
I would like to sincerely thank the Fundagao Coordenagao de Aperfeigoamento de Pessoal
de Nivel Superior ( C A P E S ) , Brasilia - Brazil, for the financial support to this Ph.D. thesis
project. Without it, my dream would never come true.
I also thank the Brazilian utility company E L E K T R O - Eletricidade e Servigos S.A.,
with a special reference to Francisco Alfredo Fernandes, for providing opportunities for a
practical interaction in power quality analysis, through a professional cooperation with the
engineer Ernesto Alberto Mertens Jr.. I acknowledge and thank students, professors and
staff at the E T E Prof. Armando Bayeux da Silva, a technical high school of the C E E T E P S -
Centro Estadual de Educagao Tecnologica Paula Souza, Sao Paulo, Brazil, for all the teaching
experiences I was able to conduct, which enriched my communication and leadership skills.
Last but not least, I thank and acknowledge the contributions of many people, not
mentioned, not forgotten, who certainly have had an impact and influence on my living and
studying at U B C , Vancouver, B.C., Canada, since August 24, 1997.
Vancouver, B . C . , Canada Benedito Donizeti Bonatto
October 09, 2001.
xii
Chapter 1
Electric Power Quality and Power

Electronic Devices: A n Overview
H E P U R P O S E of this research project was to develop reasonably accurate models for
1 control systems and power electronic devices to evaluate their impact on the quality
of power. These models and methods were developed for implementation in the Electromag-
netic Transients P r o g r a m ( E M T P ) [1], [2], or i n similar programs. A "circuit approach" is
used for the simultaneous solution of the control and electric power system equations, thus
eliminating any time step delay i n the digital time domain simulation. Such time step delays
can cause inaccuracies or numerical instabilities. T h e advantages of the circuit approach is
its "generality and flexibility" for modelling multi-terminal linear and nonlinear control de-
vices, which are needed in the analysis of electromagnetic phenomena affecting the quality of
power. T h i s chapter presents an introduction to power quality problems and their relation
w i t h power electronics, followed by a description of the motivations for this P h . D . thesis
research and its relevant contributions.
1.1 Introduction: Better Electricity Quality at "Possi-

bly" Lower Prices?
T h e demand of electricity customers for increased quality of power, at possibly reduced
prices, is forcing governments, regulatory agencies, utility companies, and equipment manu-
facturers to develop new structures for the electricity market. Deregulation of the electricity
1
1.1. Introduction: Better Electricity Quality at "Possibly" Lower Prices? 2
industry has been proposed as a solution to make the present utility companies more com-
petitive i n offering better services and better quality at lower prices to their customers.
However, as i n any business, this may require some investments in the infrastructure of the
power system, to cope w i t h the new demands of the modern types of loads (power electron-
ics and microcomputer based). In this scenario, traditional economic analysis, such as pay
back return or rate of interest, might show that these investments are only feasible with
concurrent increases in electricity tariffs. T h e paradox of more quality for less money still
remains a topic for discussion in forums such as government regulatory agencies.
W i t h the growing utilization of automation and control based on the use of microproces-
sors, of power electronic devices, and of modern manufacturing techniques, industries have
been able to produce goods faster and w i t h increasing quality. However, w i t h such modern-
ization new issues have emerged regarding the quality of electricity. Sensitive loads tend to
shut down if there are small variations i n the network voltage. Also, harmonic distortions
caused by nonlinear loads may result i n wrong operation or may increase the losses in power
system components. Another problem is capacitor switching in the utility system, which
may cause problems for adjustable speed drives ( A S D ' s ) , which are used more and more by
industry. A l l these problems point out that more attention must be paid to power qual-
ity problems. Economic losses expressed in terms of interrupted production, of damage to
equipment, and of time delays in the processing of goods and the consequent negative impact
on customers have caused a rising number of complaints about power quality problems in
many electric u t i l i t y companies. E s t i m a t i n g the cost of poor power quality is a difficult task.
Nevertheless, the annual approximate value would be in the order of hundreds of million
of dollars i n damage. A s an example, the cost per year to U . S. A . industry in lost time
and revenue due to power related problems were estimated in 1993 as US$26,000,000,000 [3].
T h e costs tend to grow as the sensitivity and use of microprocessor-based devices tend to
increase. T h e Electric Power Research Institute ( E P R I ) stated that in the year 2000, 60%
to 70% of total utility power generated w i t h i n the U . S. A . would be controlled by power
electronics, compared to 30% in 1995.
Power electronic devices, however, are also able to "guarantee" a certain expected level
of electricity quality to a sensitive or special load, and such devices exist today. Flexible A C
Transmission Systems (FACTS) technology, Custom Power Controllers, active filters, among
other power electronics applications, offer promising solutions for improving the quality of
power in transmission and distribution systems.
The introduction of more and more power electronic devices into the network will create
issues of compatibility of operation not only in steady state, but also under transient con-
ditions. New models for innovative equipment, as well as new philosophies for their control
and operation, will then be required. It is not enough to evaluate the electric quality condi-
tions only at the interface of power electronic systems with the electric power system. The
propagation of electromagnetic phenomena into the industrial or utility network must be
evaluated as well [4]. Therefore, software packages such as the ElectroMagnetic Transients
Program ( E M T P ) , have become important and necessary tools to analyze the impact of large
power electronic devices on the quality of electric power. The aim of this research project
was the development of new EMTP-based models for control and power electronic devices,
thus allowing the accurate evaluation of the impact of high power electronics on the quality
of power. As part of the project, field tests were conducted in cooperation with a Brazilian
utility company, to provide realistic power quality data measurements.
1.1.1 Computer Analysis and Simulation of Electric Power Qual-

ity Phenomena
Digital computer simulation of electromagnetic transients in single- and multiphase net-

works is well established [1]. Since the publication of [1] in 1969, significant improvements
have been made in models for electrical power system components such as transmission lines
[5], transformers, turbine-generators and cables [6]. Of particular interest for this research
project are the necessary advances in the simulation of power electronic devices within power
systems.
Although steady-state solutions at fundamental and harmonic frequencies have been pro-
posed to analyze power quality problems, the complexity of periodic switching in power elec-
tronic devices can only be studied thoroughly through time-domain simulations, e.g., with
EMTP-based programs [4], [7], [8], [9], [10], [11], [12], [13].
1.1. Introduction: Better Electricity Q u a l i t y at "Possibly" Lower Prices? 4
E M T P - t y p e simulation is particularly useful for the analysis of the dynamic interaction
of distributed C u s t o m Power Controllers in a power system. Despite international demon-
stration projects for some C u s t o m Power Controllers already w i t h some years of operating
experience, how these new devices w i l l interact w i t h i n each particular power system is still an
open question. T h e performance obtained from some prototypes, or from simulations with
simplified models, may not, be sufficient for real applications, where dangerous resonance
and other unforeseen problems may occur. These concerns make more realistic electromag-
netic transient program based simulations important when detailed models of C u s t o m Power
Controllers become available. T h i s could avoid more expensive corrective actions after in-
stallation. Measurements and simulations also become necessary for performance evaluations
under different network and load conditions.
A l l those facts have encouraged the development of new practical models, methods and
guidelines for the appropriate use of E M T P - b a s e d programs as potential tools for power
quality studies.
Nevertheless, good engineering judgment i n setting up the power quality problem and
representing the physical phenomena w i t h appropriate models, does still represent the major
challenge, despite the impressive accuracy obtained w i t h the models available today.
1.1.2 Electric Power Quality Monitoring
In recent years, tremendous improvements have also been made in digital measuring in-
struments, because of the use of microprocessors and digital signal processing techniques
[14], [15]. T h i s made it possible to conduct power quality surveys i n many countries around
the world. T h e Electric Power Research Institute ( E P R I ) commissioned an extensive survey
of distribution system power quality i n the U . S. A . [16]. In Canada, the C a n a d i a n Elec-
tricity Association ( C E A ) developed a guideline for the power quality that utility customers
experience, i n a three-year project [17]. A quantitative measure of the deterioration of the
ideal sinusoidal waveform from the growing utilization of power electronic devices resulted
from these surveys. In many of the real-world problems, momentary voltage variations have
been the main cause for shutting down microprocessor controlled industrial processes. The
diversity of problems to cope with, and their complex interaction, has created a need for
more research on power quality issues [18]. Moreover, w i t h the present deregulation process
in the electricity industry, power quality has become a key factor for utilities and customers
in a competitive market.
T h e experience i n monitoring power quality phenomena has increased in the latest years,
as reported by the related literature [15], [19], [20], [21], [22], [23], [24], [25], [26], [27], Well
known power quality problems have been summarized and at the same time new problems
have been discussed i n [28], [29], [30], [31], [32], [33], [34], [35], [3], [36], [37]. T h e need
for more detailed information on power disturbances, and the search for new techniques to
process the amount of available measured data, have motivated research into applications of
modern theories i n the power quality discussed in [38], [39], [40], [41], [42].
According to the author's experience as a "power quality engineer" i n a Brazilian utility
company, there are many different reasons why electricity customers become dissatisfied with
the quality of the electric power delivered by utilities, and why they complain. T h i s happen
partly because there may indeed be technical problems. Partly, the motivation comes from
the need to reduce electricity costs in the industrial production process, looking for better
tariffs and better contracts, as everybody tries to survive in a competitive and aggressive
business environment.
O n the technical side, the most common power quality problems are caused by a fatal
combination of sensitive electronic-based loads and a high incidence of voltage sag phenom-
ena [43], [44], [45], [46]. Most of these voltage sags are due to faults in transmission and
distribution systems, caused by lightning phenomena, which cannot be easily avoided or
minimized. It is also common to find poor voltage regulation w i t h i n the industry electric
system [45], [46]. T h i s aggravates the impact of voltage sags, causing frequent process mal-
function or interruption w i t h financial losses, which are rarely presented explicitly by the
industry personnel, unless any kind of financial compensation is legally required. There is a
wide range of alternatives for possible solutions to technical problems in the quality of the
electric power supply. Usually, the immediate most cost-effective measure is to minimize the
cause or effects of the problem close to its origin, depending on the type of electromagnetic
phenomena involved. Typically, voltage sag problems can be minimized by proper adjust-
ments in the sensitivities of the load or load control, whenever this is technically feasible.
However, in some cases compensation through the use of power electronic devices might be
a promising alternative, either for an individual sensitive load or for an entire industrial pro-
cess. Usually, the utilities comply w i t h the standards of supply set by the regulatory agency,
but the customer process is much more sensitive and some kind of electronic compensation
would be necessary. T h e potential conflict is sometimes created when a possible technical
solution requires high financial investments. A cost versus benefit analysis usually leads to
a cheap compromise solution; in the absence of clear regulations one needs "to live with the
problem!"
1.1.3 Power Quality Standards
Power quality has become an important issue because of the increasing use of power
electronic devices. T h e Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. ( I E E E ) has
therefore developed standards to address power quality problems, which are briefly discussed
here.
T h e problems related to the quality of electricity are not new, since there was never an
ideal sinusoidal waveshape, w i t h frequency and voltage exactly at their rated values. How-
ever, w i t h the changes i n the type and sensitivity of the loads in recent years, harmonic
current and voltage distortions, short- and long-duration voltage variations, impulse and os-
cillatory transients, voltage fluctuations (causing visual flicker), power frequency deviations,
voltage unbalance among the phases in a three-phase system, and other electromagnetic
phenomena are increasingly causing power quality problems.
I E E E Std. 1159-95 [47] defines and characterizes electromagnetic phenomena which may
cause power quality problems. It also provides recommended practices for monitoring electric
power quality.
Most utility regulations dealing w i t h harmonics are based on I E E E S t d 519-1992, [48],
[49], [50]. T h i s standard presents recommended practices and requirements for harmonic
control in electric power systems. It addresses most of the issues of harmonic generation
by power electronic converters, arc furnaces, static V A R compensators and power electronic
controlled drives. It also discusses:
• system response characteristics;
• effects of harmonics;
• reactive power compensation and control;
• harmonic analysis methods;
• harmonic measurements;
• recommended practices and harmonic limits for individual customers;
• recommended practices and harmonic limits for utilities;
• methodology for evaluating new harmonic sources.
In the later task, time-domain simulation can be particularly useful to predict equipment
and power system behaviour. It thus can help engineers to provide some answers in detecting
harmonic related or other power quality problems. The I E E E Std. 519-1992 [48] is currently
been revised to account for interharmonics in power systems and the possible application of
probabilistic approaches in harmonics evaluation.
I E E E Std. 446-1987 [51] covers the recommended practice for emergency and standby
power systems for industrial and commercial applications. A computer "voltage tolerance en-
velope", shown in Fig. 1.1, also known as the C B E M A curve (Computer Business Equipment
Manufacturing Association curve) is presented in this standard.
The Information Technology Industry Council (ITIC) revised the C B E M A curve, which is
presented in Fig. 1.2. It shows that computer- and power electronics-based loads, properly
designed by the manufacturers, should be able to withstand a complete interruption of
voltage supply for up to 20ms, a voltage sag of 30 percent for 0.5s, 20 percent for 10s or
10 percent in steady state. It also defines the upper limits in the input voltage that should
be tolerated. The C B E M A (ITIC) curve has been widely used as an important "reference"
Figure 1.1: Typical Design Goals of Power-Conscious Computer Manufacturers. (Source: IEEE Std.
446-1987, "IEEE Recommended Practice for Emergency and Standby Power Systems for Industrial and
Commercial Applications.")
for the susceptibility level of computer- and power electronics-based loads. However, due
to the great variety of products and processes, and their response to transient variations in
the supply voltage, there are cases where the load sensitivity is much more strict than the
C B E M A (ITIC) curve, which has to be determined then case-by-case for an adequate power
quality assessment and proposal of solutions.
I E E E Std 1100-1992 [52] presents the recommended practice for powering and grounding
sensitive electronic equipment. It addresses the multidisciplinary area of power quality,
giving practical guidelines on load and source compatibility concerns.
Voltage fluctuations causing visual flicker are being studied by the Task Force I E E E
P1453 on Light Flicker, which is considering the adoption of existing standards and practices
Figure 1.2: C B E M A curve revised by the Information Technology Industry Council (ITIC).
of the I E C (International Electrotechnical Commission) and U I E (International Union for

Electroheat) for measuring such types of disturbances. This task force is also reviewing other
I E E E standards and recommendations on this issue. Other I E E E Standards within the I E E E
Color Series Books (http://www.ieee.org) provide useful recommendations about complex
issues on topics associated with the quality of power in utility, industrial and commercial
installations.
1.1.4 Custom Power Related Publications
This section presents a collection of publications related to Custom Power technology

for the improvement, of the quality of power. Some of the papers present actual application
examples.
High voltage direct current (HVDC) and flexible A C transmission systems (FACTS tech-
nology) have been used for some time to extend power transfer capability, to improve power
system stability, and for other reasons. Dr. Narain G . Hingorani introduced the acronym
F A C T S (Flexible A C Transmission System) for high power electronics applications in trans-
mission systems [53], [54], [55]. H V D C , static Var compensator (SVC), thyristor controlled
series compensations (TCSC), static synchronous compensator (STATCOM), static syn-
chronous series compensation (SSSC) and unified power flow controller (UPFC) are exam-
ples of the so called F A C T S devices. Reference [56] provides an annotated bibliography of
H V D C and F A C T S devices. It also includes a list of F A C T S installations, with data on
manufacturers, utility companies, countries, etc. It shows that, despite the high costs of
these high power electronic devices, they are gaining in acceptability around the world.
The term "Custom Power" was also introduced by Hingorani, to represent power elec-
tronics applications designed to mitigate power quality problems in industrial and distribu-
tion systems [57], [58], [59]. The distribution static condenser (D-STATCOM), the voltage
sag compensator (also known as D V R - dynamic voltage restorer), the solid-state breaker
(SSB), the solid-state transfer switch (SSTS), among others, are examples of such Custom
Power Controllers. Various manufacturers have proposed shunt, series, or shunt/series dy-
namic compensation schemes, with different acronyms, as solutions to specific power quality
problems. "The D - S T A T C O M , although based on the S T A T C O M , has a wider range of
applications. In fact, the D - S T A T C O M can be designed for reactive power control, or for
voltage control of the fundamental frequency, but it may also include higher frequencies as
in shunt active power filters." The integration of series- and shunt active filters, referred
to as unified power quality conditioner (UPQC) [60], [61], is promising to be the definite
solution for the majority of power quality problems. "However, its high cost may make it
useful only in some special cases. On the other hand, the shunt or series devices such as the
D - S T A T C O M or the voltage sag compensator will probably play a significant role in future
distribution systems" . 1
The ongoing deregulation process in many countries is also fostering competition in the
'From personal communication with Dr.-Ing. Mauricio Aredes, C O P P E / U F R J , Rio de Janeiro. R J ,
Brazil.
electric power industry, which accelerates the application of new technologies in the trans-
mission and distribution system. For example, there are applications being developed for
superconducting magnetic energy storage devices (SMES) for low voltage distribution sys-
tems, which will provide voltage support for a few seconds to sensitive processing equipment
during times of voltage sags.
Case studies with practical applications of Custom Power Controllers can also be down-
loaded directly from the web sites of some manufacturers, as for example:
• http://www.siemenstd.com/prods/FPQD/dvr.html - case studies for the voltage sag

compensator D V R (dynamic voltage restorer of Siemens);
• http://www.siemenstd.com/prods/FPQD/cp.html - general power quality information

on D V R , D - S T A T C O M , Solid State Breaker, Transfer Switch and Premium Power
Park;
• http://sac.sandc.com/products/purewave/ups_pubs.asp - for S & C UPS products;
• http://www.softswitching.com - for SoftSwitching Technologies products;
and many others.
Figs. 1.3 (a) and (b) present semiconductor power devices, thyristors, used in an industrial
power electronic converter and in a H V D C system, respectively. Thyristors are considered
the "backbone" of the high power electronics revolution. Other types of semiconductors
being used are the gate turn-off thyristor (GTO), the M O S controlled thyristor (MCT), the
static induction thyristor (SITh), and the insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT). The so
considered, in 1997, state of the art of these devices can be found in reference [62], along with
a description of the main characteristics of H V D C , static Var compensator (SVC), thyristor
controlled series compensation (TCSC), static synchronous compensator (STATCOM), static
synchronous series compensation (SSSC) and unified power flow controller (UPFC). The
benefits of the application of F A C T S technology in a power system depend on the reliability
of the specific F A C T S device, which in turn depends on the reliability of the semiconductor
1.3. Contributions of this Research Project 13
will rise in importance and urgency. Therefore, as part of this project field tests were
developed in a Brazilian electric utility company, where realistic power quality cases
were analyzed and simulations were performed;
• The diversity of power quality phenomena requires an interdisciplinary approach and

specialized engineering skills. With opportunities available for interaction with other
researchers at The University of British Columbia (UBC), appropriate courses were
attended, especially in the power electronics area, which was helpful for the under-
standing and development of new models for implementation in MicroTran, the U B C
version of the E M T P ;
• The opportunity to conduct practical field tests in cooperation with an electric utility
company was a valuable experience, and necessary for the validation of digital computer
models.
1.3 Contributions of this Research Project
This Ph.D. thesis offers new models for the digital computer simulation of control and
power electronic devices. These models were developed for implementation in EMTP-based
programs or in similar programs. A n innovative "circuit approach" was developed for the
simultaneous solution of control and power systems equations, as an alternative to the ap-
proach of A . E. A . Araujo [63] developed in 1993. The main differences and important
advantages are summarized as follows:
• With the addition of ideal operational amplifiers, transfer functions can be imple-
mented with a "circuit approach", where the circuit elements R, L, C are solved by
the main code of the E M T P . If integration methods are changed in the E M T P , for
example from trapezoidal rule to backward Euler as done in some versions at instants
of discontinuities with the C D A technique, no extra coding is needed. Operational
amplifiers are not affected by integration rule changes. Moreover, if ideal operational
amplifiers are implemented in steady-state solution, the frequency response of linear
1.3. Contributions of this Research Project 14
control systems could be easily calculated i n E M T P - b a s e d programs by just using the
frequency scan option.
• A . E . A . Araiijo [63] uses F O R T R A N - l i k e statements for control functions such as
Y = COS(X) in the input, which are then handled w i t h a F O R T R A N interpreter. In
this thesis, this function and similar functions are pre-defined control block types.
• T h e "multi-terminal voltage-controlled voltage source concept" implemented in this
thesis w i t h the compensation method and the Newton-Raphson iterative algorithm is
"general and flexible", thus providing an easy E M T P - b a s e d modelling of any linear or
nonlinear control device. T h i s is very useful for the dynamic analysis of novel power
electronic controllers, such as distributed F A C T S and C u s t o m Power Controllers in
transmission and distribution power systems.
T h i s P h . D . thesis is organized as follows: Chapter 2 presents the simultaneous solution
method for control and electric power system equations ( S S C P S ) in E M T P - b a s e d programs.
Chapter 3 discusses the developments made for power electronics models in E M T P - b a s e d
simulations. Chapter 4 presents simulation cases of power quality assessment w i t h the use
of the existing features of M i c r o T r a n , the U B C version of the E M T P . S S C P S simulation
cases w i t h the new models of Chapter 2 and the developments for the dynamic control of
power semiconductors presented in Chapter 3 are illustrated in practical power electronics
controllers. Simulation guidelines for the evaluation of the impact of power electronic devices
on the quality of power are summarized i n Chapter 4. Finally, Chapter 5 presents the main
conclusions and contributions made i n this P h . D . thesis, and also points out the author's
recommendations for future work.

C h a p t e r 2
S i m u l t a n e o u s S o l u t i o n o f C o n t r o l a n d
E l e c t r i c P o w e r S y s t e m E q u a t i o n s
( S S C P S ) i n E M T P - b a s e d P r o g r a m s
2.1 Previous Developments on Transient Analysis of

Control Systems (TACS)
The computer subroutine T A C S (acronym for "Transient Analysis of Control Systems")

was developed in 1977 [64] for the simulation of control systems in the E M T P (acronym
for "Electromagnetic Transients Program"). The general philosophy of the solution method
adopted at that time required a one-time-step delay at the interface between T A C S and the
electric network solution . This non-simultaneous approach was probably used because it
l
was easier to write a code separated from the main program, with a simple interface. The
main program passed information to the TACS program, which then returned information
to the main program for use one time step later, as illustrated in Fig. 2.1. Moreover, control
system equation matrices in TACS are usually unsymmetric, whereas the network elements
in the E M T P result in symmetric matrices. B y separating the solution into two parts, the
code for symmetric matrices in the E M T P could be maintained.
The solution in two parts, with a time delay of one At between them, was an expedient
way to implement control system equations, but it proved to be the cause of critical numerical
1
Many other software programs, such as P S I M [65], also require a one-time-step delay between the solution
of control and power systems equations, which makes the solution method non-simultaneous.
15
2.1. Previous Developments on Transient Analysis of Control Systems (TACS) 16
Electric Network
Solution
(EMTP )
Control System
Time Delay 1
lAt Solution
g (TACS)
Figure 2.1: E M T P and TACS interface with 1 time step delay.
instabilities and inaccuracies in some cases in the time domain simulation of electric and
power electronic system transients [66], [67], [68], [63]. In cases where the E M T P and TACS
elements form a closed loop (or feedback system according to control theory), the effect of
the interface delay cannot always be eliminated by using a small step size A t , as stated in
[69].
Besides the time delay between TACS and E M T P , even more time-step delays were
introduced by the internal solution algorithm of TACS, in order to deal with nonlinearities
in feedback control loops. The TACS internal solution is therefore non-simultaneous for
some control cases, and also sequential for its implemented devices. Improvements have
been made through the years in the TACS subroutine of some versions of the E M T P , such
as better ordering of its variables to minimize the number of delays inside T A C S [70], using
the compensation method to eliminate the one-time-step delay in the E M T P - T A C S interface
[71], development of a new T A C S program " M O D E L S " [72] and its possible applications for
simultaneous solution of power electronics systems equations [73].
In 1993 A . E . A . Araiijo proposed a simultaneous solution of both sets of equations, electric
network equations and control systems equations, as a way to eliminate the one-time-step
2.1. Previous Developments on Transient Analysis of Control Systems (TACS) 17
delay problem at the interface, as well as the internal control delays [67], [68], [63]. The aug-
mented matrix with the control equations becomes unsymmetric due to the structure of the
control equations. Most of the equations of both the electric network and the control systems
are usually linear, while some are nonlinear. A proper partition of the system of equations
would allow the solution to be separated into two subsystems, one linear and another non-
linear. A . E . A . Araiijo chose to solve the system of linear equations inside the E M T P , and
the system of nonlinear equations (including nonlinearities from the electric network and
from the control system) with the compensation method in an iterative Newton-Raphson
algorithm as in [74]. The control equations, both linear and nonlinear, were developed inside
the subroutine " C O N N E C " , which is a user-defined subroutine in the MicroTran version of
the E M T P of the University of British Columbia. "Similarly to TACS, the trapezoidal rule
of integration was used to numerically integrate the first-order differential equations inside
C O N N E C , for example, in the implementation of transfer functions. The code was written
to prove the ideas, but as far as the author knows, was not implemented in a production
version of the E M T P . "
In this research project, the simultaneous solution of the electric network and control
equations in EMTP-based programs is achieved with a "circuit implementation" of the con-
trol system. With this novel approach for EMTP-based programs, elements of the control
circuit which already exist in the E M T P , such as resistances and capacitances, are solved by
the E M T P proper, while elements missing inside the E M T P , such as ideal operational am-
plifiers 2
and current and voltage dependent sources, are solved in the subroutine C O N N E C
with the compensation method. This circuit approach is an alternative to the mathematical
representation adopted by Araiijo, and gives some important advantages, such as "generality
and flexibility" for control modelling in EMTP-based programs.
The compensation method with an iterative Newton-Raphson procedure is used for the
solution of the added linear and nonlinear control system elements, such as dependent
sources, different types of limiters, as well as intrinsic F O R T R A N functions and some special
control devices, as explained in the following sections. "Among the added elements, the de-
The author acknowledges the help of Mr. Jesus Calvifio-Fraga for indicating in 1998 in his technical
2
report for a graduate course, the need for modeling operational amplifiers in MicroTran [75].
2.2. Current, and Voltage Dependent Sources in E M T P - b a s e d Programs 18
pendent, sources are the most, important, ones for control system modelling." T h e F O R T R A N
code for the added elements in subroutine C O N N E C has approximately 5,000 lines of code,
compared to 15,000 lines of code i n the main part of the M i c r o T r a n version of the E M T P .
2.2 Current and Voltage Dependent Sources in E M T P -

based Programs
Since the publication of [1] describing the first version of the E M T P , many others have
contributed to the development, of models as documented in [2] and elsewhere. A s far as
the author knows, dependent sources of all possible types have not been implemented in
any E M T P - b a s e d program. Dependent, sources expand the capabilities of E M T P - b a s e d
programs considerably for modelling many electric and electronic circuits and devices. W i t h
a voltage-controlled voltage source, for example, it becomes easy to simulate operational
amplifiers. These can then be used to set up control circuits w i t h analog-computer block-
diagrams. A s long as the equations of the dependent sources are linear, they could be added
directly to the network equations used i n E M T P - b a s e d programs (with the modified nodal
analysis ( M N A ) presented i n [76] and [77], but the matrix would then become unsymmetric
and a linear equation solver for unsymmetric matrices would have to be used. Another
alternative discussed here i n more detail is based on the compensation method, which can
also handle nonlinear effects w i t h a Newton-Raphson algorithm. Nonlinear effects arise w i t h
the inclusion of saturation or limits in the dependent sources. T h e main motivation for the
use of the compensation method is its "generality and flexibility" i n modelling linear and
nonlinear devices i n E M T P - b a s e d programs. T h i s section provides then the fundamental
equations for the implementation of dependent sources i n E M T P - b a s e d programs, as well as
of independent sources, which can also be connected between two ungrounded nodes.
2.2.1 Compensation Method
T h e compensation method has long been used in E M T P - b a s e d programs for solving
the equations of nonlinear elements w i t h the Newton-Raphson iterative method [74], If
the nonlinear elements are not too numerous, this approach confines the iterations to a
2.2. Current and Voltage Dependent Sources i n E M T P - b a s e d Programs 19
relatively small system of equations, compared to the nodal equations for the entire system.
T h i s approach is used here for solving the equations of dependent sources as a special case
of nonlinear elements. W i t h o u t limiters, the equations are linear, but w i t h an unsymmetric
matrix.
W h e n there are M nonlinear elements i n a circuit, the following system of equations 2.1
to 2.6, allows the simultaneous solution of the nonlinear equations w i t h the rest of the linear
network [2],[78], which is then represented by its M-phase Thevenin equivalent circuit, as
illustrated i n F i g . 2.2:
[ OPEN 1
V
I THEV 1
r
[' ] [V]
-A/VV
-Wv-
A A A r
M
-WV
6666 0
S(M) c x cX v
s(2)\ 6 K s(I)
Figure 2.2: M-phase Thevenin equivalent, circuit.
vopen} + [tthev] • [i] + [v] = 0 (2.1)
where:
v
OPENI
VOPEN 2
[vopen] (2.2)
VQPENM
2.2. Current and Voltage Dependent Sources in EMTP-based Programs 20
T2M
Vthev] — (2.3)
r
Ml ?M2 TMM
t2
(2.4)
V2
(2.5)
v M
Equations 2.6 are the branch equations of the nonlinear elements:
v = fk ( M , [?;], t, etc..) k =
k l,...M (2-6)
If the branch equations in 2.6 are linear, as in the case of dependent sources, they can be
represented in the form of a voltage source behind an impedance, as illustrated in Fig. 2.3,
or in the form of a current source in parallel with an impedance, as shown in Fig. 2.4. It is
assumed here that the branch impedances are not coupled, and that they are resistive (Rk)-
For other types of impedances, the equations would have to be modified.
Figure 2.3: Representation of branch equation k as a voltage source in series with a resistance.
2.2. Current and Voltage Dependent Sources in E M T P - b a s e d Programs 21
^source(k) ^sourcefk)
F i g u r e 2.4: Representation of branch equation A; as a current source in parallel with a resistance.
After the two systems of equations 2.1 and 2.6 have been solved in subroutine C O N N E C ,
the currents [i] of 2.4 are returned to the main program, which adds the effect of the M non-
linear branches to the previously calculated open-circuit solution for all nodes with unknown
voltages,
[e] = [e pEN]
0 ~ [zt] (2.7)
where:
[e] is a column vector w i t h the final solution for the N node voltages:
[zopen] is a column vector w i t h the previously calculated open circuit solution for all the N
nodes w i t h unknown voltages;
[z ] is a rectangular m a t r i x w i t h N rows and M columns (N = number of nodes with

r
unknown voltages and M = number of branches solved w i t h the compensation method) ; 3
[i] — column vector w i t h the M compensating branch currents.
2.2.2 Dependent Sources
T h i s section presents the necessary equations for implementing current and voltage de-
pendent sources i n E M T P - b a s e d programs by using the compensation method. T h e following
important assumptions are made:
F o r further details about the compensation method, and the calculation of matrix [zt],
3
please, see
reference [74].
• A Thevenin equivalent circuit can be calculated where the dependent source is to

be connected, and also where the controlling current or controlling voltage is to be
measured. In cases where this calculation fails, the connection of large resistors in
parallel may make a Thevenin equivalent circuit possible.
• Proper precautions are taken to handle extremely large numbers and zero values.
The following models are derived: Current-Controlled Voltage Source (CCVS), Current-
Controlled Current Source (CCCS), Voltage-Controlled Voltage Source (VCVS) and Voltage-
Controlled Current Source (VCCS). In all cases, the equations from the Thevenin equivalent
circuit are the same, namely, for the controlling branch j
-VoPENj + Tjilx + ... , ^

2 g
••• + jj j
r i
+ jkik + ... + r
r
j M i M + Vj = 0
and for the dependent source branch k

-VoPEN k + r \i\ + ...
k ^ g\
... + r ij
kj + r i + ... + r
k k k k M i M + v = 0
k
where:
voPEN k = voltage v for [i] = 0 (open circuit).

k
rkk = Thevenin resistance (self resistance of branch k).
r j = Thevenin resistance (coupling or mutual resistance between branches k and j).

k
C u r r e n t - C o n t r o l l e d Voltage Source ( C C V S )
Assume that the controlling current is measured through a branch between nodes a and
b in a circuit, such that Vj is its branch voltage and ij is its branch current, i.e.,
Vj = v - va b (2.10)
ij = i ab (2.11)
and that the dependent source, C C V S , is connected between nodes c and d with branch
voltage
(2.12)
and branch current
2fc ted (2.13)
T h e necessary equations for the implementation of a current-controlled voltage source as
illustrated i n F i g . 2.5 are 2.8 and 2.9, as well as:
-AA/V -AA/V-
[ THEVyl
r
[ THEV
r
k]
' 6
0
Figure 2.5: Current-controlled voltage source ( C C V S ) .
Vj = Rinij (2.14)
v = Qij + Routh
k (2.15)
where:
Rin = Input resistance of branch j.
Rout = O u t p u t resistance of the dependent source i n branch k.
£1 = G a i n over the controlling or measured current, applied as voltage dependent source at
branch k.
Inserting equation 2.14 into 2.8 and equation 2.15 into 2.9, results i n :
— VoPENj + Vjiii + ... , x
... + (tjj + R ) ij + r i
in jk k + ... + r i
jM M =0
-VoPEN + r i%i + ...

k k
(2.17)
... + (r + ft) {• + (r + R ) i + ... + r i
kj kk out k kM M =0
Using the two equations 2.16 and 2.17 is preferable to using the four equations 2.8,
2.9, 2.14 and 2.15, because it reduces the number of equations which have to be solved in
subroutine C O N N E C from 4 to 2. Whenever possible, the voltages should be eliminated in
this reduction from 4 to 2 equations, because the solution will then produce the currents,
which are the variables that have to be passed back to the main program.
For an ideal current-controlled voltage source, R = 0 and R in out = 0, from which results:
-VoPENj + Tjiii + ...

(2.18)
•• + jf :i + jk k + ••• + r
r l r i
j M i M = 0
-VoPEN + rkih + ...

(2.19)
k
... + (r kj + CT) ij + r i k k k + ... + r k M i M = 0
If expressed in matrix form, one can see that the matrix becomes unsymmetric, since matrix
element j — k is no longer equal to matrix element k — j.
Current-Controlled Current Source (CCCS)
The necessary equations for the implementation of a current-controlled current source as

illustrated in Fig. 2.6 are 2.8 and 2.9, as well as:
-A/VV
OPEN j \- THEV y]
r
Figure 2.6: Current-controlled current source ( C C C S ) .
Vj R^ ij
n (2.20)
v — R tBii
k 0U + Routik (2.21)
where:
B = G a i n over the controlling or measured current, applied as dependent current source at
branch k.
B y inserting equation 2.20 into 2.8 and equation 2.21 into 2.9 one can also obtain, re-
spectively, the following equations:
-vopeNj + r i jx A + ...
(2.22)
• + ( jj + in) ij + r ik
r R
jk + ••• + r j M i M = 0
VOPEN
o k
+ j ^ M i + ...
(2.23)
• • • + t e + B
H + t e + ) i
**+...+£>=0
Observe that the division by R out as done i n equation 2.23, allows the use of very large
numbers for R, out without numerical difficulties.
For an ideal current-controlled current source, R in = 0 and R out —• oo, resulting in:
-VOPENj + Tjiii + ... (2.24)

• + nh
r
+ jkik + ... + r
r
j M i M = 0
Bij + i = 0 k (2.25)
Voltage-Controlled Voltage Source ( V C V S )
T h e necessary equations for the implementation of a voltage-controlled voltage source as
illustrated i n F i g . 2.7 are 2.8 and 2.9, as well as:
-A/W -AAA-
R..
v
OPEN j [ THEV k\
r
0 0
A V;
F i g u r e 2.7: Voltage-controlled voltage source ( V C V S ) .

(2.26)
vk = Avj + R ik out = ARinij + Routik (2.27)
where:
A = G a i n over the controlling or measured voltage, applied as dependent voltage source at

branch k.
B y inserting equation 2.26 into 2.8 and dividing the resulting equation by R in to avoid
numerical difficulties, results in equation 2.28. In order to eliminate the voltages and keep
only the currents as variables, and also to allow the use of very large numbers for the gain
A , the following calculations are done: (equation 2.26 inserted into 2.8) minus the result of
[(equation 2.27 inserted into 2.9) and divided by the gain A ] . T h i s procedure eliminates Ri n
in the resulting equation 2.29:
(2.28)
I OPEN
v
. (
+ -
h
-VOPENj H ^ + [Tji
kk + Rout
+
r
- + ( jj ~ it)
r
h {rjk - 1.1.4-
A
R„... \ • (2.29)
Based on the equations 2.28 and 2.29 for a voltage-controlled voltage source, if
• A ->• oo,
• Ri —> oo, and

n
• Rout -> 0,
then equations 2.30 and 2.31 are obtained, which can be used to model "ideal operational
amplifiers". Note that the use of equation 2.31 only makes sense if there are feedback paths
modelled i n the network part, which create the "r,- " coupling resistance. T h e n equation 2.31
fc
will produce the correct current i , which is returned to the main program for the calculation
k
of voltages by compensation. Note also that the equation 2.31 is exactly stating that Vj = 0.
(Please, see equation 2.8.)
ij = 0 (2.30)
—vopeNj + fjih + ••• /2 3-n

••• + '[if ./ + jkik
1 r
+ ... + r j M i M = 0
Ideal Operational Amplifiers
The commercially available operational amplifier is in reality an integrated-circuit chip,

constructed essentially with many transistors and resistors in an integrated package. Oper-
ational amplifiers, often called O P A M P S , are frequently used in sensor circuits to amplify
signals, in active filtering and control circuits for compensation purposes and endless ap-
plications in analog electronics [79], [80], [81], [82]. F i g . 2.8 presents the symbol used for
representation of an operational amplifier. The voltage placed across the two input termi-
Figure 2.8: Symbol for operational amplifier.
nals (the non-inverting terminal (+) and the inverting terminal( —)), is to be amplified and
to appear at the output terminals (one of which is grounded, but this grounding is usually
omitted on the symbol). Since the gain of the operational amplifier is very high, it is neces-
sary to have an external feedback circuit to make it stable. "In practice the input resistance
R,in of an O P A M P is usually well i n excess of lMfl, the voltage gain A is at least 10 , and
5
the output resistance R out is a few tens of ohms " [79], and then it can usually be modelled
as a voltage-controlled voltage source ( V C V S ) . M a n y other electrical properties, which are
temperature and frequency dependent, have to be considered though in realistic applications.
In the ideal operational amplifier, no current would flow into the input terminals (R in —
oo as i n an open circuit), the output voltage would not be affected by the load connected
to the output terminal (R t ou — 0), and the gain would be infinite ( A = oo so that the
voltage at the non-inverting input terminal would be equal to the voltage at the inverting
input terminal). Therefore, the fundamental concepts for the analysis of circuits with ideal
operational amplifiers are to assume that the two input terminals of the ideal operational
amplifier constitute "at the same time" [77]:
• "an open circuit" (equation 2.30), A N D
• "a v i r t u a l short-circuit" (equation 2.31).
"In this thesis, i f not otherwise clearly indicated, the assumption is made that all opera-
tional amplifiers are ideal"!.
There are many variations and combinations of O P A M P circuits. T h e two basic ones
are the inverting amplifier ( F i g . 2.9) and the non-inverting amplifier circuit ( F i g . 2.10), w i t h
the transfer functions are given by equations 2.32 and 2.33 respectively. F i g . 2.11 illustrates
an adder, a special case of the inverting amplifier, where the output is a linear sum of the
input voltages, w i t h the transfer function given by equation 2.34. F i g . 2.12 shows an ideal
integrator, w i t h the transfer function as of equation 2.35.
Eo(s) _ _R2
Ei(s) m (2.32)
(2.33)
(2.34)
R2
Rl
e.(t) •—vw-
Figure 2.9: Inverting amplifier circuit.
R2
* (0
o
Rl
F i gure 2.10: Non-inverting amplifier circuit.
Rl R4
-AAA/—i r-AAA^-i
R2
AAA-
R3
•AAA/— 1
^(0
^(0
Figure 2.11: Adder circuit with operational amplifier.
E {s) _ l_
(2.35)
0
Ei(s) RCs
F i g . 2.13 presents a generalization of the inverting amplifier circuit, which is very useful
to obtain Laplace transfer functions by using the impedance approach [81]. W i t h the ideal
operational amplifier, a "virtual ground" potential appears at the inverting input terminal,
R
-A/VV
Figure 2.12: Ideal integrator circuit with operational amplifier.
since the non-inverting input terminal is grounded. Moreover, no current flows into the
input terminals of the ideal O P A M P . Therefore, the same current flowing through the
complex impedance Z (s) x has to flow through the complex impedance Z (s), 2 resulting in
Ei{s) = Z {s)I(s)
l and E {s)0 = —Z (s)I(s).
2 The transfer function for this generalized
inverter circuit is given by equation 2.36.
ZJs)
Z,(s)
E {s) E (s)
0
t
Figure 2.13: Generalization of inverter amplifier circuit.
For example, in the circuit shown in Fig. 2.14, the transfer function is derived with ideal
operational amplifier using the impedance approach.
The complex impedances Z\(s) and Z (s) for this circuit are:
2
Z {s) = R
l l (2.37)
Z
*(*) = crf^r = T^TT (2.38)
R2
Rl
AA/V
e.(t)
F i gure 2.14: First-order lag circuit using ideal operational amplifier.
The transfer function is therefore obtained as
Eq(s) ft. I
2
(2.39)
Ei(s) ~ i?., R Cs+-[
2
Voltage-Controlled C u r r e n t Source ( V C C S )
The necessary equations for the implementation of a voltage-controlled current source as

illustrated in Fig. 2.15 are 2.8 and 2.9, as well as:
•AA/V-
V,
OPEN j [ THEVj\
r
Figure 2.15: Voltage-controlled current source (VCCS).
(2.40)
Vk — RoutTVj + R ik
out
(2.41)
where:
T = G a i n over the controlling or measured voltage, applied as dependent current source at
branch k.
B y inserting equation 2.40 into 2.8 and dividing the resulting equation by Ri to avoid n
numerical difficulties, results i n equation 2.42. In order to eliminate the voltages and keep
only the currents as variables, and also to allow the use of very large numbers for R , out the
following calculations are done: V times (equation 2.40 inserted into 2.8) minus the result
of [(equation 2.41 inserted into 2.9) and divided by R t\- T h i s procedure eliminates R. in
ou in
the resulting equation 2.43:
în Y ^tn J fey A c\\
•••+ +£*+•••+3_'»=°.
- +( r r
« - £ : )v + ( r r
* - ™Sr) * + - <- > 2 43
- + ( >« ~ S )
Tr
= 0
For an ideal voltage-controlled current source, Ri —¥ oo and R n out —> oo, resulting i n :
ij = 0 (2.44)
-Fvopenj + rr-j-i.i + ...

... + Trjjij + (IYj-jfc - 1) i + ... + rr i
k jM M =0
2.2.3 Ideal Transformers
Even though an ideal transformer model has already been implemented i n most E M T P -
based programs, with the equations described i n [2] , or with similar equations, an ideal
transformer can also be implemented as a special dependent source. T h e necessary equations
for the implementation of the ideal transformer as illustrated i n F i g . 2.16 are 2.8 and 2.9,
as well as:
1 :n
l.
J
V
J
j( V
V,.
Figure 2.16: Ideal transformer.
Hi = I (2.46)
vk n
- = -n (2.47)
where:
- = ^ = turns ratio of the ideal transformer.
From the equations above and from 2.8 and 2.9, one can easily obtain:
ij+ni =0k (2.48)
. VOPENh . I rn \ • ,
-VQPENj + + {Tjl - - £ ) « ! +
... + b M - ^ ) i M = 0
Equations 2.48 and 2.49 can be used to model an ideal transformer. It is important to
mention that, normally, better models for electric transformers, which may include saturation
effects, are used in EMTP-based simulations. For further details, please see, for example,
references [2] and [6].
2.2.4 Independent Sources
It may be useful in a circuit or device model to have an independent current or indepen-
dent voltage source connected between two ungrounded nodes. This can be accomplished
with the same technique used for dependent sources, but using only one equation in this
case.
Independent Current Source
Assuming that the independent current source is connected between nodes c and d with
branch voltage
vk = vc - v d (2.50)
and branch current
1-k = led (2.51)
then the necessary equations for the implementation of an independent current source as
illustrated in Fig. 2.17 are:
[ THEV k\
r
C^) hource R t
ou 0 "OPEN k
\
F i gure 2.17: Independent current source.
-voPEN + r \ i \ + ...
(2.52)
k k
•+ r k k i k + ...+ r k M i M + vk = 0
Vk R-outisource "b Rout^k (2.53)
where:
isource = independent current source of branch k, which can be constant or a function of

time.
From the equations above, one can also obtain the following equation:
l F t
+ _ i - i i + ...
u
(2.54)
= 0
For the ideal current source, R out -> oo, resulting in:
1'k ~f~ ^ source 0 (2.55)
Of course, there is a much easier way to represent an independent current source between
nodes c and d directly in the nodal equations of the E M T P : inject the current source into
node c and with a negative sign into node d [2].
Independent V o l t a g e Source
The necessary equations for the implementation of an independent voltage source as

illustrated in Fig. 2.18 are:
*• A/W
J R
out
[ THEV k~\
r
6 "OPEN k
Figure 2.18: Independent voltage source.
•VoPEN + rkih + ...

(2.56)
k
•+ r i k k k + ... + r k M i M + v = 0
k
Vk V source -\- Routik (2.57)

where:
vsource = independent voltage source of branch k, which can be constant or a function of

time.
From the equations above, one can also obtain the following equation:
~VOPEN + r iU + ...
(2.58)
k k
••• + (r k + Rout) ik + •••+ TkM^M + v

k source = 0
For an ideal voltage source, R o u t = 0, resulting in:
-v pEN + r i i + ...
(2.59)
0 k k i
••• + fkkik + ... + r Mi]W k + Vsource = 0
Another approach for voltage sources between ungrounded nodes frequently used in
EMTP-based programs is the insertion of an ideal transformer between the two ungrounded
nodes, with a voltage source to ground on the other side.
2.2.5 Newton-Raphson Algorithm
The equations for current and voltage dependent sources have been presented in the
previous sections, as well as the equations of independent sources which may be connected
between two ungrounded nodes. The solution of these equations is based on the compensation
method, which is already being used to solve nonlinear equations associated with nonlinear
elements in electric or electronic circuits with Newton-Raphson (N-R) iteration schemes. The
Newton-Raphson algorithm is well known, widely used and has quadratic convergence if the
initial estimate is close to the solution. For completeness, the Newton-Raphson algorithm is
presented in this section as it is in [77] and the reader is referred to mathematical books or
numerical analysis books or network solutions books, if more detailed information is needed.
In the scalar case the N - R iteration to solve
f{x) = 0 (2.60)
is given by
xk+i = X k + Axk = k_
x f( )/f'(x ),
x
k k
(2.61)
where the iteration count is denoted by the superscripts.
Consider now the system of M nonlinear equations f in M variables x t {
fi(xi,x , 2 • • -,x ) M = 0
f (x ,x ,
2 l 2 • • -,x ) M = 0
(2.62)
Im(xi,X2, . . .,x ) M = 0
Denote, for easy notation, the vector of variables by [x] and the vector of functions by
[f(x)]. T h e n 2.62 has a compact form:
[/ (*)] = o (2.63)
Assume that the system has a solution; denote it by [x*] and expand each function in a
Taylor series about [x\:
dxl* ( *m x Xm
) +
fAxn=f2(x) + ^(xl-X )
l + l^(x* -X ) 2 2 + . . . + ^(x* -X ) M M + ...
(2.64)
f (Tn
M = f (x)
M + ^(xt-X ) 1 + ^(x* -X ) 2 2 + . . . + ^-(x* -X ) M M +
A s s u m i n g that x is close to x*, higher order terms may be neglected and the system may
be written in linearized form:
[/ (X')]*[f(x)] + [J]([X*]-[X]) (2.65)
where
r dh_ Ml .. . 9h -j
dxi 0X2
dh dh d
m
dx\ dX2 dXM
[J] Ix = (2.66)
dfM dfM dfM
- dxi dx 2
0x -1
M
is the Jacobian m a t r i x of the function [f(x)\, which has to be calculated at each iteration
step. If equation 2.65 is set to zero and solved, the result w i l l not be the vector [x*] (because
the higher-order terms have been neglected) but some new value for [x]. Using superscripts
to indicate the iteration count results in:
[f(x )]+[J]
k
([x ] k+l
- [x ])
k
=0 (2.67)
Formally, the solution of 2.67 is obtained by writing
[x ^]
k
= [x ] - k
[J]" [/
1
(x )]
k
(2.68)
In practice, the Jacobian matrix is not inverted. Instead define
Ax ]k
= [x ] k+l
— [x k
(2.69)
Then
[J] [Ax ] k
[f (**)] (2.70)
is solved by L U factorization and the new [x ] k+1

is obtained from
(2.71)
Formulae 2.70 and 2.71 represent the Newton-Raphson algorithm for systems of equa-
tions, which reduce the error norm iteratively so that
[f (* )}\\k+1
< \\[f (*")] (2.72)
This iterations scheme is repeated until the errors are lower than a specified tolerance.
For the case of a system of linear equations, as in the case of linear dependent sources,
convergence to the solution is achieved with just one iteration step. More iteration steps
are required for the solution of a system of nonlinear equations depending on how close the
initial guess is to the final solution. For highly nonlinear functions, the standard application
of the iteration scheme of the Newton-Raphson algorithm may cause numerical problems
involving computer overflows.
The solution algorithm experimentally implemented in the MicroTran version of the

E M T P at The University of British Columbia is presented in Fig. 2.19. This method
presents "generality and flexibility properties", thus looking promising for future work in
detailed modelling of circuits and devices, as will be explained later in this thesis.
INPUT DATA
INITIAL G U E S S
FOR CURRENTS
CALCULATION OF
SET VARIABLE
BRANCH VOLTAGES
T O ITS LIMIT
[from E q . (2.6) or (2.1)]
CALCULATION OF
RIGHT HAND SIDE
[negative v a l u e s Yes
o f E q . (2.1)]
CHECK FOR
LIMITS
BUILD JACOBIAN MATRIX

[PARTIAL derivatives
o f E q . (2.1)]
RETURN CURRENTS
TO MAIN P R O G R A M
SOLVE FOR CURRENTS
UPDATE
CURRENTS
Figure 2.19: Newton-Raphson algorithm experimentally implemented in MicroTran.

2.2. Current and Voltage Dependent, Sources in EMTP-based Programs 40
2.2.6 Possible Applications
The methodology presented in the previous sections for the implementation of dependent
sources in EMTP-based programs permits the computational development of many practical
applications, such as:
1. Current, and voltage sensors;
2. Operational amplifiers;
3. User-defined coupled branches in a circuit;
4. Modelling of electronic components, where the physical behavior would need to be

represented by nonlinear equations;
5. User-defined linear and nonlinear functions;
6. User-defined modelling of linear and nonlinear devices, limited only by the creativity
and ingenuity of the user.
Figure 2.20 and Fig. 2.21 illustrate the solution method with an example of a noninverting
amplifier circuit, as commonly used in practical analog electronics. It consists of a sinusoidal
voltage source, an ideal operational amplifier and 2 resistors (Rf and R ). The ideal opera-
g
tional amplifier was modelled using equations 2.30 and 2.31, whereas the sinusoidal voltage
source and the resistors are part of the network, represented through a Thevenin equivalent
circuit. If Rf = 2R , then v
g output = 3 ^ „ , as shown in Fig. 2.21. Alternatively, to get
n p t
an amplification of 3 in circuit simulation, one could just use a voltage-controlled voltage

source, with equations 2.28 and 2.29 with the gain A set to a value of 3. In this case a
load resistor should be connected in the output of the dependent source, to avoid numerical
floating subnetwork problems.
Indeed, in theory this noninverting amplifier circuit should result in:
(2.73)
v. v.output
input
input=1.QUE [V]
/=60 [Hz]
Figure 2.20: Circuit with ideal operational amplifier.
Figure 2.21: Simulation results of circuit with ideal operational amplifier (noninverting amplifier circuit).
The next sections will present a technique for the simulation of transfer functions in
EMTP-based programs, some improvements already made for the implementation of satura-
tion or limits for the elements or sources presented in this work, as well as the implementation
of some other special control devices.
2.3. Development of Control Transfer Functions in EMTP-based Programs 42
2.3 Development of Control Transfer Functions in E M T P -

based Programs
A transfer function as in Fig. 2.22, is defined in the frequency domain (Laplace transfor-
mation of a continuous time system) by the equation 2.74, which represents the output signal
X(s) as a function of the input signal U(s) for a particular linear time-invariant system.
H(s)
Figure 2.22: Transfer function.
X(s) bs m
+ 6 _ s - + ... + M + b ' m 1 1
B(s)
H(s) =
m m 1 0
= k (2.74)
U(s) as n
n
+ a -is - n
n 1
+ ... + a-iS + a .
1
0 A(s)
with n>m, and a f 0.

n
It is possible to reorganize the terms of equation 2.74 as follows:
(a s n
n
+a _isn
n _ 1
+ ... + axs + a ) X(s) = 1
0
(2.75)
k {b s m
m
+b _ m l S
m
- 1
+ ... + M 1
+ & o ) U(s)
(2.76)
( -^s
b r
„m—1 - •" + ...+ t j - ) U(s)
n
X(s) = k (£. -n -1-71

+
+
(2.77)
2.3. Development of C o n t r o l Transfer Functions in E M T P - b a s e d Programs 43
For m = n, 4
this results in:
X(s) = k( -^ b
+ ^ i - i + ...
s
(2.78)
v
' \o, n an
+ iLgl-n + bL -n\
s rffg) _ ( + ... + oj. l-n + ao ~n\
s W )
s
X(8) = k±U(s) + s-* k -Û{s)-^X{s)

b
+
(2.79)
+s l-n kÛ(s) - ^X(s) kÛ(s) - ^X(s)
X(s) = k U{s)
b
t + s- 1
{ (k -Û(s)
b
- *^X{8)) + ...
(2.80)
.. + s
A transfer function block-diagram realization of equation 2.80 is presented in F i g . 2.23,
which, according to [79], is called the observer form.
T h e solution technique proposed i n this thesis is based on the fact that a practical
realization of a transfer function block-diagram can be accomplished w i t h the use of circuit
components, such as operational amplifiers, resistors and capacitors . In practice, an analog 5
signal processing scheme is usually designed as the first step for a digital signal processing
derivation. Moreover, i n this work, the derivation of an analog circuit model for the transfer
function implementation takes advantage of all the options already implemented i n E M T P -
based programs, and redundant computational work is avoided. T h i s way, the equations for
the digital model of a transfer function are automatically constructed inside the E M T P , which
4
I f m < 77, then b n = = ... = 6 + i = 0.
m
5
Analog computers were commonly used in the past to solve power system control and stability differential
equations [83].
2.3. Development of Control Transfer Functions in E M T P - b a s e d Programs 44
U(s)
X(s)
F i gure 2.23: Observer form block-diagram of transfer function in equation 2.80.
uses the trapezoidal integration rule, or the backward Euler rule whenever C D A technique is
applied [84], [85]. W i t h analog circuit modelling based on operational amplifiers, the method
presented here is general and allows an arbitrary design of transfer functions (or many special
control devices) by the users of E M T P - b a s e d programs.
A simplification can be made i n a computer transfer function implementation, in contrast
to a physical circuit implementation, i n order to reduce the number of operational amplifiers
needed: resistances and capacitances can assume negative values . A s long as the system
6
eigenvalues (or poles of the transfer function) remain on the left hand side of the complex
plane, the system is stable. Negative values then may be used here for capacitances and
resistances connected on the feedback path of the "ideal operational amplifiers", which re-
sults in a stable solution for transfer functions of linear systems. Such a possible computer
implementation of the transfer function block-diagram of F i g . 2.23 is presented in F i g . 2.24.
Assume for example, that the first-order transfer function illustrated in the block-diagram
of F i g . 2.25 is to be implemented w i t h the proposed technique. E q u a t i o n 2.80 becomes in

P r o p e r precautions should be taken, though, whenever the equivalent digital self admittance of a node
6
becomes equal to zero. The connection of large resistances to the node can easily solve this problem.
Figure 2.24: Possible computer implementation of the transfer function block-diagram in Fig. 2.23.
10
0.01s + 1
Figure 2.25: Block-diagram representation of a first-order transfer function.
this case, with n = 1:
X{ )
S = s-' (kÛ(s) - ^X(s)) (2.81)
where, for illustration purposes,

kb = 10,
0
a = 1 and
n
a-[ = 0.01 seconds.
The observer form block-diagram for equation 2.81 is presented in Fig. 2.26, and its
"possible computer implementation" is illustrated in Fig. 2.27. The realization of this first-
order transfer function can also be done with a physically-based realistic first-order lag circuit
as shown in Fig. 2.28, which requires two inverting amplifier circuits , instead of just one
7
7
The author acknowledges the help of Mr. Jesus Calvifio-Fraga in a practical laboratory experiment for
required in the "more economic" computer implementation. There may be cases where the
realistic implementation is needed, which the proposed method can handle as well without
any restrictions. Fig. 2.29 presents the time domain transient response x(t) of the first order
transfer function implemented as in Fig. 2.27 and as in Fig. 2.28, for a pulse u(t) of IV
with a duration of 25ms.
U(s)
kb n
X(s)
Figure 2.26: Observer form block-diagram of first-order transfer function of Fig. 2.25.
u(t)
- io kn
kbn
-AAAr
- IJIF - l|iF
u(t)
x(t) 1 kCl
— 1 6 -
x(t)
-AAAr-
r 1
MQ
Figure 2.27: Possible computer implementation of first-order transfer function of Fig. 2.25.
the circuit of Fig. 2.28, which validated the simulation results presented in Fig. 2.29.
10 kCl
luF io kn
u(t)
1 kfi x(t)
io kn x(t)
-AA/V
-AAAr-
1 1 1
Fi gure 2.28: Realistic first-order lag circuit.
20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Time (ms )
Figure 2.29: Time domain simulation of first-order transfer functi>
This technique can easily be used with the solution for the "ideal operational amplifiers"
implemented in subroutine C O N N E C . There is no time delay between the electric network
and control equations as in TACS, and the solution of both systems of equations is simulta-
neous. The modified nodal analysis method (MNA) [76] could also be used for the solution
of operational amplifiers and other "linear branch equations" as presented in [77] . However,
2.4. Development of Limiters for Control Systems in EMTP-based Programs 48
with the modified nodal analysis (MNA), the network and control system equation matrix
becomes unsymmetric, and zero diagonal elements may appear, which requires pivoting tech-
niques. Also, as the number of added branch equations increases, requiring extra columns
and extra rows, the dimension of the matrix may become very large, which may eventually
decrease the computational efficiency, if proper techniques are not used. Possibily, if the sim-
ulation time becomes a very important issue, as in the case of digital real-time simulators,
a combined solution could be investigated, such that all linear control and system equations
could be solved using the M N A with appropriate techniques, and the remaining nonlinear
equations could be solved with the compensation method. The main motivation here in this
thesis for using the compensation method with a Newton-Raphson iterative algorithm is its
"generality and flexibility" to model nonlinear (and linear as a special case) control devices
in EMTP-based programs, particularly because the branch Thevenin equivalent circuit is
readily available, as in the C O N N E C subroutine of MicroTran.
The implementation of limits associated with first order transfer functions, as well as
special devices and intrinsic F O R T R A N functions, are presented in the following sections.
2.4 Development of Limiters for Control Systems in

EMTP-based Programs
The use of limiters in control loops may introduce extra time delays in the solution
method implemented in TACS. This can result in inaccuracies and instabilities [66], [67].
The technique proposed in this thesis for the solution of limiters overcomes this difficulty.
With the Newton-Raphson iterative algorithm in the compensation method, a simultaneous
solution for limiters can be found.
There are two types of limiters associated with first-order transfer functions : windup
(also referred to as static limiter) and non-windup (dynamic limiter) [66], [2]. "Non-windup
limiters should only be used with first-order transfer functions. For second and higher-order
transfer functions it is no longer clear which variables should be limited. ... Even for the first-
order transfer function, the meaning of the limiting function is confused if it has any zeros"
[2]. Reference [66] presents an appropriate model for a proportional-integral (PI) controller
(which can be represented as a transfer function with one zero) with a non-windup limiter.
In a lead-lag control function block, for example, the way in which a non-windup limiter can
be realized is not unique; the interpretation of the limiting action should therefore be based
on the electronic implementation of the physical device [86].
The main difference between windup and non-windup limiters is the way in which the
limited variable comes off its limit. To illustrate that, the first-order transfer function pre-
sented earlier in Fig. 2.25 is assumed to have a windup limiter as in Fig. 2.30, and a
non-windup limiter as in Fig. 2.31. The time domain simulation of the output variable x(t)
for both cases, for a pulse input excitation u(t) of I V , is presented in Fig. 2.32.
10
/
/
U(s)
0.01 s + 1
Figure 2.30: First-order transfer function with windup (static) limiter.
+ 5
/ slope=l
10
U(s) X(s)
0.01s + 1
F i gure 2.31: First-order transfer function with non-windup (dynamic) limiter.
Note that the output variable x(t) reaches its limit at the same time for both cases, but
x(t) backs off the limit first for the non-windup (dynamic) limiter. The reason is that for the
windup limiter the output variable is just clipped at the limit, whereas in the non-windup
limiter the differential equation is actually modified [66], [87], [2].
10
x(t) without limiter
& 5
y x(t) with
.A windup limiter
(static)
x(t) with
non-windup limiter
(dynamic)
u(t) /
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Time (ms )
Figure 2.32: Transient response of afirst-ordertransfer function with windup and non-windup limiter.
The implemented solution for limiters uses the methodology proposed in Section 2.2.1.
As indicated in the algorithm illustrated in Fig. 2.19 of Section 2.2.5, a simultaneous system
solution is first, found without, considering any of the limits. Then, each limit violation is
verified in the sequence of the input, data given by the user. If a particular limit has been
reached, all previous indications of limit violations are cleared, and a solution is found for this
particular limiter and all of its consequences on the other limiters. This cause-consequence
iterative process has been found to be a very "robust method" in all cases tested, and has
given the correct solution for all limiters, "independent of the ordering of the input data given
by the user". Also, because the compensation method is properly applied , the solution for 8
limiters is simultaneous without time delays.
The maximum (x ) max and minimum (x ) min limiting values are part of the input data. For
TACS seems to use a pseudo-compensation method to solve limiters [2].
example, in the case of the first order transfer function with a non-windup limiter illustrated
in Fig. 2.31, with a computer model as in Fig. 2.27, it is possible to represent the non-windup
hard limiting action with a simple change in the equations for the ideal operational amplifier,
such that equations 2.30 and 2.31 are replaced by equations 2.82 and 2.83, respectively:
—vopen •+ Tjii\ + ... 3 ('2 82)

••• + ij j + j>dk + ... + r iM
r i r
jM = 0
-v<DPEN + r iii + ...

k k (2 83)
... + r ij + r i + ... + r
kj k k k k M i M + v -.
k lirnit = 0
where v —n n
k m x m a x > or v —nmit
k %min-
By using these equations it becomes easy to observe the limits accurately. In practice,
in a realistic first order lag circuit, as in Fig. 2.28, the clamping action is done with the use
of Zener diodes connected in parallel with the capacitor in the feedback loop of thefirstO P
A M P for a non-windup (dynamic) limiter, or with Zener diodes connected in parallel with
the resistor in the feedback loop of the "second" O P A M P for a windup (static) limiter . 9
Another example is the simple limiter control block. In this case, one could use the
equations for an "ideal voltage-controlled voltage source" including the limiting values in
the output voltage, as follows:
ij = 0 (2.84)
-v PEN
0 k +r H kl + ... « 2 8 5 v
••• + r ij
kj +r i k k k + ... + r k M i M +v _
k [imit = 0
where v —n n — ^-man or v —n n =
k m k m x i. m n
Implementation of soft limits
The limiters presented in the previous section assume fixed values (hard limits) for the
maximum and minimum of the output variable. It may be useful to allow soft limits as
well, as recommended in [2]. With soft limits, the slopes in the limited region are nonzero.
9
The author acknowledges the help of Mr. Jesus Calvino-Fraga in a practical laboratory experiment,
which validated the simulation results presented in Fig. 2.32.
Hard limits are then just a special case of soft limits when the slopes are set to zero. The
equations for soft limits, with the notation from Fig. 2.33, are:
Ku(t), if x
min < Ku(t) < x m a x ,
x(t) = \ x + K [u(t)
min min - u - ],
m m if Ku(t) < x - ,
m m (2.86)
£max + K [u(t)
max - Umax], if Ku(t) > X . m!iX
Consider, for example, the zero-order transfer function (constant gain) in Fig. 2.34. The
time domain response for a sinusoidal excitation input u(t) of I V is presented in Fig. 2.35,
illustrating the effects of hard and soft limits on the output, x(t).
In this thesis project, soft limits (and hard limits as a special case) have been implemented
for all the current and voltage dependent sources presented in Section 2.2. Limits can also
be easily implemented for all the F O R T R A N functions and special devices which will be
discussed in the following sections.
Figure 2.35: Time domain response for a sinusoidal excitation input u(t) illustrating the effects of hard
and soft limits on the output x{t).
2.5. Development of Intrinsic F O R T R A N Functions in EMTP-based Programs 54
2.5 Development of Intrinsic F O R T R A N Functions in

EMTP-based Programs
"Supplemental variables and devices", as defined by the E M T P Rule Book, differ in

TACS from the transfer function blocks, as follows:
1. they are not, solved with the matrix of the set of linear equations in TACS.
2. they are calculated sequentially, instead of simultaneously (so that the data cards must
be ordered accordingly).
Supplemental variables, such as intrinsic F O R T R A N functions and special devices, are

solved in T A C S in a sequential way. "In Fig. 2.36, the special device 51 would be solved
after G2 has been solved, and 52 would be solved after 673 has been solved. The solution
would still be simultaneous in this case. In general, the sequence of calculations is more
complicated, with non-simultaneous solutions through time delays. For details, the reader
should consult the E M T P Rule Book" [2]. The sequential solution requires a definition by
the user of "input (e.g. 51 in Fig. 2.36", "output (e.g. 53 in Fig. 2.36)" and "inside (e.g.
52 in Fig. 2.36)" groups of devices. A special ordering of these device blocks is necessary
to minimize the time delays introduced by this sequential solution method. "To make the
solution as much simultaneous as possible, the user should keep the number of internal
devices as low as possible, and use input and output devices instead whenever possible" [2].
G,(s) G (s)
2 A. G (s)
3
17
F i gure 2.36: Open loop control system with "supplemental devices S1,S2 and 53".
In this research project a "truly simultaneous solution" is achieved for intrinsic FOR-
T R A N functions, and no special ordering is necessary, i.e., the input of data by the user is
arbitrary. The solution technique applies the compensation method in a similar way as done
in Section 2.2 for the implementation of current and voltage dependent sources. Assume, for
example, the control block-diagram of Fig. 2.37, with a nonlinear relationship between the
output voltage v (t) and the input voltage Vj(t).
k
v. K SIN(K,v.) v.
j
2
F i gure 2.37: Nonlinear control block-diagram with a sinusoidal intrinsic FORTRAN function.
A simultaneous solution can be obtained for this nonlinear function by representing the
block-diagram of Fig. 2.37 in the form of an electric circuit as shown in Fig. 2.38. The nec-
essary equations are 2.87 and 2.88 and the branch equations 2.89 and 2.90. These equations
resemble those of a voltage-controlled voltage source presented in Section 2.2.
-AA/V AA/V-
[ THEVy]
r R,,
'OPEN j [ THEV /J
r
0
K sin (KjVj)
2
Figure 2.38: Circuit implementation for the simultaneous solution of a sinusoidal FORTRAN functiion.
For the controlling branch, the equation is
-vopen; + r i i + ...
87")
n
(2
••• + jj j
r i
+ jkkr
+ ••• + r j M i M + Vj = 0
and for the dependent source branch it is

-voPEN +r ih k k + - , 2 8 8 N
••• + r ij + r
kj k k i k + ... + r k M i M + v = 0
k
where:

k
rkk = Thevenin resistance (self resistance of branch k).

k
Vj = RtJj (2.89)
v = K (sin {K ))
k 2 lVj +R i out k = K (sin {K R i ))
2 x in 3 +R i
out k (2.90)
where:
R~i = Gain over the controlling or measured voltage.

K = Gain applied to the dependent source in branch k.
2
From the equations above, one can also obtain the following equations:
JL
in \ -•'•in /
(2.91)
-voPEN + r -[i + ...

(2.92)
k k x
... + [r ij + K (sin (iTii?.^^))] + (r

ki 2 kk + R ) i + ... + r
out k k M i M =0
If a large number is used for Ri n

1 0
, then the solution for the current ij will be very small
but not exactly equal to zero. This allows the convergence to a non trivial solution for the
current i , and of course, for the input and output voltages of this nonlinear control block
k
of a sine function.
These equations can then be solved with the implemented Newton-Raphson algorithm
illustrated in Fig. 2.19, of Section 2.2. Note that for the proper application of the compen-
sation method there must always be possible a Thevenin equivalent circuit. Therefore, in
cases where there is a floating subnetwork, i.e., a node without connection to ground (as for
example if the output of an intrinsic F O R T R A N function has no circuit elements connected
to ground), then the insertion of a big resistance between this node and ground easily over-
comes this problem, as is usually done in some versions of the E M T P for the solution of
nonlinear elements [2].
Applying this technique, the following nonlinear intrinsic F O R T R A N functions were im-
plemented,
• SIN
In theory Rin -> oo, making ij = 0, which would result in a trivial solution for equation 2.92.
10
Rout is
obviously assumed to be equal zero.
2.5. Development of Intrinsic F O R T R A N Functions i n E M T P - b a s e d Programs 57
• COS
• TAN
• COTAN
• SINH
• COSH
• TANH
• ASIN
• ACOS
• ATAN
• EXP
• LOG
. LOG10
• SQRT,
as well as the mathematical operations 1 1

:
• multiplication (*)
• division (/)
• exponentiation (**).
Proper precautions were taken to handle mathematical and computational problems such
as division by zero, square root of negative number, exponentiation of negative number
w i t h non-integer exponent, logarithm of zero or of negative values, etc.. T h e evaluation of
trigonometric functions accepts the argument in degrees, which is then converted to radians
internally. T h e inverse of trigonometric functions gives the answer already converted to
degrees.
1 1
Addition (+) and subtraction (—) can be implemented with the use of just one ideal operational amplifier.
2.6. Development of Control Devices i n E M T P - b a s e d Programs 58
2.6 Development of Control Devices in EMTP-based

Programs
A simultaneous solution is also obtained for special control devices, by using the same
approach presented i n the previous section. T h e i r input can be i n arbitrary order defined
by the user. T o illustrate the potential of this technique, the detailed development of some
useful special devices w i l l be presented.
Transport Delay
Assume, for example, the time delay control block-diagram of F i g . 2.39, (also called
"transport delay" i n T A C S ) , where the input voltage Vj(i) only affects the output after the
elapsed time t + r, or conversely, the output voltage Vk[t) only depends on the past history
value of the input voltage, i.e., v (t — r ) .

3
DELAY ) • v k
Figure 2.39: Transport delay control device.
T h e transport delay of F i g 2.39 can be represented i n the form of an electric circuit 1 2
as i n F i g . 2.40, w i t h circuit equations 2.93 and 2.94, and branch equations 2.95 and 2.96.
If not otherwise indicated, a l l the current and voltage variables are the instantaneous values
at, the present time t.
For the controlling branch, the equation is
—vopeNj + r + ... (2 93)
and for the dependent source branch
-VoPEN + r \i\ + ...

k k ^ 94)
2
... + r ij + r i + ... + r
kj kk k k M i M + v =0
k
12
For generality reasons, the equations are derived including R in and R, , however the ideal equations
out
are used in the computer implementation.

2.6. Development of Control Devices in E M T P - b a s e d Programs 59
-AA/V -A/VV
[ THEV j] R. R„. [ THEV k\

V r
y
OPEN j
0 0
K Vj(t-x)
2
Figure 2.40: Circuit, implementation for the simultaneous solution of a transport delay control device,
where:
voPEN = voltage v for [i] = 0 (open circuit).

k k
rkk — Thevenin resistance (self resistance of branch k).

k
Vj Ri Zjn (2.95)
v = K Vj (t-r)+
k 2 Routik (2.96)
where:
K = G a i n applied to the controlling or measured past history voltage Vj(t - r ) , to create

2
an independent source at time t, i n branch k.
F r o m the equations above, one can also obtain the following equations:
(2.97)
-v<DPEN + r iii + ...

k k
(2.98)
... + rîj + (r + R ) i + ... + r
kk out k k M i M + i C ^ - (t - r ) = 0
If Ri —>• oo and i ?
n o u t —> 0, then
ij = 0 (2.99)
-voPEN + r ]ii + ...

(2.100)
k k
• + fcj j + fcfcU + ••• + r

r ?; r
k M i M + iC^y (i - r ) = 0
2.6. Development of Control Devices i n E M T P - b a s e d Programs 60
which can be solved w i t h the implemented Newton-Raphson algorithm illustrated i n F i g .
2.19, of Section 2.2.
Considering that the delay time r is not usually an integer multiple of the simulation
time step At, some type of interpolation must be used. Linear interpolation has been chosen
for that purpose, i n a way similar to the transient time domain simulation of a transmission
line model [1], [2]. F i g . 2.41 illustrates the time response of a transport delay control device
where r = 4.1667ms, A t = 166.6667/its, K2 = 1; the input voltage signal Vj(t) is a sinusoidal
source of I V . Note i n F i g . 2.41 that the output voltage signal Vk(t) is actually equal to the
input voltage signal Vj(t), but delayed i n time i n 4.1667ms.
1.5 delayed signal
0.5
-0.5 delay
4.1667ms
-1.5
-j 1 i i i i i i_
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Time (ms)
Figure 2.41: Transient simulation of a transport delay control device.
Pulse Delay
A p p l y i n g the same technique used for the implementation for a transport delay, it is
possible to develop a model for a pulse delay control device. In a pulse delay, the negative to
2.6. Development of Control Devices in EMTP-based Programs 61
positive and positive to negative zero crossings of the input signal are detected and a pulse is
created with the specified delay and with the width of respective time between the two zero
crossings of the input signal. This way there is no need to store all the past history values of
the input signal, just the respective times of zero crossing, which is a "more computational
economic" delay if the output signal will always have to be a pulse, irrespective of the shape
of the input signal. Fig. 2.42 illustrates the time response of a pulse delay control device
where r = 20ms, K2 = 1, and the input voltage signal Vj(t) is a I V pulse source. Fig. 2.43
shows the time response of a pulse delay control device where r = 20ms, K2 = 1, and the
input voltage signal Vj(t) is an arbitrary signal source.
delayed pulse
1.5
0.5
<3
-0.5 20ms delay
-1
-1.5
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Time (ms)
F i gure 2.42: Transient simulation of a pulse delay control device.

~i r 1 r
delayed pulse
1.5
0.5
§J, 0
-0.5 20ms delay
-1h
-1.5p
-i i_ _i i_
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Time (ms )
F i gure 2.43: Pulse delay control device with arbitrary input signal.
Logic Gate " N O T "
The necessary equations for the simultaneous solution of a logic gate N O T , as illustrated
in Fig. 2.44 and Fig. 2.45, are 2.93, 2.94, 2.95 and
vk = K (l-Vj)2 + R ik
out (2.101)
where:
K = 1 is the gain over the controlling or measured voltage (with either Vj = 0 or Vj = 1),
2
being applied as a dependent source in branch k.
Figure 2.44: Logic gate "NOT".

AAAr -A/VV
[ THEV j\
r R. R..
OPEN j [ THEV k\
r
6 0
K( 1 - v )
2 }
F i gure 2.45: Circuit, implementation of a logic gate "NOT" for simultaneous solution.
From equations 2.93, 2.94, 2.95 and equation 2.101, one can also obtain the following
equations:
+
(2.102)
-VOPENJ ~ ^ + 1 + (r„ + FT) i, +
K J "J 2
(2.103)
JjM + -ff) IM
T
=0
If R in —» oo, R out - » 0 and K 2 = 1, then the following equations are obtained:
(2.104)
-VOPENJ - VOPEN K + 1 + {r jx + r) kl ii + ...
• + ( jj r
+ kj) ij + (r
r
jk + r )kk ik + ... (2.105)
• + {tjm + r ) kM %m =0
Other logic gates, such as " A N D " , " N A N D " , " O R " , " N O R " , etc. can be implemented
in a similar way.
Chapter 3
Power Electronics M o d e l l i n g i n
E M T P - b a s e d Simulations
"The application of semiconductor devices in the electric power field has been steadily
increasing, and a study of power electronics (as it is commonly called) is now a feature
of most electrical and electronics engineering courses. The power semiconductor devices,
such as the diode, thyristor, triac, and power transistor, are used in power applications as
switching devices. The development of theory and application relies heavily on waveforms
and transient responses, which distinguishes the subject of power electronics from many
other engineering studies" [88].
"Computer simulation can greatly aid in the analysis, design and education of Power
Electronics. However, simulation of power electronics systems is made challenging by the
following factors: 1) extreme nonlinearity presented by the switches, 2) time constants within
the system may differ by several orders of magnitude, and 3) a lack of models. Therefore, it is
important that the objective of the computer analysis be evaluated carefully and appropriate
simulation packages be chosen" [89].
"In system level investigation, it is often adequate to represent semiconductor switches

within converters by ideal switches. This is important in order to minimize the overall
simulation time. But, it is very desirable if the same simulation package has the detailed
device models to design snubbers and gate drives. The simulation package should also be
able to represent the controller portion of the converter system by its functional features
64
3.1. Modelling Power Electronics in Electric Power Engineering Applications 65
in as simplified a manner as possible. Yet, it should be able to model the controller on a

component level if needed" [89].
The preceding quotations show the need for the development and implementation of
simplified as well as detailed nonlinear models of semiconductor devices in EMTP-based
programs. Such models can be used for the transient simulation of electromagnetic phe-
nomena in low and high power circuit networks. They are especially useful for the detailed
evaluation of the impact of power electronic devices on electric power quality, which is the
main emphasis of this thesis. For power quality studies, transient phenomena have to be
evaluated not only at the interface between power electronic devices and the power system,
but, the propagation of transients through the supply network and neighboring systems, and
the impact of transients coming from the supply power system on the electronic devices have
to be analyzed as well. The following sections discuss some of the I E E E recommendations
for power electronics modelling, the simultaneous solution of voltage-controlled switches in
EMTP-based programs, the implementation of a nonlinear diode model, and some aspects
of control of power electronic devices.
3.1 Modelling Power Electronics in Electric Power En-

gineering Applications
Fig. 3.1 presents the major power semiconductor devices: Diode, Thyristor, Gate
Turn-Off (GTO) Thyristor and Gate-Controlled Thyristor (GCT), MOS Turn-Off Thyristor
(MTO), Emitter Turn-Off Thyristor (ETO), M O S Controlled Thyristor ( M C T ) , Transistor,
Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT), and Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect
Transistor ( M O S F E T ) [90]. Some of these semiconductor devices are already well known.
High-power semiconductor devices with increasing switching and power capabilities appear
on the market every year (such as the Integrated Gate-Commutated Thyristors (IGCTs)),
which extend the potential applications of modern power electronics techniques to basically
all voltage levels in utility companies and industrial sites. Models for the existing and new
power electronics devices are therefore necessary for analyzing existing or future applications.
DIODE THYRISTOR GTO and GCT

Cathode Cathode Cathode
Gate Gate
A zx £ (turn-on)
A
(turn-on &
turn-off)
Anode Anode Anode
MTO ETO MCT

Cathode Cathode Cathode
Turn-off Gate
Turn-on Turn-off
-• Turn-on Gate Gate
Gate * \ Gate £ (turn-on &
turn-off)
Anode Anode Anode
TRANSISTOR IGBT MOSFET

Emitter Emitter Source
Base Gate -x -« Gate
Collector Collector Drain
Figure 3.1: Power semiconductor devices.

3.1. M o d e l l i n g Power Electronics in Electric Power Engineering Applications 67
Guidelines for modeling power electronics in electric power engineering applications, es-
pecially for use in E M T P - b a s e d programs, can be found in [91], [92]. These guidelines can
also be useful when using other digital simulation tools. T h e approximately 60 test cases in
the computer exercise collection of D r . N . M o h a n [93], [94], [89] which are available for both
E M T P and PSpice® simulations, are also useful for power electronics digital simulations.
In particular, the differences between existing E M T P and PSpice models may give hints for
the improvement of E M T P models. D r . N e d M o h a n also presents i n [89] a power electronics
library w i t h special sub-circuits, which are used to represent switching electronic devices
and some control devices. According to [89] "in case of extreme nonlinearity, PSpice uses
extremely small time steps and is also prone to problems of voltage convergence. To avoid
this problem of extreme nonlinearity such as that associated with diodes, R - C snubbers are
connected across them. T h e values of R and C in these snubbers are not optimized, rather
these are based on speeding up the simulation without distorting the system voltage and
current waveforms significantly."
A s stated in [91], [92], power electronics modelling depends on the objectives of the
study. Depending on the type of study, different software tools and solution techniques can
be applied. In steady-state or harmonic analysis, the m a i n concern is the injection and
propagation of harmonic currents into the transmission and distribution system, which may
cause unacceptable voltage distortions and dangerous resonances. T h e power electronic sub-
system is then modelled as "known" harmonic current sources. These currents are assumed
to be independent of voltage variations at the point of common coupling ( P C C ) , where the
power electronics load is connected. However, i n many applications such as adjustable speed
drives, active power conditioning, F A C T S and C u s t o m Power Controllers, etc., the operation
of a power electronics device closely depends on and can affect the dynamics and the electric
transient behavior of the connected system. Variations of the system parameters, such as
voltage and current amplitude, frequency, phase-angle displacement among the phases in
a three-phase system, instantaneous or average power, etc., need to be used by the power
electronics control, to properly adjust the firing time of the semiconductors, which in turn
might have a feedback effect on the system. Therefore, for transient analysis, a more complex
and detailed representation of the power electronics devices as well as of the supplying power
3.1. M o d e l l i n g Power Electronics i n Electric Power Engineering A p p l i c a t i o n s 68
system is required. Some model simplification and system reduction [92] might be necessary
for practical reasons. T h i s can be acceptable, provided that the equivalent model is validated
against practical measurements, and that it fits the study investigation needs.
T h e representation of semiconductor switching devices is commonly simplified in power
level application studies. Therefore, the nonlinear characteristic of a diode is usually repre-
sented in a simplified form as a two-terminal uncontrollable unidirectional current flowing
switch, or in some programs as a voltage-controlled switch. Series on-state and parallel off-
state resistances can be added to represent the semiconductor losses. In some E M T P - b a s e d
programs, such as M i c r o T r a n , series resistances must be included to allow multiple switch
connections on the same circuit node. Parallel resistances can provide a resistive connection
between the D C sides of rectifiers and inverters and the A C local ground, thus avoiding
floating sub-network problems [95].
The use of simplified switch models for power electronics devices may be justified to
speed up the simulation time for system level studies, but it may also give wrong and
misleading results, especially related to semiconductor commutation phenomena. Also, the
E M T P solution at fixed discrete time intervals A t may result in inaccurate turn-on or turn-
off switching times, causing unrealistic high frequency transients in the simulation of power
electronic devices. Backtracking techniques [67] and/or resynchronization techniques ([96]
pages 185, 204, 207), or even the Clock Synchronized Structure C h a n g i n g Concept ( C S S C )
[97] can be used to minimize the problem. Interpolation and/or extrapolation as well as
resynchronization techniques seem to be more and more applied even i n the E M T P - b a s e d
solution of modern control for power electronics systems, as i n the software P S C A D / E M T D C
[98], [99]. Therefore, for E M T P - b a s e d simulations of power electronics, it is much more
important to use such techniques than to reduce the time step size.
Numerical oscillations caused by the trapezoidal rule of integration in solving the system
of equations may also be a problem for E M T P - b a s e d simulations. T h e use of techniques
such as C D A ( " C r i t i c a l D a m p i n g Adjustment" [84], [85]) is effective i n the elimination of
numerical oscillations. M i c r o T r a n has C D A implemented, but other E M T P versions may
not, or may use different approaches.

If the gating circuit is not considered in the study, three-terminal, controllable, unidi-
rectional current flowing semiconductor devices can be represented by simplified switches
with gate turn-on and turn-off controls. Different firing controls can be applied to represent
thyristors, GTO's, IGBT's, etc. However, "in many actual power electronics applications, in
order to provide a continuous current flow path for an inductive load, a reversal diode (free
wheeling diode) is used in parallel with a controllable switching device to form the basic
power electronic unit" [91]. The implementation of a "basic power electronic unit" in digi-
tal programs requires special care with respect to "instantaneous commutation phenomena"
[95], [96], [88], [97].
The U B C version MicroTran of the E M T P , up to now, only allows pre-defined timing

for the closing and opening of switches representing semiconductor devices. This is done
through the definition of a modified firing angle (" /3 ") and of a "switching frequency" for
each semiconductor. The frequency is needed to calculate the switching period and the time
of switching from j3, which assumes a fixed reference at time t = 0. This implementation with
fixed opening and closing times has limitations, because it does not use the real firing angle
("a") defined from a zero crossing detection related to the voltages at the semiconductor
terminals, and because it ignores the dynamics of the control circuits. MicroTran users could
write their own firing control subroutine based on an available A L P H A subroutine, but only
a few users have used this option. Also, sensing voltages and currents from the main program
would introduce a one time step delay with this approach, and users must be aware of that.
For P W M control techniques, the auxiliary program " P W M " can be useful to calculate and
define the closing and opening times, which would then be read in as a switching table. The
dynamics of the control circuit would be ignored, which limits the application of " P W M " to
steady-state behavior.
As part of this thesis project, a subroutine " G A T E " was developed to simulate power
electronics dynamic control schemes with more accuracy and flexibility. As its name indi-
cates, the subroutine G A T E allows a simplified gate firing control of a semiconductor, i.e,
it can control its turn-on time, and, for some devices, also its turn-off time. The control
signal is assumed to be a gate voltage signal, defined for simplicity, between the gate node
and ground. This subroutine was derived from the subroutine A L P H A (which can be user
defined), to implement new four-terminal, dynamically controlled semiconductor devices as

voltage-controlled switches, as illustrated in Fig. 3.2.
Voltage-
Controlled
Bidirectional
Switch
_L
Figure 3.2: Voltage-controlled switch in E M T P - b a s e d programs.
With the subroutine G A T E , most of the three-terminal controllable power semiconductor

devices can be represented. Fig. 3.3 presents some test cases for the transient simulation of:
• voltage-controlled, "bipolar in voltage" (i.e., may conduct irrespective if it is forward

or reverse biased) and bidirectional current flowing switch;
• Thyristor (simplified model, as a voltage-controlled, "unipolar in voltage" (i.e., may

only conduct when forward biased), and unidirectional current flowing switch);
• G T O (simplified model, as a voltage-controlled, "unipolar in voltage", unidirectional

current flowing switch, with turn-off capabilities).
Figs. 3.4, 3.5 and 3.6 illustrate the controlling properties of the bidirectional switch, thyris-
tor and G T O , respectively. Since the solution for switches follows the algorithm already
implemented in most EMTP-based programs [1], including MicroTran, the change of switch
position ("status" on or off) only happens one time step after the enabling gate signal [100].
If it becomes necessary to avoid this delay problem for certain types of simulations, an
alternative implementation for a "simultaneous" solution for voltage-controlled switches is
presented in the next section of this chapter.
1 Q
AAAr
Voltage-
Controlled
v„
•0 Bidirectional
Switch
gate 6
I a
AA/V
THYRISTOR
v„source
7
V
gate V _
1 Q
AAAr
GTO
^source\^
V.
Vso«rce 10sinfat)[V]
=
\ate=UV] f=60[Hz]
Figure 3.3: Test cases for transient simulation of voltage-controlled, bipolar in voltage and bidirectional
current flowing switch, thyristor and G T O .
Switch Current
10
Source Voltage
/
Gate Voltage
I 3
_! "5
-10
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Time (ms)
Figure 3.4: Simulation of a voltage-controlled bidirectional current flowing switch.
1 1 1 1 — 1 1 1 r
Source Voltage
-10- '•• •'
• 1 1 1 _ 1 I i I i _
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Time (ms)
Figure 3.5: Simulation of a simplified model for thyristors.

Source Voltage
GTO Current
\
Gate Pulse
i \
-1 1 I 1_
6 8 10 12 14 16
Time (ms)
Figure 3.6: Simulation of a simplified model for G T O ' s .

3.2. Simultaneous Solution for Voltage-Controlled Switches in EMTP-based Programs 74
3.2 Simultaneous Solution for Voltage-Controlled Switches

in EMTP-based Programs
The implementation of voltage-controlled bidirectional current flowing switches in E M T P -

based programs, in such a way that a simultaneous solution is found at each time step for
the controlling gate voltage and the voltage-controlled switch, can be done with the com-
pensation method presented in Section 2.
The necessary equations are, for the controlling branch with the gate voltage,
-VoPENj + + ...
(3-1)
••• + jj j +
r i
r ik
jk + ... + r jM iM + Vj = 0
and for the voltage-controlled switch branch

-VoPEN + r -ih + ...
(3.2)
k k
... + r jijk + r i
kk k + ... + r i
kM M + vk = 0
where:
voPEN = voltage v for [i] = 0 (open circuit).

k k
T
kk — Thevenin resistance (self resistance of branch k).

k
It is possible to assume as branch equations:
v3 Rinij (3.3)
and
v = [VJ (R - R f) + R f)} i
k on of of k (3.4)
where:
R on — On-state resistance, and
R ff = Off-state resistance, for the voltage-controlled switch connected at branch k.

0
From equation 3.4 it is easy to verify that:
• ifvj = l, then v = R ik\

k on
3.2. Simultaneous Solution for Voltage-Controlled Switches in E M T P - b a s e d Programs 75
• else i f Vj = 0, then v k = R ffi .

0 k
Moreover,
• if R on = 0, then v = 0;
k
• else i f R ff
n —> co, then i k = 0.
In order to sense the gate control voltage, assume Ri —>• co, which results i n n
ij = 0 (3.5)
-VoPEN k + r \ii + ••• + r jij + r i

k k kk k + ... + r iM+
kM ( r . x
fi
+ [VJ (R on - R ) + R )}
off i = 0 off k
[
• ]
which then can be solved w i t h the implemented Newton-Raphson algorithm illustrated in
F i g . 2.19. Observe, however, that the voltage signal Vj is calculated using equation 3.1 (i.e.,
Vj = VQPENJ — rjiii — ... — Tjjij — Tj i k k — ... — TJMIM) i n the solution algorithm, which is
always correct a n d less prone to numerical problems.
Assume, for example, the simple circuit w i t h a simultaneous solution for a voltage-
controlled switch presented i n F i g . 3.7. A p p l y i n g an enabling control voltage signal ( I V ) at
the node gate, the switch turns on at the same time the enabling signal is received. W h e n
the gating signal becomes zero (OV), the switch turns off at the corresponding same time,
as illustrated i n F i g . 3.8. In the case of a conventional switch, as it is implemented i n most
E M T P - b a s e d programs, the turn-on and turn-off would occur 1 time step later, as illustrated
in F i g . 3.9.
A similar approach has been proposed i n [100] and [73] for the simultaneous solution
(also called "synchronized solution" i n [73]) of voltage-controlled switches i n E M T P - b a s e d
programs. Every time a switch changes its status, special computer techniques, such as, for
example, the C r i t i c a l D a m p i n g Adjustment ( C D A ) [84], [85], would have to be triggered to
avoid numerical oscillation problems i n the simulation of power electronic devices.

1 ft
A A / V
"Simultaneous"
Voltage-
-/ Controlled
Bidirectional
Switch
gate \
v =10sin<fot)[V]
so
\ate-UV] f=60[Hz]
Figure 3.7: Circuit with "simultaneous solution" of a voltage-controlled switch.
T 1 1 r
Time (ms)
Figure 3.8: Simulation with simultaneous solution of a voltage-controlled switch.

Figure 3.9: One time step delay in EMTP-based switches.

3.3. Implementation of Nonlinear Diode Model in EMTP-based Programs 78
3.3 Implementation of Nonlinear Diode Model in E M T P -

based Programs
The use of simplified models for diodes, as for example, voltage-controlled switches and
piecewise linear representation, usually gives simulation results with acceptable accuracy for
most of the power system studies. However, according to [89], detailed nonlinear modelling
of semiconductors is needed to design snubbers and gate drive circuits. A detailed nonlinear-
model for a diode is also needed in the synthesis of equivalent networks to represent, for
example, a bipolar transistor with the Ebers-Moll model [77], [101]. The semiconductor
diode, with its symbol shown in Fig. 3.10, is therefore, the most common nonlinear element
in power electronics.
ANODE
CATHODE
Figure 3.10: Diode symbol.
The terminal behavior of a diode [77], with respect to current and voltage as shown in
3.10, is described by
i(i) = Is e^> - 1 (3.7)
where:
i(t) is the current through the diode, from anode to cathode,
v(t) is the voltage across the diode, i.e., the potential difference between the anode and
cathode terminals,
I is a constant which depends on the physical properties of the diode, and is usually in the
S
range of 1(T [,4] to 1(T L4] \6 9
q — 1.6022 x 1 0 ~ C is the charge of an electron,

19
k = 1.3806 x I O - 2 3
J / ° K is the Boltzmann's constant, and
T is the temperature in degrees Kelvin (273.16°^ = 0°C).
When the polarity of v(t) is as shown in Fig. 3.10, the diode is in the conducting region.
At 17°C « 290°K, the constant V T = kT/q « 25mV. For v(t) < -W T ( « -75ml/),
i(t) « — / , . The value I is usually referred to as the saturation current.
S If the diode
is forward biased with v(t) > W T (over 100mV), equation 3.7 may be approximated by
i(t) = I e^ ^/ \ s
qv kT
Table 3.1 expresses the relationship between v(t)/V T and i(t)/I ,S which
are derived from
i(t) = is ey r)
y
- I (3.8)
When a constant voltage Vo is applied to the diode, a constant current I flows through 0
it. The pair of values (Vo,VTo) is called the operating point of the diode. For each operating
point along the characteristic curve of the diode, one could define a dynamic resistance of the
diode, which relates increments of the voltage to the increments of the current (dv(t)/di(t)
for v(t) = VQ and i(t) = I ). 0 For higher frequencies, additional physical effects come into
play and the diode may no longer be treated as a simple nonlinear resistor. Charges stored
in the semiconductor material will also require the inclusion of "dynamic capacitive effects"
in the nonlinear model of a diode. The value of the capacitance is, in general, a function of
the voltage across the diode. The reader is referred to [77], [101] and other references for
further details. Reference [89], (pp. 71-1 to 71-7), discuss the P N junction diode switching
characteristics, including a sub-circuit for a diode model with reverse recovery.
In this thesis project, the compensation method presented in Section 2.2, with a Newton-
Rhapson solution algorithm, is used for the solution of the nonlinear model of a diode. In-
version of the diode characteristic curve from equation 3.8 and inclusion of a series resistance
R o u t results in branch equation 3.10, which is solved together with the linear network equa-
1
Actually, I s is temperature dependent and may assume default values of 10 [J4] at 27°C [101].
-14
3.3. Implementation of Nonlinear Diode M o d e l i n E M T P - b a s e d Programs 80
Table 3.1: Comparison between voltage and current in a diode as a function of its parametric values.
v(t) i(t)
VT h
7 1095.633
6 402.429
5 147.413
4 53.898
3 19.086
2 6.389
1 1.718
0 0
-1 -0.632
-2 -0.865
-3 -0.950
-4 -0.982
-5 -0.983
-6 -0.998
-7 -0.999
tion 3.9 to determine the operating point of the diode for a particular network condition, as
illustrated in F i g . 3.11:
~v pEN
Q k + T-fc.il + . . . + r i
kk k + ... + r k M i M + v =0 k (3.9)
v = V ln ( £ + l ) ] + Routik
k T (3.10)
where:

k
T kk = Thevenin resistance (self resistance of branch k).
v k = voltage of branch k, i.e., voltage across the diode (the potential difference v an0(t —e
v
cathode) plus the voltage drop across the series resistance E, .
out
i k = current, through the diode, i.e., the current flowing from the anode to the cathode
terminal.
Rout — series resistance for the diode model (which may be assumed to be equal zero).
i 1 1 1 —
Linear Network Thevenin Equivalent Circuit
/
V
OPEN®
^^-^^ Nonlinear Diode Characteristic
/
§}, o
- {
S C <*> = OPEN <*)
V 1
<* r + R
a*>
-2 -
\
Resulting nonlinear equation to be solved
with the Newton-Raphson method
-3 L
1 i i i
-0.5 0.5 1.5 2.5
Current (A)
Figure 3.11: V-I diode characteristic and network Thevenin equivalent circuit equation.
Inserting equation 3.10 into equation 3.9 results in:
-voPEN k + r \i\
k + ...
. . + [r + R ] i + V ln
(3.11)
kk out k T + •••+ r k M i M = 0
A general circuit representation of equation 3.11 is illustrated in Fig. 3.12.
Equation 3.11 is solved iteratively at each time step. Note that the Thevenin equivalent
circuit equation changes from step to step, with a change in VOPEN^), and in general with a
change in the Thevenin equivalent resistance (slope dv/di). Fig. 3.13 illustrates this, where
it is assumed, for simplicity, that the Thevenin equivalent resistance does not change along
the simulation time.
The iterative solution with the Newton-Raphson algorithm requires an initial guess. De-
pending on how close the initial guess is to the final solution, convergence can be very fast or
A / W
Rout
[ THEV
r
k\
v,OPEN k
6 v.
v ln(i /I +1)Q
T k S
F i g u r e 3.12: Circuit implementation for the simultaneous solution of a nonlinear diode model.
•1 0 1
Current (A)
Figure 3.13 V-I diode characteristic and different network Thevenin equivalents.
3.3. Implementation of Nonlinear Diode M o d e l i n E M T P - b a s e d Programs 83
on the contrary, convergence can be very slow for some cases, or numerical problems such as
computer overflow may even arise. Therefore, it is important to derive a heuristic computer
technique for i n i t i a l guesses, to accommodate the highly nonlinear exponential characteristic
of a diode, and speed up the convergence of the solution. A robust rule should be general
and insensitive to the network or diode parameters. T h e detailed development of such a
technique for implementation i n E M T P - b a s e d programs is presented i n the following.
A simple inspection of F i g . 3.11 reveals some "physical" candidates for the initial guess of
the nonlinear diode current, associated w i t h the network conditions, i.e., with the particular
linear network Thevenin equivalent circuit:
VQPEN k
(Tkk+Rout)
(3.12)
(«OPEN \
k
;\ V ) I
ik (3.13)
T —
-L (3.14)
E q u a t i o n 3.12 is the short circuit current i , ksc which becomes the i n i t i a l guess for the
diode current i i n the conduction mode. T h e n ,

k
if v pEN
0 k > 0 and v N
OPE k > V ln T (^ff- + l ) , the i n i t i a l current is assumed to be
equal to i , ksc as calculated w i t h equation 3.12.
• If VopEN k > 0 and voPEN k < ^ r l n {^f - + l ) , then the voltage across the diode is
2
first estimated to be equal to v p N , 0 E k and a better estimate for the current is calculated
w i t h equation 3.13 (Another simple alternative would be just to assume i = 0); k
• O n the other hand, if v PEN 0 k < 0 and v PEN 0 k > -6.0V ,

T then again the voltage
across the diode is first estimated to be equal to vopEN , and the i n i t i a l current is then k
calculated w i t h equation 3.13;
• If v pEN
0 k < 0 and VopEN k < —6.0VV, then the diode current is assumed to be as
calculated w i t h equation 3.14. Alternatively, one could use a linear function instead of
using equation 3.14.

There are other possibilities for the initialization of the variables when a Newton-Raphson
method is being used [77]. For example, piecewise linear approximations could be used first
to determine the initial guess (either for the current or for the voltage across the diode) and
then, the linear characteristic would be replaced by the detailed nonlinear equation. This
approach might be useful for speeding up the solution of networks with multiple nonlinear
elements, such as diodes, transistors, etc.
A two-slope piecewise linear approximation of the diode characteristic is accurate enough

in many cases. Even though the equations are linear in that case it is not known a priori
on which segment the solution ends up. This is particularly true if there are many diodes
to be solved. The production code of MicroTran still uses the Newton-Raphson method for
the two-slope piecewise linear representation, which will then decide, iteratively, the solution
points for the diodes. Theoretically, there is no guarantee that the iterations will converge
in such cases, but by limiting the new voltages and currents to technically reasonable values,
the method has so far converged in all tested cases, with up to 6 diodes.
The use of linear piecewise or detailed nonlinear models of electronics semiconductors

might also be a requirement for the correct solution of commutation phenomena in power
electronics circuits. "In circuits with gate turn-off thyristors (GTO's), commutation of the
current into a diode must often be instantaneous, without any current interruption. A n
example for such situation is the buck-boost (step-down/up dc-dc) converter shown in 'Fig.
3.14 [93]' and the half-wave rectifier circuit with a freewheeling diode in 'Fig. 3.15'. ... If
the diode is represented as a switch which closes when the voltage from anode to cathode
becomes positive (either built into the code as in MicroTran, or controlled in this way
through TACS), then the positive voltage 'across the diode' will only be seen in the next
time step immediately following the time step in which the G T O turned off. This is one time
step too late, because the current in the G T O would already have dropped to zero." [95],
[78]. Therefore, EMTP-type simulation of "instantaneous commutation" with simple switch
models might give wrong results in the case of switching converters. User knowledge of the
commutation process can be used to pre-define the switches which will have simultaneous
commutation [78], but it may not work for all cases. A better option is the compensation
method used in this work, which assures a simultaneous solution of all equations [95].
GTO DIODE
Figure 3.14: Dc-dc converter.
DIODE 1
v = 155sin(ot) [VJtQJ)
J -50[V]
Figure 3.15: Half-wave rectifier with freewheeling diode.
To illustrate the solution method presented here, assume, for example, the simple electric
circuit with a nonlinear diode as in Fig. 3.16, where the basic parameters for the diode are:
Is = 10~ [A] and VT = 0.026[V]. The time response solution for this circuit is presented
12
in Fig. 3.17. Fig. 3.18 shows the detail of the diode current at the zero crossing , whereas 2
Fig. 3.19 presents the V-I nonlinear characteristic of the diode resulting from the E M T P
simulation. The average number of iterations with the Newton-Raphson algorithm, and
using the proposed heuristic technique for initial guess, was 1 for this case, assuming a
convergence tolerance error of less than 1 0 - 1 0
for the resulting nonlinear equation, and also
forcing at least 1 iteration in the algorithm.
Detailed modelling of other semiconductor devices, such as bipolar transistors, field ef-
2
T h e modelling of the reverse recovery current would require improvements in the nonlinear diode model,
as for example the inclusion of the junction capacitance, which is also nonlinear and voltage dependent [77].
[101].
1Q
AA/V
DIODE
V,
DIODE
f=60 [Hz] xz
Figure 3.16: Electric circuit with a nonlinear diode model.
Diode Current
Diode Voltage
6 8 10 12 14 16
Time ( ms )
Figure 3.17: Transient simulation of a nonlinear diode model in an E M T P - b a s e d program.
feet transistors, etc. can be accomplished with the "synthesis of equivalent networks" (sub-
circuits) using nonlinear diodes, dependent sources, voltage-dependent capacitances and re-
sistances [101], [77]. The Ebers-Moll model of a bipolar transistor, or more complex models
(Gummel-Poon) could be used as well, but their description is beyond the scope of this
thesis project. The use of macromodels, based on functional terminal conditions, can also
be derived with the interconnection of circuit elements, especially with the use of the de-
pendent sources presented in Section 2.2. Piecewise linear approximations can also be used
to model device characteristics, but one should be aware of the fact that even though the
x 10
1 i i
1.5
Diode Current
0.5
-0.5
Is=1.0E-12 [A]
-1.5
1 1 1
7.5 8.5 9.5
Time ( ms )
F i gure 3.18: Detail of the transient simulation of a nonlinear diode model in an E M T P - b a s e d program.
"
0.5
bo-0-5
-1.5
-2 1
-0.2 0.2 0.4 0.6 O.f 1.2 1.4
Current (A)
Figure 3.19: V-I nonlinear characteristic of the diode resulting from the E M T P simulation.
3.4. Control Modelling Aspects of Power Electronic Devices 88
approximations are continuous from segment to segment, the derivatives are discontinuous.
Spline fitting techniques can then be used to approximate the device characteristic by sepa-
rate low-order polynomials between adjacent segments, with the cubic spline being the most
popular one [77].
3.4 Control Modelling Aspects of Power Electronic De-

vices
The digital simulation of control devices for power electronics applications, such as recti-
fiers, inverters, D C - D C converters, A C - A C converters, motor drives, etc. is made challenging
because of the more frequent use of mixed analog and (real-time) digital signal processing
(DSP) control techniques.
The derivation of reliable system references requires a growing number of digital and
analog components. Their modelling can, in general, not be simplified without compromis-
ing the simulation accuracy and stability. For example, signal sensoring and zero crossing
prediction or detection usually requires an appropriate use of signal filtering, either through
analog design (operational amplifiers, resistances and capacitances) or its respective digital
implementation. However, in the simulation of DSP controls it is important to pay attention
to the digital sampling frequency with respect to the selection of the time step size (At).
System frequency tracking requires the use of appropriate phase-locked loop (PLL) con-
trols, which are of fundamental importance for the control of high power electronics appli-
cations, such as F A C T S and Custom Power Controllers [90].
Pulse width modulation (PWM) techniques, which are commonly used in voltage-sourced
and current-sourced converters, require particular attention in digital implementations, due
to the discrete nature of computer simulation programs, where the time step size may affect
the results of discrete binary comparators, thus influencing the simulation results.
Special transformation of variables into other reference systems (e.g., abc to a(30 transfor-
mation, which is used in active filter control), requires a simultaneous solution of control and
system equations. Digital simulation of hysteresis effects, limits (windup and non-windup)
3.4. Control Modelling Aspects of Power Electronic Devices 89
and various non-linearities in the control system also requires appropriate models for a suc-
cessful computer simulation.
Moreover, with variations in the supply voltage caused by power system disturbances,
the control, ideally, should be able to actively withstand and support its primary regulation
functions without disrupting the electric supply to the controlled load. However, in most
practical power quality cases, typically related to voltage sag problems, power electronics-
based loads (i.e., their control) are either extremely sensitive to momentary voltage variations
causing frequent shut-downs in industrial process operation, or improper designs may become
the cause of many power quality problems.
As part of this thesis project, "basic control devices" were experimentally implemented
in MicroTran. The main advantage of this development, compared to TACS (Transient
Analysis of Control System) used by many other E M T P versions, is that a "true simultane-
ous solution" is found through the compensation method using a Newton-Raphson iteration
scheme. Therefore, provided that appropriate computer techniques are used to allow conver-
gence in the solution, this method has been shown to be very robust for the cases simulated
up to now, and does not have the 1 time step delay present in the interface of E M T P and
T A C S and also does not have any internal delays in the linear and non-linear control solution.
With graphical user-interfaces for MicroTran, it would become easy to define libraries of
control devices as well as of power components (and sub-circuits, similarly as in [65], [102],
[103]), in such a way that no differentiation between power and control circuit will then
be necessary, since a unique simultaneous solution approach would be used, based on the
method and algorithm presented in this Ph.D. thesis.
Chapter 4
Evaluation of the Impact of Power

Electronic Devices on the Quality of
Power
H E analysis of the dynamic interaction between power electronic devices and power
_L- systems and the assessment of electric power quality phenomena can be thoroughly
done with EMTP-based programs. The objective of this Ph.D. thesis research project was
to develop reasonably accurate models for EMTP-based programs, with which one could
evaluate the impact of high power electronic devices on the quality of power. To make the
thesis results more valuable to utilities and industries, the following practical tasks were
carried out:
• Cooperation with a utility company in Brazil, E L E K T R O - Eletricidade e Servigos

S. A . which kindly agreed to provide data and real power quality problem cases
to validate simulation results. Financial support for this cooperation was provided
by C A P E S , a federal agency of the Brazilian Government, for a field activity at
2
E L E K T R O with the duration of three months.
• Appropriate models for time-domain simulations using EMTP-based programs were

applied to simulate some of the real power quality problems experienced by E L E K T R O .
' E L E K T R O - Eletricidade e Servicos S. A. , Rua Ary Anterior de Souza, 321 - Jardim Nova America,
CEP 13053-024, Campinas-S. P. , BRAZIL.
2
C A P E S - Fundacao Coordenacao de Aperfeicoamento de Pessoal de Nivel Superior, Esplanada dos
Ministerios, Anexo I, Sala 215, Caixa Postal 00365, CEP 70047-900, Brasilia - D. F. , BRAZIL.
90
4.1. Dynamic Interaction between Power Electronic Devices and Power Systems 91
• Based on the power quality monitoring and simulations, a synthesis of simulation

guidelines for power quality evaluation was developed, with emphasis to determine the
dynamic interaction between power electronic devices and the power systems, through
the use of time and frequency-domain techniques with EMTP-based programs.
This chapter presents some simulation cases of power quality assessment with the use of
the existing features of MicroTran, the U B C version of the E M T P . The simultaneous solu-
tion of control and electric power system equations (SSCPS), with the new circuit approach
presented in Chapter 2 and with the models developed for the dynamic control of power
semiconductor devices presented in Chapter 3, are illustrated through practical control and
power electronics controllers simulation cases. Important simulation guidelines for the eval-
uation of the impact of power electronic devices on the quality of power are also summarized
in this Chapter.
4.1 Dynamic Interaction between Power Electronic De-

vices and Power Systems
The interaction between the utility supply system and power electronics-based loads,
(such as electronic converter controlled electric motor drives), depends on a variety of factors
[104], as for example:
1. the type of "front-end" electronic converter, which converts line-frequency A C into D C

(diode-bridge rectifiers (which are unidirectional in power flow), switch mode converters
(in which, power flow can be reversed), thyristors converters (which can be made
bidirectional in power flow);
2. the number of phases (single-phase, three-phase) from the supply system used by the
converter, and the converter configuration (e.g., 6, 12, 24, 48, etc. pulses converters),
which also affects the waveform current distortion;
3. the "strength" (or "stiffness") of the utility system, determined by its "short-circuit
power";
4.1. D y n a m i c Interaction between Power Electronic Devices and Power Systems 92
4. the number of power electronics based loads, the point of their connection in the
network, and the electric power of electronic converters, which will influence their
impact on the electric supply system and vice-versa;
5. the design and control of the electronic converter. T h e choice of parameters and compo-
nents, particularly in cases where low-cost choices are made, can cause a deterioration
on the quality of power of the utility system. O n the other hand, the converter opera-
tion (i.e., its control) can easily be disrupted by power system disturbances travelling
through the utility network, as is very common i n the case of sensitive loads.
The most common lower-power electronics based load uses a single-phase diode-bridge
rectifier [94], [104] which draws highly distorted waveshape current from the utility system,
and may cause harmonic associated problems, such as:
• overheating i n neutral conductors due to the flow of high t h i r d harmonic currents;
• voltage distortion along the distribution circuits;
• increase i n power losses;
• risk of resonances w i t h utility or industry power factor correction capacitor banks, etc.
T h i s type of rectifier only draws current close to the m a x i m u m peak of the "assumed sinu-
soidal" utility voltage source, i n order to recharge the capacitor filter on the D C side of the
rectifier. To illustrate that, F i g . 4.1 presents a typical single-phase diode bridge rectifier [93],
[94], [95], [104] , where L

3
si represents the system Thevenin equivalent inductance (resistance
ignored here) and L s2 represents any series inductance added i n the A C side of the rectifier.
Assume that the diodes are ideal and the circuit has been energized a long time ago, such
that the D C capacitor filter has already been charged (i.e., the transient energization has
gone and "stead state waveforms" are present). Note, from F i g . 4.2 , that the current is
(and consequently i ) only starts to flow during the positive semicycle of the source voltage,
d
when VSA is greater than the voltage (i.e., when diodes 1 and 2 are forward biased at
3
Reference [95] presents useful guidelines on power electronics applications using the EMTP.
time t\). Conversely, during the negative subcycle, when V$A is less than Vdc-. the current i s
starts to flow (i.e., when diodes 3 and 4 are forward biased at time £4), with id = —i s flowing
in the same direction, corresponding then to the electronic current rectification process).
Fig.4.3 presents the harmonic amplitude spectrum of the current drawn from the source by
a single-phase diode-bridge rectifier.
I
d +
••
V
dc
;iooop.F >2oa
f=60[Hz]
Figure 4.1: Circuit with a single-phase diode-bridge rectifier.
To better understand the waveform voltage distortions caused by a single-phase diode-
bridge rectifier, one can apply the Kirchhoff's second law to the circuit of F i g . 4.1, and
derive the following equations,
VSA - v L - v A =0 (4.1)
v =v
L Ll +v L2 = Lf
sl +Lf s2 ( 4 2 )
where:
vL = voltage across the total inductance L = L s 1 + L ,s 2
i-i = ?; =
2 i-
s
200
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Time (ms)
Figure 4.2: Current drawn from the source by a single-phase diode-bridge rectifier.
Therefore, the following voltages can be defined:
di s
VA = VA - L— (4.3)
at
S
di
(4.4)
s
vpcc = V A - S L sl
dt
From Fig. 4.4 it can be seen that the inductances influence the rate of change (and con-
sequently the waveshape) of the current, such that i starts to grow exponentially, reaching a
s
maximum peak value when the voltage across the inductance is zero, after which v L changes
its polarity (because the derivative of the current changes its signal ) physically trying to 4
keep the current, flowing until the current finally becomes zero. Following the equations 4.3,
4.4 and Fig. 4.4 one can easily understand the voltage waveforms distortions in the rectifier
input, VA, and in the point of common coupling (PCC), vpcc, where many other loads may
"As a matter of fact, many D C - D C electronic converters rely on the inductor physical properties during
switching transients, to either step voltages up (boost) or step voltages down (buck).
30 ! !
25
20
a
S Thini Harmonic Compt
ment
10
III. 10
. _ _
15 20
— -i•
25 30 35
i
40 45 50
Harmonic Order
Figure 4.3: Harmonic amplitude spectrum of the current drawn from the source by a single-phase diode-
bridge rectifier.
be connected and may be affected by the waveform voltage distortion. Fig.4.5 presents the
harmonic amplitude spectrum of the voltage at the P C C .
In a four-wire, three-phase system with "well balanced" loads, composed by single-phase

diode bridge rectifiers, as illustrated in Fig. 4.6, the current flowing through the neutral
conductor has mainly third harmonic components (i.e, 180Hz, for a 60Hz fundamental) as
shown in Fig. 4.7 and Fig. 4.8. Observe that the third harmonic component of the neutral
current in Fig.4.8 is approximately 3 times the third harmonic component of the current of
a single-phase diode-bridge rectifier as illustrated in Fig.4.3. These high currents may cause
overheating in the neutral conductor (usually designed with a smaller cross section than the
phase conductors), thereby creating a potential hazardous risk, such as fire.
The widespread use of this type of inexpensive rectifier, usually as the front end of low
power appliances, such as television sets, computers and compact fluorescent lamps (CFL)
(which are used more and more because of its higher energy efficiency), can have a cumulative
negative effect on the quality of power supplied to residential, commercial and industrial
customers [105] . For example, Fig. 4.9 and Fig. 4.10 present the voltage waveshape
measured with a digital oscilloscope at the outlet of the Power Electronics Laboratory of
the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering at U B C , Vancouver, B.C., Canada
5
. The waveshape distortion is probably caused by the large number of computers in the
building, as well as in the entire university. It also affects, presently with minor consequences,
all the other loads in the building supplied from the same common bus, and eventually, also
propagates through the B C Hydro electric supply system. Fig. 4.11 and Fig. 4.12 show
the results of a Fourier analysis of the outlet voltage curve (the D C component present in
the harmonic amplitude spectrum at Fig. 4.11 might be caused by inaccuracies or dc offsets
in the measuring equipment). Although, according to the present standards [48], [49], such
5
The help of Mr. Kenneth Wicks in doing this measurement is gratefully acknowledged.
100
90
80
70
ft) 60
S
-§ Fund = 119.6844 Volts
50
RMS = 119.9200 Volts
Creast Factor = 1.3851
& 40 Min = -166.1000 Volts
R Max= 166.1000 Volts
ft) THD = 6.2778 %
30
ft) HRMS = 7.5136 Volts
a, TIF / IT = 121.8154
20
10
• •
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Harmonic Order
Figure 4.5: Harmonic amplitude spectrum of the voltage waveform distortion at the point of common
coupling ( P C C ) .
sa
bridge
diode
diode
bridge
l
NEUTRAL
V = 169.7 IT]
1
max
6)
bridge
diode
f=60[Hz]
v
sc
Figure 4.6: Four-wire, three-phase system with "balanced" single-phase diode-bridge rectifiers.
harmonic voltage distortions are usually within acceptable limits, other sensitive equipment
may be affected, and better alternatives for power conversion are actually available.
Time (ms )
F i gure 4.7: Current flowing through the neutral conductor.
By using, for example, step-up (boost) D C - D C converters (consisting of IGBT's switch-

ing at high frequency with P W M control techniques, free wheeling diodes and inductors),
in connection with diode-bridge rectifiers, power factor corrected (PFC) interfaces can be
designed. Such P F C circuits are able to draw almost sinusoidal currents at close to unity
power factor.
Single- or three-phase controlled thyristor converters can also adversely affect the qual-
ity of power, due to their distorted current waveforms, the notching of the input voltage
waveform caused by the commutation among the thyristors, and the poor power factor.
The choice of a power electronic converter is based on its intended application and on the
price. With the introduction of more strict standards for power quality, and with growing
concerns about the dynamic interaction between power electronic devices and the power
system, new technologies with less impact and/or less susceptibility to power disturbances
are gaining market acceptance. Examples are active filters and other dynamic compensating
30 r
1 1
Third Harmonic Component
25
20
K
15
ft;
10
I 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Harmonic Order
Figure 4.8: Harmonic amplitude spectrum of the current flowing through the neutral conductor,
devices.
For a proper identification and solution of power quality problems, transient and steady-
state analysis are needed, which include models not only for the power electronics but also
the power system part, because of the dynamic interaction between them. Power electronics
based loads can either be the cause of problems in the power system, or they can be adversely
affected by electromagnetic transient phenomena coming from the power system. Reference
[24] presents the fundamental definition of electromagnetic phenomena affecting the electric
power quality, with realistic cases and practical monitoring results and examples of power
disturbances, such as:
• Voltage sags and interruptions;
• Transient overvoltages;
• Harmonics;
Phase Voltage
-2001
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
I
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
(ime f ms )
Figure 4.9: Voltage waveshape measured at the outlet of the Power Electronics Laboratory of the Depart-
ment of Electrical and Computer Engineering at UBC, Vancouver, B.C., Canada.
• Long duration voltage variation;
• Wiring and grounding practices.
Voltage sags are by far the most common cause of disruption of operation of power elec-
tronics based loads, such as electronically controlled motor drives. Many industrial processes
(e.g. pulp and paper, textile, automotive, etc.) rely on accurate speed and torque control
through the use of power electronics, and thus become more or less vulnerable and suscepti-
ble to power quality problems depending on the sensitivity of these devices. This is actually
at the heart of many power quality problems!
It is also common that utility capacitor switching creates high frequency transients,
which may propagate through the distribution system and cause amplified transient voltage
oscillations in low voltage power factor capacitor banks in industry [106]. The commutation
of thyristors in current source inverter (CSI) adjustable speed drives (ASD) in industrial
Phase Voltage
-200' 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
'
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
rime ('ms )
Figure 4.10: Measured voltage waveshape, its fundamental component and its harmonic distortion.
plants may excite natural resonance modes of weak distribution and other industrial systems,
causing high frequency oscillations in the voltages and, consequently, "nuisance tripping" of
sensitive loads. [107].
Resonances tend to occur more frequently as more power factor and voltage support,
capacitor banks are used in the system, m a i n l y to control voltage on transmission or distri-
bution lines. Typically, the 5 th

order harmonic current commonly "injected" into the power
system by traditional power electronics converters, has the potential to cause problems, such
as capacitors failures. T h e importance of power quality then depends on its economic i m -
pact on the industry, the utility, the society, and the country. Appropriate means to predict
problems in the early design stage or to diagnose and mitigate problems in existing systems
becomes a very important task of "power quality engineers".
E M T P - b a s e d programs, because of many available computer models for power systems
and power electronics, have become a necessary engineering tool for the evaluation of the
Harmonic Amplitude Spectrum

2.5
1 1 i ! j
Fundamental = 100%
K 1.5
S
"§
K
* 1
cu
cu
0.5
1 • 1 lid10 15
.III. .1.1.1LL.I
20 25
Harmonic
Ii_l.all.il
30
Order
35 40 45 50
Figure 4.11: Harmonic amplitude spectrum of the outlet waveshape voltage.
impact of power electronic devices on the quality of power. A n extensive literature survey
about EMTP-based models for time and frequency domain analysis of electric and electronic
power systems can be found in [92], [6], [2], and elsewhere. Specialized conferences, such as
the International Power System Transients Conference (IPST) held every two years, provide
opportunities to exchange information about new techniques and practical experiences in
the use of EMTP-based programs.
Harmonic Phase Angle

1 1 1 1 1 1 i
}
1 J
T\
t
I 1
1 1 1
I I 1
I I I I II I
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Harmonic Order
F i gure 4.12: Phase-angle of the harmonic components of the outlet waveshape voltage.
4.2. Power Quality Assessment through EMTP-based Programs 104
4.2 Power Quality Assessment through EMTP-based

Programs
This section presents some real cases of power quality assessment through EMTP-based
simulations. Field test measurements made by the author and comparisons with time and
frequency domain computer analysis are also shown for some of the cases. Section 4.2.1
presents a harmonics case study. Section 4.2.2 presents a voltage sag case study. Section 4.2.3
is concerned with visual light flicker caused by voltage fluctuations.
4.2.1 Induction Furnace H a r m o n i c Study
The problem of harmonic analysis in power systems is usually studied with steady-state
solution techniques, which use linear solutions at the harmonic frequencies. The charac-
teristic harmonic spectra of non-linear loads are assumed to be known, and are modeled
as current sources at the respective harmonic frequency. In reality, the harmonic current
sources are not exactly known, because they depend on the behaviour of the power system
as well. For example, harmonics from transformer saturation clearly depend on the voltage
magnitude and waveform at the transformer terminal. Only time domain simulations of
the E M T P type can address the interaction between the system and the harmonic sources,
which can result in non-characteristic harmonics as well. Time domain simulations can also
be useful to develop other types of power quality studies, such as fault analysis, transient
impulses caused by switching utility capacitor banks, diagnosing the effects of special loads
into the system, troubleshooting the failure of sensitive loads, evaluating the application of
"Custom Power" devices as solutions to power quality problems, etc.
This section presents an application of the E M T P in a distribution system study, where

the harmonics injected into a distribution feeder by induction furnaces were the prime con-
cern for power quality. It is taken from a harmonic problem experienced by E L E K T R O -
Eletricidade e Servigos S. A . , an electric utility in the southeast of Brazil. The three-phase
6
power system with a digital model of the induction furnace as a power electronic load was
B
E L E K T R O - Eletricidade e Servicos S. A. , Rua Ary Antenor de Souza, 321 - Jardim Nova America,
CEP 13053-024, Campinas, S. P. , BRAZIL.
simulated with the E M T P over a time span which was long enough to reach steady state.
Voltage and current waveforms were then analyzed with a Fourier analysis program to obtain
the harmonic content of the distorted waveforms. Field measurements at the point of com-
mon coupling between the utility and the industry are presented as well. Electromagnetic
transients programs are more accurate in representing nonlinear effects of the supply system,
and allow more detailed modelling of power electronic loads and devices, than steady-state
harmonic programs. Power electronics and power quality have such a strong correlation that
can only be fully described and analyzed with the use of time domain simulation techniques.
Induction heating has gained wide acceptance in industry because this type of heat-
ing process is considered clean, quick and efficient. On the other hand, the use of power
electronic devices for induction heating introduces harmonic currents, causing voltage dis-
tortions in the electric supply network. The dynamic interaction of these harmonics with the
electric system in terms of system configuration, loading and other conditions, may result
in linear resonances, or even in undesirable steady-state conditions, which all can result in
misoperation, failure and life reduction of equipment, with consequent economical losses.
Induction furnaces are power electronics-based loads, where the heat in the electrically
conducting workpiece to be melted is produced by circulating currents through electromag-
netic induction. Series or parallel-resonant inverters are typical configurations used to supply
energy to the induction coil, at a selected frequency, which can be in a range varying from
the power system frequency to a few hundred kilohertz [94]. Figs. 4.13 (a) and (b) illustrate
an induction furnace in operation.
The operation of these induction furnaces has produced distortions in the current and
voltage waveforms, and has created incompatibility problems between these special loads and
other sensitive loads connected on the same distribution feeder. Changes in the configuration
of the power supply system as well as application of passive filters, have minimized the
effects, but have not completely eliminated the harmonics power quality problem. Field
measurements have been made for different operating conditions to evaluate the effectiveness
of the already installed harmonic passive filters.
T H D (%)
\j , — — — — —
c O ' d -
T t r ^ o o c D o c s j n ^ ' t f o o c n a ) O T - c o * * L r ) c o o o
o o o o o o o o o o o o o
N n ^ i n i b s o i d ^ N n o N r i ^ i f l i i s o i d r :
' < - ' < - - ^ ' « - T - T - T - ( M C M C N J C S J O O O O O O O O T - T -
Figure 4.18: T H D harmonic trend, with harmonic passive filters turned on all the time.
as active filters, might be able to dynamically compensate the distortions and improve the
quality of power at the interface of industrial and power systems.
As far as the author knows, new Brazilian legislation about harmonics and other power
quality phenomena are currently under development. Some recommendations have been used
to guide utility system planners and operators in supplying power to special loads. Refer-
ence [50] for example, presents some criteria and global voltage harmonic limits (Table 4.1),
based on the experience of Brazilian power utilities, as well as on standards from C I G R E
(Conference Internationale des Grands Reseaux Electriques a Haute Tension - International
Conference on Large High Voltage Electric Systems), I E C (International Electrotechnical
Commission) and I E E E (The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers).
Table 4 . 1 : Global harmonic distortion limits for the system voltages recommended in Brazil.
Voltage < Q9kV: THD max = 6% Voltage > &9kV: THD max = 3%
Odd Even Odd Even
Order Value % Order Value % Order Value % Order Value %
3, 5, 7 5 2, 4, 6 2 3, 5, 7 2 2, 4, 6 1
9, 11, 13 3 > 8 1 9, 11, 13 1.5 > 8 0.5
15 to 25 2 15 to 25 1
> 27 1 > 27 0.5
(c)Digital Modelling of Induction Furnaces in Distribution Networks
A three-phase detailed modelling of the distribution system, including the linear and non-
linear loads, transformer saturation effects, unbalanced conditions, power electronic loads,
automatic control devices, frequency dependent characteristics of the system and of the loads,
and so on, would be the ideal and recommended database for an electromagnetic transient
simulation, in order to analyze power quality phenomena. This would require a complete and
well-organized database of the system and load parameters, which is rarely available in prac-
tice. For distribution system planning and operation, such details are usually not required,
unless some specific power quality problem emerges as urgent and important. Typically, nei-
ther some important data is available, nor appropriate models exist to represent the physical
behaviour by digital simulation. One must therefore use simplifications, which may make
the simulations unrealistic. Therefore, the development of more accurate models is needed
for power quality studies.
For this case study, some realistic data was available, and some simplifications had to
be made for other data. The actual system under study is shown in Fig. 4.19. A Thevenin
equivalent circuit with a series connection of coupled resistances and inductances was used
to represent the 138kV transmission system, based on the given three-phase short-circuit
power (2881.3 M V A , angle of - 78 degrees) and single-line-to-ground short-circuit power
(1734.1 M V A , angle of - 77.7 degrees) from which the positive and zero sequence impedances
at the frequency of 60Hz can be calculated (assuming 100MVA as a base power, 138kV
as base voltage, and zero fault resistance for a single-line-to ground fault, one obtains:
Zp p.u. = 1/Ssc p.u.,
0S 3ph Z p.u.
zero = 3/Ssci p.u.
phg — 2 * Z p.u
pos ). In reality, the resistance
and inductance derived from these impedances are frequency-dependent, which was ignored
in this study.
The transformer model used was based on three single-phase coupled impedances ("IN-
V E R S E " option in MicroTran). The distribution line was modelled as a three-phase cou-
pled 7r-circuit, with positive and zero sequence parameters at 60Hz. For the frequencies of
interest here, a 7r-circuit representation is reasonably accurate. For higher frequencies, a
distributed-parameter line model would have to be used, either with constant parameters or
with frequency-dependent parameters.
The data for all the distribution feeders with their respective loads, and for the capaci-
tor banks for power factor correction were available. Not enough information was available
though for the induction furnaces. A digital model based on [93], [94] was therefore used:
a current-source, parallel-resonant inverter for induction heating, as shown in Fig. 4.20.
The resonant inverter is used to create variable frequency at the induction coil. The six-
pulse controlled rectifier on the A C side of each induction furnace was supplied through a
13.8/0.48kV - 3.0MVA - 5.9% three-phase unit transformer in delta/wye-grounded connec-
tion. Saturation effects were not considered in this simulation. Realistic parameter values
of resistance, inductance and capacitance were available for the 4 th
and 5 th
order harmonic
passive filters.
EMTP-based programs can perform time-domain transient analysis or frequency-domain

analysis. A frequency-domain analysis was done for this case to find the system impedance
as a function of frequency, seen from the point of common coupling ( P C C ) of the induction
furnace, as shown in Fig. 4.21 and Fig. 4.22. Not only the impedance at multiples of the
fundamental frequency was evaluated, but over the continuous frequency range as well, by
using a small step increment (Af) in the frequency variation input parameter. It was small
enough to allow linear interpolation between calculated points. The two minimum impedance
values at 240Hz and 300Hz shown in Fig. 4.21 correspond to the effects of the 4 th
and 5th
order harmonic filters. Fig. 4.22 also shows the zero crossings of the phase angle of the system
impedance, from inductive to capacitive and vice-versa, thus indicating parallel (maximum
impedance) or series (minimum impedance) resonant conditions, respectively.
Next, the three-phase distribution system with the digital model of the induction furnace
as a power electronics load was simulated as a transients case (At = 16.6667^s), using the
MicroTran version of the E M T P , until a time when steady state was reached. Voltage and
current waveforms were then processed through a Fourier analysis program to obtain the
harmonic content of the distorted waveforms. For this simulation case, all the distribution
feeders were represented. The induction furnace operating condition selected for this case
corresponds to the time of maximum total harmonic distortion (THD) measured at the point
4.2. Power Q u a l i t y Assessment through E M T P - b a s e d Programs 113
Ssc 3 h =2,881.3 /-78.0 MVA 0
Ssc = 1,734.1 /-77.4 MVA 0

1phg
138 kV
25/30MVA 25/30MVA
138/13.8kV iLUj 138/13.8kV
9.72% (25MVA) ^ r^y^j 10.2% (25MVA)
BusI 1 3 . 8 k V BusII 1 3 . 8 k V
T T r r 1
j / / / / /
9.0MVAr
A 13.8kV
477.0 ACSR - 2km
336.4 ACSR •
0.5km
PCC
A LJJ A LJJ
3.0MVA ^ Fp A Fp
A J j
13.8/0.48kV . ™
5.9% i
A;
0.48kV
Induction Harmonic
T
Passive Filters
Furnaces A A
Figure 4.19: Distribution substation.
of commom coupling ( P C C ) , without the harmonic filters (see F i g . 4.17).
Figs. 4.23 (a) and (b) show the current and voltage waveforms respectively, w i t h their
harmonic contents, at the point of common coupling ( P C C ) between the utility electric
system and the customer facilities, for the induction furnaces operation w i t h the 4 th
and 5 t h
order harmonic passive filters turned off. F i g . 4.15 is repeated here as F i g . 4.24 to facilitate
POS
X
INVA
X Lc
Cr Li> >Rload
INVB
XX INDUCTION
FURNACE
NEG
Figure 4.20: Current-source, parallel-resonant inverter for induction heating.
frequency (Hz)
Figure 4.21: Amplitude of the positive sequence system impedance at the P C C with harmonic filters.
the comparison between the simulated and the measured results.
Figs. 4.25 (a) and (b) show the current and voltage waveforms, but for induction furnace
100 ! !
80
^ \ : ?\
60
40
co
20
CD 0
bo
K
^ "20
a; -40
-60
-80 vj \ \1
-100
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
frequency (Hz)
Figure 4.22: Phase angle of the positive sequence system impedance at the P C C with harmonic filters.
operation with the 4 4ft

and 5th
order harmonic passive filters turned on. This operating
condition corresponds to the time of minimum total harmonic distortion (THD) measured
at the point of common coupling (PCC), but in this case with the harmonic passive filters
turned on (see Fig. 4.18). Both operating conditions have approximately the same value
of fundamental current (199A R M S at the phase-to-phase R M S voltage of 13.8kV). Again,
Fig. 4.16 is repeated here as Fig. 4.26 to facilitate the comparison between the simulated
and the measured results.
processing frequency-domain analysis. The explanation is that the differential equations

of inductances and capacitances in EMTP-based programs are solved with the trapezoidal
integration rule, thus producing errors which are a function of the frequency and the time
step size (At) [2], [12]. Moreover, It is also recommended that the time step size be such
that the period of the fundamental frequency is an integer multiple of A t , in order to avoid
the generation of non-characteristic harmonics in the post processing Fourier analysis. For
example, if the system nominal frequency is 60.0Hz and the maximum frequency expected in
the transient simulation is in the order of f max = 6kHz, then the step size can be calculated
as A t = 1/(10 * f )
max = 16.66666MS;
New solutions to this harmonic problem could be investigated using EMTP-based sim-
ulations, as for example the possible use of active filters [60], [61] to minimize harmonic
distortions. Such power electronic device should be able to inject a shunt compensated cur-
rent, as shown in Fig. 4.27, at the point of common coupling, thus improving the quality of
power at the interface of industrial and utility power systems.
Phase "A " Currrent

400
-400 1
1 1 1
— 1 1
i I i
0.05 0.052 0.054 0.056 0.058 0 06 0.062 0.064 0.066
Time (ms)
4_ Ideal^ Compensation Current for Phase "A " ^_
0.05 0.052 0.054 0.056 0.058 0.06 0.062 0.064 0.066

Time (ms)
F i gure 4.27: Instantaneous ideal compensation current to be "injected" by a shunt active filter.
(d) Conclusions
This section presented an application of the electromagnetic transients program (EMTP)

to the analysis of a power quality issue in a distribution system, where the voltage and current
harmonic distortions were produced by induction furnaces. The history of this harmonic res-
onance problem was described. A digital model of the induction furnace as a current-source,
parallel-resonant inverter load, together with three-phase representations of the supplying
distribution system were used in a time-domain simulation. After reaching a time considered
as steady state, the simulated results were processed through a Fourier analysis program to
obtain the harmonic contents of the voltage and current waveforms at the point of com-
mon coupling. Field measurements were also presented. A comparison between the actual
measurements and the E M T P simulations is presented in Table 4.2 and Table 4.3. The differ-
ences in the values of the total harmonic distortion (THD) and the telephone influence factor
(TIF) are possibly due to simplifications or lack of realistic data in the digital modelling.
The knowledge of detailed manufacturer data of the induction furnaces and their operat-
ing conditions, such as the natural resonant frequency, would allow the improvement of the
E M T P simulation. Considering unbalanced conditions could also improve the simulation
results. Both were unfortunately not available.
Table 4.2: Comparison between field measurements and E M T P simulation results for the operating con-
dition with the harmonic passive filters turned O F F .
Phase " A " C u r r e n t [A] Phase-to-phase " A - B " Voltage [V]

Parameters Measured Simulated Error % Measured Simulated Error %
Fund 198.9 201.8 1.5 13,557 13,776 1.6
RMS 204.8 204.2 0.3 13,592 13,814 1.6
CF 1.531 1.491 2.6 1.489 1.444 3.0
Min -308.5 -304.4 1.4 -20,237 -19,950 1.4
Max 313.4 304.4 2.9 19,805 19,950 0.7
THD [%] 18.89 15.42 18.4 7.172 7.487 4.4
HRMS 37.58 31.11 17.2 972.3 1,031.4 6.1
TIF/IT 52,660 1 64,416 22.3 234.9 520.1 121.4
EMTP-based simulations can be useful tools for harmonic analysis, based on the fact that
very detailed effects can be taken into account. Once the system is modelled for an E M T P -
Table 4.3: Comparison between field measurements and E M T P simulation results for the operating con-
dition with the harmonic passive filters turned ON.
Phase "A" Current [A] Phase-to-phase " A - B " Voltage [V]

Parameters Measured Simulated Error % Measured Simulated Error %
Fund 198.7 190.2 4.3 14,011 14,211 1.4
RMS 199.0 190.4 4.3 14,037 14,219 1.3
CF 1.515 1.474 2.7 1.431 1.422 0.6
Min -301.5 -279.5 7.3 -20,083 -20,130 0.2
Max 294.2 280.7 4.6 19,896 20,220 1.6
THD [%] 5.585 5.110 8.5 2.589 3.224 24.5
HRMS 11.10 9.72 12.4 362.7 458.2 26.3
TIF/IT 24,637 36,910 49.8 115.1 219.9 91.1
based software, any type of studies can be performed. The new models developed in this
thesis project, hopefully will contribute to make EMTP-based programs more valuable tools
for electric utility companies and industrial customers in evaluating power quality problems.
4.2.2 Voltage Sag Analysis with EMTP-based Simulation
Voltage sags or voltage dips are short duration variations in the supply voltage, caused
by faults in transmission lines or in parallel distribution feeders, or caused by the start-up
of large induction motors or other types of sudden load variations. The majority of power
quality problems are associated with voltage sags, which are very common in today's electric-
ity industry. The ride-through characteristics of modern electronic and computer-controlled
loads are very sensitive to short duration variations in the supply voltage. A n entire process
may be shut down when the voltage sags momentarily. The equipment tolerance charac-
teristics to voltage sags vary very much among equipment manufacturers. Moreover, in
most cases the equipment ride-through characteristics are not known. For these reasons,
the C B E M A curve [51] (or the ITIC curve) has been widely used as a first reference for
power quality studies related to short duration voltage variations. Fig. 4.28 presents actual
measurements of voltage sag phenomena with an overlay of the C B E M A curve . 1
7
"We typically employ the curve only from 0.1 cycles and higher due to limitations in power quality
monitoring instruments and differences in opinion over defining the magnitude values in the subcycle time
frame." From [24], pp. 37-38.
The power system characteristics at the point where the sensitive load is connected is
another important issue for possible mitigation of voltage sag problems. Power system
protection and operating practices may also affect the success or failure of loads which are
sensitive to voltage disturbances.
Fig. 4.29 (a) shows a voltage sag phenomenon caused by a single-line-to-ground fault in a
distribution feeder, which is in parallel to a feeder supplying a " P V C " pipe (and other plastics
derived products) manufacturer with sensitive loads. The industrial process, controlled by
D C drives, is stopped if the voltage sags at the point of common coupling to less than 90%
of the nominal voltage during a time greater than 18 cycles (300ms).
Fig. 4.29 (b) shows the simulation results using MicroTran. The simulation does not
match the measurements exactly, because the dynamic behaviour of industrial loads (typ-
ically induction motors) were not included in the simulation model. Nevertheless, E M T P -
based programs have the flexibility to include aggregated load models [109]. More research,
however, seems to be needed for the accurate representation in EMTP-based programs of
the dynamic behavior of loads, which is beyond the scope of this thesis project. Custom
Power Controllers such as the dynamic voltage restorer (DVR), is a promising solution for
the mitigation of voltage sag phenomena.
4.2.3 Welding Industry Voltage Fluctuation Study - A Visual

F l i c k e r Case
Flicker is historically considered a problem of perception, because the human ability to

visually sense light changes caused by voltage fluctuations does vary. However, there are
certain levels of light flicker which can be easily detected, though their impact on possible
human brain disorders or any other potential health damage is difficult to quantify. This
section presents a recent case of light flicker and some simplified EMTP-based simulations.
The operation of a welding machine, to produce meshed wires for construction, connected
to a distribution system was simulated with MicroTran. If the duty cycle of the welding pro-
cess is near 8.8 Hz, the human eye would perceive the maximum visual flickering effect,
even when the R M S voltage fluctuations are in a range of very small percentage deviations.
PQNode Group March 15, 1996 a t 18:56:21 PQNode Local

T r i g g e r i n g Phase,Max Depth 16/04/96 06:03:38 PQNode Local
300
Max 106.0
Min 73.50
250
200
3 150
o
>
100 J_
50
I h
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000
Time (Cycles)
BMI/Electrotek
Figure 4.28: Voltage sag measurements ( % R M S versus time duration) with an overlay of the C B E M A
curve. For time durations less than 1 cycle the equipment seems to measure peak values.
IEC Standard 1000-4-15 provides the specifications for a flickermeter with "lamp-eye-brain"
frequency response to light flickering effects. Fig. 4.30 shows the simulated instantaneous
voltage for a power electronics controlled welding machine . The operating duty cycle, con-
trolled by the semiconductor firing angle, results in a modulating frequency of approximately
7Hz for this case, as shown in Fig. 4.31, which causes the visual light flicker. Cost-effective
solutions for voltage fluctuation problems are usually related to changes in the load duty
cycle, when this does not affect the industry productivity or the quality of the manufac-
tured product. The application of reactive dynamic compensation through power electronic
devices, such as the distribution static synchronous compensator (D-STATCOM) can effec-
tively mitigate this type of power quality problem [110].
4.2. Power Quality Assessment, through EMTP-based Programs 123
Figure 4.29: (a) Phase-to-phase "A-B" measured voltage sag. (b) Phase-to-phase "A-B" simulated voltage
sag.
Instantaneous Voltage at the Point of Common Coupling

1000
950
900
850
800
IP
700
650
600
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Time ( s )
Figure 4.30: Instantaneous voltagefluctuationscausing light flickering effect.
Phase "A" Voltage
Harmonic Amplitude Spectrum

i 1 1
1 •
Ii
I .•• L i l L - i
Frequency (Hz)
F i gure 4.31: Modulated voltage and respective amplitude frequency spectrum

4.3. EMTP-based Simulation Cases with SSCPS 125
4.3 E M T P - b a s e d Simulation Cases w i t h S S C P S
This section presents a collection of test cases to validate the EMTP-based models de-
veloped in this thesis. Where an interesting and already published benchmark simulation
case with all the necessary data was readily available, it was selected because it made com-
parisons easy. In other cases, simple circuits were assembled by the author to test and prove
the ideas.
4.3.1 B a s i c C o n t r o l a n d C o n t r o l D e v i c e s S i m u l a t i o n Cases
This section provides more explanations about the theory presented in the previous chap-
ters, with some applications to test cases.
(a) T h e Effect of a O n e T i m e Step Delay in the Solution of E M T P - b a s e d Simu-

lations
Reference [66] presents some interesting cases where the one time step delay in the solution
of control and system equations, or the internal delays inside TACS, give wrong or inaccurate
simulation results. For example, the simulation of a transfer function with poles on the
imaginary axis of the complex plane is very sensitive to time delays, which can "move" the
poles to the right half of the complex plane, resulting in instability. To illustrate this, Fig.
4.32 presents a control block diagram of a transfer function with a second order differential
equation. The simultaneous solution is shown in Fig. 4.33. The intentional introduction of
a one time step delay in the control system, as illustrated in Fig. 4.34, leads to an unstable
resonance condition, as shown in Fig. 4.35. These results emphasize the "importance of a
simultaneous solution approach", which is critical in some cases for the correct simulation
of control and power system equations with EMTP-based programs.
IN
o OUT
t
1.0 [V]
\
i
Figure 4.32: Control block diagram of a second order differential equation with poles on the imaginary
axis of the complex plane.
Figure 4.33: Solution of system with bounded resonance oscillations.

Figure 4.35: Solution of system with unstable resonance oscillations caused by the introduction of one
time step delay.
(b) Basic Control Blocks, Transfer Functions and Filters
Laplace transfer functions are essential for control design and simulation. Generally,
classical control blocks such as proportional (P), integral (I), derivative (D), (and their com-
binations PI, P D , PID), lead-lag's for phase compensation, washout filters, etc., are present
in any analog or digital control scheme. Many if not most of the first, second or higher
order differential equations used to model the physical behavior of electrical, mechanical,
chemical, and any other systems use such transfer functions for their mathematical repre-
sentation. Transfer functions can also represent passive and active filters (i.e., connections of
circuits with operational amplifiers, resistors and capacitors). Depending on their properties
and frequency response, these filters are referred to with special names, such as low-pass,
Butterworth, Chebyshev, Legendre-Papoulis, Bessel, elliptic, high-pass, band-pass, notch,
band-elimination, all-pass (magnitude), all-pass (phase), etc. [80]). Therefore, the method-
ology proposed in this thesis for the simultaneous solution of transfer functions (Chapter
2) expands considerably the potential applications of EMTP-based programs in time and
frequency domain simulation studies.
It is important to mention that other general purpose and powerful computer tools,
such as M A T L A B [103], can also be very useful for engineers and scientists, especially for
the design of control systems. The computer program S P I C E seems to be more used for
electronics and power electronics simulations. EMTP-based programs, however, still seem
to have more detailed and proven models, especially for the power system part.
This section then presents some test cases with classical control blocks, which are simu-
lated with the simultaneous solution method implemented experimentally in MicroTran, the
U B C version of the E M T P . The first control block diagram case is illustrated in Fig. 4.36,
which represents the classical linearized "swing equation", which is used in power system
small-signal stability studies of a single machine connected to an infinite bus, as extracted
from page 731 of reference [86], where:
Kg = 0.757pu torque/rad = synchronizing torque coefficient in pu torque/rad;

Kp = 10 or -10 pu/pu = damping torque coefficient in pu torque/pu speed deviation:
H = 3.5 M W s / M V A = inertia constant in M W s / M V A ;
Au r = speed deviation in pu = (tu r — UJQ)/OJQ\
A5 = rotor angle deviation in electrical rad;
o>o = rated speed in electrical rad/s = 27r/ = 377 rad/s for a 60Hz system;
0
A T m = — 0.1 pu = mechanical torque deviation in pu;

ATe s = synchronizing torque component in pu;
ATe<i = damping torque component;
ATa = ATm — ATes — ATej, = accelerating torque deviation.
Fig. 4.37 illustrates the simulation results for a -O.lpu disturbance in the per unit me-
chanical torque deviation (ATm). With a positive damping torque coefficient (KD = 10)
the rotor angle deviation (AS) presents damped natural oscillations and reaches a new stable
operation point in steady state. As shown in Fig. 4.38 with a negative damping torque co-
efficient (K D = —10) the rotor angle deviation (AS) presents amplified natural oscillations,
as expected, causing small-signal instability. Alternatively, the control block diagram pre-
sented in Fig. 4.36 could also be represented by a canonical second order transfer function,
as presented in Fig. 4.39, where:
(4.5)
(4.6)
1 K
(4.7)
D
2 2Hu, 2 y/K 2Hu

s 0
Are
ATm ^ "1 ATa Aco, A5

±
o — 2Hs
—•
-0.1 p.u.
© K,D
ATe,
F i g u r e 4.36: Classical linearized "swing equation", used in power system small-signal stability studies of
a single machine connected to an infinite bus.
0.1 1 1 T 1 1 1 i i i
Y ATa
0.05 - > \ ATe

d *Aco
5
s I*'
ll
si.
\ /
§ -0.05 ATe
ATm
ft)
/ '
It
Q.
.Sj
^ -0 1
It
I
ft) *
.a I r / \ /
C
-0.15
AS
-0.2 - 1 1
I 1
-0.25 i i i i p i i
1 2 3 4 5 6 9 10
Time ( s )
F i g u r e 4.37: Simulation results of the synchronous machine rotor angle deviation, in the presence of
positive damping torque coefficient.
200
4 5 6 10
Time ( s )
F i g u r e 4.38: Simulation results of the synchronous machine rotor angle deviation, in the presence of
negative damping torque coefficient.
ATm
• AS
s + 2^d) s +C0
2
n n
2
t .
0.1 p.u.
Fi gure 4.39: Canonical second order transfer function representation of the single-machine infinite bus
system.
(c) Voltage and Current Sensors, Control Devices, Function Blocks and Digital
Logic Gates
The solution method for voltage and current sensors, control devices, function blocks and
digital logic gates follows the procedures for dependent sources presented in Chapter 2. For
example, the simultaneous solution through the compensation method for a generic linear
or nonlinear voltage-controlled voltage source can be used
• to sense a voltage signal, with the compensating current at the controlling branch j
set to zero, i.e., ij = 0;
• then to define any linear or nonlinear voltage function at the controlled branch k, i.e.,
Vk = f(vj);
• and finally to use the Newton-Raphson algorithm presented in Section 2.2.5, (Fig.
2.19) to calculate a solution for the compensating currents ij and i - k
If more than one control voltage signal needs to be sensed, their respective compensating
branch currents are "simply set to zero". On the other hand, if currents have to be sensed,
their respective branch voltages can be set to zero. Since control signals are usually voltage
signals (or current signals converted to voltage signals), a current sensor can be represented
by a current-controlled voltage source.
The implementation of control devices (such as transport or time delay blocks, com-
parators, zero crossing detection and generation of gate firing signals, Clark transformation,
Park transformation, etc.), F O R T R A N function blocks (such as SIN, C O S , T A N , ASIN,
ACOS, L O G , E X P , SQRT, M U L T I P L I C A T I O N , DIVISION, etc.) and digital logic gates
(AND, OR, N O T , N A N D , N O R , etc.) uses the same concept of the simultaneous solution
for voltage-controlled voltage sources presented before.
The implementation of a simultaneous solution for limiters requires special attention, as

for example in the case of the widely used PI controllers with non-windup limiters. Reference
[66] clearly explains the problem and the solution for a correct EMTP-based simulation.
Special functions, as for example for the evaluation of average values (e.g. "rolling average
power" presented in [66]), root mean square (RMS) values, instantaneous total harmonic
distortion (THD) values, etc. can be easily modelled with control blocks, and with sub-
circuit implementation.
4.3.2 P o w e r E l e c t r o n i c s S i m u l a t i o n Cases
The cases presented in this section are based on references [65], [93], [89], [94], [104], [95].
(a) D y n a m i c C o n t r o l of the F i r i n g A n g l e ("a") of a T h y r i s t o r
Fig. 4.40 illustrates a simple circuit to demonstrate three important contributions of this
thesis, for the dynamic simulation of power electronic devices in EMTP-based programs:
• simultaneous solution for voltage sensors;
• zero crossing detection and generation of firing pulses with an instantaneous updating
of the controlling firing angle a. The controller is enabled by a voltage signal of "1
volt" and disabled by a voltage signal of "0 volt";
• EMTP-based voltage-controlled unidirectional current flowing switch, to represent the

thyristor, which receives the gate signal directly from the controller.
The voltage sensor in Fig. 4.40 is modelled with the equations for an "ideal" voltage-
controlled voltage source (VCVS) presented in Section 2.2, i.e.:
ij = 0 (4.8)
(4.9)
.•• + h - M - f ) « M = 0
I
where A = 1. For this case, the synchronizing signal for the gate firing controller could have
been sensed directly from the excitation source v , SA without the need for a voltage sensor,
which was included here for completeness of the test case.
The gate firing controller is modelled as a "multi-terminal voltage-controlled voltage

source", where three controlled voltages are sensed and used to determine the voltage source
at the gate, VQATE (a pulse of amplitude equal to 1 with a specified width, or zero volts). The
output VQATE depends on the values of VSYNCHR (which is used to detect, with interpolation,
the time of zero crossings) , v ALP HA (which is the firing angle in degrees, converted to time,
based on the given input frequency) and v ena bi /disable
e (whose value of 1 or zero is multiplied
by VGATE to enable or disable the control firing). The following equations are used to solve
for the gate firing controller using the compensation method:
i-= 0
3 (4.10)
h =0 (4.11)
ii = 0 (4.12)
-vopEN m + r iii
m + ... (4 13)
••• + r m m i m + ... + r m M i M + V ATE
G =0
In addition to equations 4.10 to 4.13, conditional IF-statements are used to implement the
logic described above equation 4.10.
The thyristor was modelled as an EMTP-based voltage-controlled unidirectional current

flowing switch, which receives the gate signal directly from the controller.
The solution with the compensation method using an iterative Newton-Raphson algo-
rithm requires the calculation of a Thevenin equivalent for each branch, as mentioned before
in the fundamental assumptions of Section 2.2.2. In cases where this calculation fails, the
connection of large resistors in parallel with the branch may make a Thevenin equivalent
circuit possible . Eventually, in an E M T P production code, the use of internal variables
8
for the control could result in a more economic implementation. Internal control variables
would actually not have any physical connection with the power network part of the circuit.
Fig. 4.41 shows the resulting voltages and currents simulated with MicroTran and the
method proposed in this thesis, which is a truly simultaneous solution of the power and
control circuit. The time step size used was At = 16.6667yLis.
8
In MicroTran, the connection of a large resistance of 10 fi and with the near zero tolerance parameter
9
for checking matrix singularities, EPSILON=10~ , this problem can easily be solved.
12
4.3. E M T P - b a s e d Simulation Cases w i t h S S C P S 135
'LOAD
'LOAD
V =5.0[V]
max
2.5Q.
f=60[Hz]
5mH
V
GATE
Gate Firing Controller
ALPHA enable /
SYNCHR
f=60Hz disable
pulse width=10
degreees
Voltage Sensor / (l) 45.0 [V] 1.0 [V]

Firing Angle t =25.0[ms]
stop
(degrees)
F i g u r e 4.40: Circuit for the dynamic control of the firing angle ("a") of a thyristor.
4.3. E M T P - b a s e d Simulation Cases w i t h S S C P S 136
Time (ms)
F i g u r e 4 . 4 1 : Voltages and currents in a circuit with dynamic control of the firing angle of a thyristor.
(b) D y n a m i c C o n t r o l of the F i r i n g A n g l e s o f a T h r e e - P h a s e S i x - P u l s e T h y r i s t o r -
Bridge Rectifier
Fig. 4.42 illustrates a phase controlled rectifier with a feedback control system based on
the manual of PSIM [65]. "It should be noted that, in PSIM, the power and the control
circuit are solved separately. There is one time step delay between the power and the control
circuit solutions" [65].
The six-pulse firing controller implemented with the models developed in this thesis
project uses a simultaneous solution for the power and control circuit equations. Similarly to
the simple firing controller "a" of the previous test case, a multi-terminal voltage-controlled
voltage source is used to model it. The inputs to the six-pulse firing controller are the
synchronizing signal (voltage VAC sensed from the supply system), the dynamic firing angle
a (resulting from the A C O S control block, which receives the signal from the limited PI
controller, after comparison with the desired reference voltage for the D C load). From
the gating signal generated to the thyristor with identification number "1", all the other
gating signals are derived sequentially by adding a time delay corresponding to 60 degrees
at the 60Hz frequency. For starting purposes, whenever a firing signal is sent to a particular
thyristor, another "isolated" firing signal is sent to the previous thyristor as recommended
in [88].
Fig. 4.43 presents the E M T P simulated voltages and currents, using a A t = 16.6667/is
and with a dynamic control of the firing angles of the three-phase six-pulse thyristor-bridge
rectifier. Fig. 4.44 shows the dynamic behavior of the control variables, emphasizing the
firing control signal a, and Fig. 4.45 illustrates the dynamics of the voltage control signals
at the output of the proportional-integral (PI) control block and the limiter control block.
Figure 4.42: Circuit for the dynamic control of the firing angles of a three-phase six-pulse thyristor-bridge
rectifier.
1.4
(c) D y n a m i c C o n t r o l of Three-Phase P W M Voltage Source Inverter
Fig.4.46 presents a circuit for the dynamic control of a three-phase P W M voltage source
inverter (VSI) [65]. Again, the power and the control circuit equations are solved simultane-
ously with the methods proposed in this thesis. For this EMTP-type simulation it was used
a A t = 16.66667/Lts.
The phase " A " modulation and triangular carrier waveforms for generation of gating
signals through sinusoidal pulse width modulation (PWM) are presented in Fig. 4.47.
With the use of comparators and N O T logic gates the firing signals are dynamically
generated, in a simultaneous solution with the network equations through the compensation
method.
The IGBT's with anti-parallel diodes were represented, for simplicity and without much
loss of accuracy in this simulation, by the EMTP-based voltage-controlled switches, which
were implemented in this thesis through the G A T E subroutine. Here it is opportune to
discuss the issue of simultaneous commutation: Let us assume that the current is flowing
through the I G B T with identification number "1" from the D C source to the load. When
I G B T number 1 is turned off, the voltage V A-NEUTR
S reverses polarity almost instanta-
neously (due to the behavior of the inductor, which forces the current to keep flowing in
the same direction), thereby forward biasing the anti-parallel diode of the I G B T with iden-
tification number "4", which then starts conducting. In digital simulation programs this
means that there is simultaneous commutation between I G B T 1 and the anti-parallel diode
at I G B T 4. This could be modelled as it is, i.e., with an I G B T and diode in anti-parallel
(which would have to be modelled with piecewise linear or nonlinear model), or as a voltage-
controlled bidirectional current flowing switch, where the control signals play the role of the
commutation.
Fig. 4.48 presents the node voltage VSA" generated by the 3-Phase P W M voltage source
U
inverter (VSI), whereas Fig. 4.49 shows the voltage across the load "VSA-NEUTR" and the
current in phase " A " supplied to the load.
The dynamically generated 3-phase load currents are illustrated in Fig. 4.50. The line-
to-line voltage generated by the three-phase P W M voltage source inverter (VSI) is shown in
Fig. 4.51.
Most of the advanced Custom Power Controllers [60] (and active filters [111]) apply
this type of converter to synthesize voltages or current waveforms according to the desired
"dynamic reference modulating signal". When a current is to be synthesized, dynamic
hysteresis current-band P W M converters are used [60] . Therefore, the models developed in
9
this thesis, will hopefully be useful for the accurate EMTP-simulation of a variety of existing
and new power electronic devices, especially those aimed at improving the quality of power
in utility and industrial systems.
9
The Ph.D thesis "Active Power Line Conditioners" of Dr.-Ing. Mauricio Aredes, can be downloaded by
the reader from the the web site http://www.dee.ufrj.br.
IGBTj IGBT 3 IGBT,
,5
—i
SA-NEUTR NEUTR
"SB I
SB-NEUTR
v,sc SC-NEUTR
l
3.87Q 7.7mH
10 Q
9
IGBT 4 IGBT 6 IGBT 2
0.8 [VJ\
4>°—
NOT
0.8/Yjnj
4>-
^COMPARATOR
0.8 [V]Ky
f= 60 [Hz] TRI 4>-
liV]
f= 1500 [Hz]
1 /?/jtf.se = -750 [degrees]
Figure 4.46: Circuit for the dynamic control of three-phase P W M voltage source inverter (VSI).
600
400
^ 200
R
ft)
C3
bo
•S -200
-400
-600
10 15 20 25
Time (ms )
Figure 4.48: Node voltage "VSA" generated by a three-phase PWM voltage source inverter (VSI).
600
-400 r-
-600 1
10 15 20 25
Time (ms)
Figure 4.49: Voltage across the load "V A-NEUTR"

S and current supplied to the load by a three-phase
P W M voltage source inverter (VSI).
-60 L
10 15 20 25
Time (ms)
F i gure 4.50: Load currents supplied by a three-phase P W M voltage source inverter (VSI).
.3. EMTP-based Simulation Cases with SSCPS
Time (ms )
Figure 4.51: Line-to-line voltage generated by a three-phase P W M voltage source inverter (VSI)
4.4. Synthesis of Simulation Guidelines for Studies with EMTP-based Programs 150
4.4 Synthesis of Simulation Guidelines for Studies with

EMTP-based Programs
This section emphasizes the basic issues which are critical for the successful evaluation of
the impact of power electronic devices on the quality of power. Important factors regarding
power quality monitoring, modelling and simulation in EMTP-based programs of power
system components and power electronics devices are pointed out, with the main objective
of analyzing their dynamic interaction and of evaluating their impact on electric power
quality.
For power quality monitoring the important factors are:
• Evaluation based on accurate measurements of power quality phenomena, through the

use of instruments with appropriate voltage and current sensors and adequate digital
sampling frequency [15];
• Use of statistical and other advanced data analysis methods to produce meaningful
information;
• Comparison against national and international power quality standards, taking into
consideration system differences and similarities;
In the analysis of power quality phenomena through time and frequency domain EMTP-
based simulations, special attention must be paid to:
• the simulation step size At, which has to be chosen as a function of the maximum
frequency expected (or of concern) in the simulation. Usually, the time step size is
set to a value at least equal to one tenth of the period of the maximum frequency,
which will result in a 3% error with the trapezoidal integration rule [2], [112]. It is also
recommended that the step size be such that the period of the fundamental frequency
is an integer multiple of At, in order to avoid the generation of non-characteristic
harmonics in the post processing Fourier analysis. For example, if the system nominal
frequency is 60.0Hz and the maximum frequency expected in the transient simulation
4.4. Synthesis of Simulation Guidelines for Studies with EMTP-based Programs 151
is in the order of f m a x = 6kHz, then the time step size can be calculated as A t =
1/(10 * fmax) = 16.66666^;
• the selection of appropriate models to represent power system and load components,
especially if frequency dependence has to be taken into consideration in the simulated
phenomena [92];
• nonlinearities, which are usually disregarded in many simulations. They can affect the
accuracy of the simulation results, particularly in the case of transformer saturation;
• the use of simplified switch models for power electronics devices. This may be justified
to speed up the simulation time for system level studies, but it may also give wrong and
misleading results, especially related to semiconductor commutation phenomena. Also,
the E M T P solution at discrete time intervals A t may result in inaccurate turn-on or
turn-off switching times, causing unrealistic high frequency transients in the simulation
of power electronic devices. Backtracking techniques [67], [68] and/or resynchroniza-
tion techniques ([96] pages 185, 204, 207) or even the Clock Synchronized Structure
Changing Concept (CSSC) [97] can be used to minimize the problem. Interpolation
and/or extrapolation as well as resynchronization techniques seem to be more and more
applied even in the EMTP-based solution of modern control for power electronics sys-
tems [98], [99]. Therefore, for better accuracy in EMTP-based simulations of power
electronics, it is much more important to use such techniques than to reduce the time
step size;
• numerical oscillations caused by the trapezoidal rule of integration in solving the system
of equations. The use of techniques such as C D A ("Critical Damping Adjustment"
[84], [85]) is effective in the elimination of numerical oscillations. MicroTran has C D A
implemented, but other E M T P versions may not, or may use different approaches.
• the one time step delay at the interface between the control and power systems solu-
tion, as well as other internal time step delays, which may exist in T A C S ("Transient
Analysis of Control Systems") and in other software packages. The method SSCPS
("Simultaneous Solution of Control and electric Power System equations") proposed in
4.4. Synthesis of Simulation Guidelines for Studies with E M T P - b a s e d Programs 152
this thesis overcomes this problem, and the user only introduces time delays if needed
to represent system physical behaviour.

Chapter 5
Conclusions and Recommendations

for Future Work
H E M A I N G O A L of this Ph.D. thesis project was the development of EMTP-based

1 models for control and power electronic devices for electric power quality assessment.
E M T P simulations can offer theoretical and practical insights into the evaluation of power
quality, both by time-domain simulation techniques and by frequency-domain simulation
techniques.
5.1 Conclusions and Main Contributions
The increasing demand for electricity and other forms of energy in modern society will
create issues of conflict and interest. The simple absence of enough power generation or
of available transfer capacity may become the cause of scheduled load shedding or more
frequent blackouts, with obvious catastrophic consequences.
The growing regulatory, environmental, financial and time constraints in building new
power plants (typically hydroelectric) and transmission lines has been forcing emergency
solutions in the electricity industry all over the world, such as the increasing use of "small"
distributed generation (mainly thermal power plants with steam or gas turbines), the use of
F A C T S devices to enhance power system stability and control, and the adoption of programs
to "save energy" with the promotion for the use of more electricity efficient light, heat, and
motor equipment. This, in turn, might create a deteriorating impact on the quality of power,
153
5.1. Conclusions and Main Contributions 154
due to the manufacturing of usually inexpensive power electronic converters. It is a challeng-

ing environment for engineering, politics, economics, etc. since in modern human society,
electricity has become a basic commodity, which almost everybody and almost everything
depends on.
The quality of the electric power delivered to customers by utilities may not be acceptable
for some types of sensitive loads, which are typically power electronics and computer-based
loads, particularly in the control of industrial processes. There are cases where the increas-
ing use of power electronics to enhance process efficiency and controllability creates power
quality problems. The growing application of shunt capacitors for voltage support, power
factor correction, and system loss reduction, as well as the use of series capacitors (fixed or
controlled, for line reactance compensation) will increase the potential risk of transient dis-
turbance amplifications and potential electrical and mechanical resonances in the presence
of more and more power electronic devices, and of steam and gas turbines in distributed and
co-generation power plants. As the natural order of the system grows, so grows its ability
to oscillate more! At the same time, new power electronic devices also offer the means for
adequate "power conditioning", to meet the special requirements of electric power quality in
a system.
To evaluate the promising solutions offered with the introduction of more and more power
electronic devices in the transmission and distribution systems, as well as to analyze their
interaction and impact on either the load or the network side, computer programs based on
the E M T P (Electromagnetic Transients Program) are becoming more useful.
The development of new EMTP-based models for more accurate representation of controls
and power electronic devices has been the main subject of this thesis project. The assessment
of electric power quality and the technical impact of power electronic devices on the quality
of power, can hopefully be performed with the models developed in this work.
The main contributions of this Ph.D. thesis project are summarized as follows:
• development of a "simultaneous solution for linear and nonlinear control and electric
power system equations" (SSCPS) in EMTP-based programs, through the compen-

5.1. Conclusions and Main Contributions 155
sation method and the Newton-Raphson iterative algorithm. This solution method
eliminates not only the one time step delay problem at the interface between the so-
lution of power and control circuits, but also all the internal delays, which may exist
in methods based on the transient analysis of control systems (TACS) since 1977 [64].
A "circuit approach" was proposed in this thesis, as an innovative alternative to the
solution presented by A . E. A . Araiijo in 1993 [67];
• experimental implementation in Microtran, the U B C version of the E M T P , based on

SSCPS, of a simultaneous solution for:
- linear and nonlinear current and voltage dependent sources (which allow, for
example the modelling of operational amplifiers, ideal current, and voltage sensors,
etc.);
- independent, current and voltage sources, which can also be connected between
two ungrounded nodes;
- hard and soft limiters (which can be used to represent nonlinear effects such as
saturation);
- transfer functions (which allows the simulation modelling of all types of analog
filters and classical control blocks);
- mathematical and transcendental F O R T R A N functions (such as + , - , * , / , SIN,

COS, T A N , ASIN, ACOS, L O G , E X P , etc.);
- special control devices (such as time delays, comparators, etc.) and some digital
logic gates (NOT);
- transformation of variables (such as the abc to a(30 transformation and its inverse);
- voltage-controlled switches;
- nonlinear model of a diode semiconductor;
• development of the subroutine " G A T E " in MicroTran, allowing the dynamic control
of the turn-on and turn-off times of semiconductor devices (e.g., thyristors, GTO's,
IGBT's, etc.), which are modelled as EMTP-based voltage-controlled switches;
5.2. Recommendations for Future Work 156
• development of power electronics simulation cases in MicroTran, using the simultaneous

solution approach (SSCPS) for the dynamic control of semiconductor switching devices
(as in a three-phase six-pulse thyristor controlled bridge rectifier, and in a three-phase
P W M voltage source inverter (VSI)) and evaluation of current and voltage waveforms;
• interaction with a Brazilian utility company and industries for the realization and
analysis of field measurements of electromagnetic phenomena affecting the quality of
power, such as:
— voltage sags and voltage swells;
— harmonic current and voltage distortions;
— transients, etc.
with determination of causes, consequences and investigation of possible solutions for

power quality problems, as for example, the application of "Custom Power Controllers":
• synthesis of simulation guidelines for the evaluation of the impact of power electronic
devices on the quality of power, based on realistic field measurements and E M T P time
and frequency domain simulations.
5.2 Recommendations for Future Work
The author's main recommendations for future work related to his Ph.D. thesis project
are listed below:
• development and implementation in EMTP-based programs of methods for the "au-

tomatic calculation of initial conditions" in the simultaneous solution of control and
power electronic circuits;
• development and implementation in EMTP-based programs of techniques for the cal-

culation of the "frequency response of integrated control and power system equations",
allowing for example, the determination of transfer functions between a generic input
and a generic output;
• development and implementation in EMTP-based programs of techniques for the ac-

curate solution of "digital control systems";
• development and implementation in EMTP-based programs of "detailed nonlinear

models of semiconductor devices" (such as transistors, etc.);
• development and implementation in EMTP-based programs of algorithms for the si-

multaneous solution of "generic nonlinear dependent sources" [101];
• development and implementation in EMTP-based programs of "voltage and frequency

dependent aggregated load models" [109], but suitable for time and frequency domain
simulations in power quality studies;
• development and implementation in EMTP-based programs of models for F A C T S and

Custom Power Controllers, such as S T A T C O M , U P F C , D V R , U P Q C , active filters,
etc, and definition, if not yet available in the technical literature, of benchmark test
cases, possibly with field validation of the models. The evaluation of "power system
stability and control, based on long term EMTP-type simulations", will require detailed
and complex modelling of power system components, F A C T S Controllers and special
loads, with all their associated control equipment such as turbine-governor controllers,
exciter controllers, power system stabilizers, power electronics controllers, etc.. Com-
plex and very important electromagnetic and electromechanical phenomena could then
be investigated thoroughly, as for example, the damping and control of subsynchronous
resonance [86], [90].
Some of the author's publications in areas related to the thesis topic are listed here for
easy reference:
• B. D. Bonatto, E. A . Mertens Jr., E. S. da Silva, and L . F. S. Dias, "Power Quality

Assessment at Sensitive Loads", submitted to the IEEE/PES Transmission and Dis-
tribution Latin America Conference (IEEE/PES T&D 2002), Sao Paulo-SP, Brazil,
March 18-22, 2002.
• B . D. Bonatto, E . H . Watanabe, E . A . Mertens Jr., H . W . Dommel, L . F. S. Dias,
M . Aredes, S. Carneiro Jr., and S. Nosaki, "Power Electronics and Electric Power
Quality: Cooperative Research at E L E K T R O , C O P P E / U F R J , and U B C " , submitted
to the / Brazilian Congress on Electric Energy Technological Innovation (I CITENEL),
Brasflia-DF, Brazil, November 6-7, 2001 (in Portuguese).
• B. D. Bonatto, H . W. Dommel, E . H . Watanabe, M . Aredes, S. Carneiro Jr., E.
A . Mertens Jr., S. Nosaki, and L . F. S. Dias, "Custom Power Applications for the
Improvement of the Quality of Power - Literature Review", IV Brazilian Seminar
about the Quality of Power (SBQEE01), Porto Alegre-RS, Brazil, August 12-17, 2001.
• B. D. Bonatto, and H . W . Dommel, "Current and Voltage Dependent Sources in

EMTP-based Programs", International Conference on Power Systems Transients -
(IPST01), Rio de Janeiro-RJ, Brazil, Volume I, pp. 299-304, June 24-28, 2001.
• B . D. Bonatto, E . A . Mertens Jr., F. A . Fernandes, and L. F. S. Dias, "The Quality

of Electric Power in Coordination with the Industrial Safety", XIV National Seminar
on Electric Energy Distribution (XIV SENDI), Foz do Iguassu-PR, Brazil, November
19-23, 2000 (in Portuguese).
• B . D. Bonatto, H . W . Dommel, E . A . Mertens Jr., and F. A . Fernandes, "Power
Quality Analysis based on E M T P Simulations Harmonics Case Study", 5th. Brazilian
Power Electronics Conference (COBEP99), Foz do IguassuPR, Brazil, Volume 1, pp.
135-140, September 19-23, 1999.
• B . D. Bonatto, E . A . Mertens Jr., and F. A . Fernandes, "Power Quality Diagnosis
in Industrial Customers - Case Study", III Brazilian Seminar about the Quality of
Electric Power (SBQEF/99), Brasilia-DF, Brazil, pp. 108-113, August 08-12, 1999 (in
Portuguese).
• B . D. Bonatto, T. Niimura and H . W . Dommel, " A Fuzzy Logic Application to Repre-
sent Load Sensitivity to Voltage Sags", in 8 th

International Conference on Harmonics
and Quality of Power (8th

ICHQP), I E E E / P E S , Ed., Athens, Greece, Vol. I, pp.
60-64, October 14-16 1998.

• B. D. Bonatto, E. A . Mertens Jr., and F. A . Fernandes, "Power Quality Diagnosis in

Distribution System", III Latin-American Congress in Electric Energy Distribution (III
CONLADIS), Sao Paulo-SP, Brazil, pp. 37-41, September 8-10, 1998 (in Portuguese).
• L . E. O. Pinheiro, B . D. Bonatto, R. Torrezan, and F. A . Fernandes, "Power Quality

Monitoring - Practical Cases, Solutions and the Planning Perspective", XIII National
Seminar in Electrical Energy Distribution (XIII SENDI), Sao Paulo-SP, Brazil, May
11-16, 1997 (in Portuguese).
• L. E . O. Pinheiro, O. S. I. Komukai, B . D . Bonatto, and E. Yoshida, "Measurements

for Power Quality Monitoring in Distribution System", I Brazilian Seminar on Power
Quality (SBQEE/96), Uberlandia-M.G., Brazil, pp. 92-97, June 10-13, 1996 (in Por-
tuguese).
• S. M . Deckmann, and B . D. Bonatto, "Damping Introduced by Control Means Consid-

ering Generator Capability Limits", IFAC Control of Power Plants and Power Systems
(SIPOWER'95), Cancun, Mexico, 1995.
• B . D. Bonatto, and S. M . Deckmann, "Damping Introduced by S V C , CSC, and PSS

for Operation on the Synchronous Machine Capability Curve", XIII National Seminar
on Production and Transmission of Electric Energy (XIII SNPTE), Florianopolis-SC,
Brazil, 1995.
• B. D. Bonatto, Damping of Electromechanical Oscillations in Electric Systems through
Reactive Dynamic Compensation, Master Thesis, The State University of Campinas -

U N I C A M P , Campinas-SP, Brazil, 1995 (in Portuguese).
• S. M . Deckmann, and B . D. Bonatto, Laboratory of Electrical Engineeering I, UNI-
C A M P / F E E C , Faculty of Electrical and Computer Engineering, December 1992, reed-

ited in December 1993, and in 1998. Campinas-SP, Brazil.
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E M T P Modelling of Control and

Power Electronic Devices

M.A.Sc. in Electrical Engineering, State University of Campinas, Brazil, 1995.

.A.Sc. in Electrical Engineering, Federal School of Engineering of Itajuba, Brazil, 1991.

THE REQUIREMENTS FOR T H E D E G R E E OF

(Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering)

We accept this thesis as conforming

T H E UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA

© Benedito Donizeti Bonatto, 2001

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering

• experimental implementation in MicroTran® (the UBC version of the EMTP), based

and its inverse); voltage-controlled switches; nonlinear model of a diode semiconductor;

• development of the subroutine "GATE" in MicroTran, allowing the dynamic control

• development of power electronics simulation cases in MicroTran, using the simultaneous

List of Figures vii

1 Electric Power Quality and Power Electronic Devices: An Overview 1

2 Simultaneous Solution of Control and Electric Power System Equations

2.2.6 Possible Applications 40

3 Power Electronics Modelling in EMTP-based Simulations 64

4 Evaluation of the Impact of Power Electronic Devices on the Quality of

5 Conclusions and Recommendations for Future Work 153

1.1 Typical Design Goals of Power-Conscious Computer Manufacturers. (Source: I E E E Std.

1.2 C B E M A curve revised by the Information Technology Industry Council (ITIC) 9

2.1 E M T P and T A C S interface with 1 time step delay 16

2.2 M-phase Thevenin equivalent circuit 19

2.3 Representation of branch equation A; as a voltage source in series with a resistance. . . . 20

2.4 Representation of branch equation k as a current source in parallel with a resistance. . . 21

2.5 Current-controlled voltage source ( C C V S ) 23

2.6 Current-controlled current source ( C C C S ) 24

2.7 Voltage-controlled voltage source ( V C V S ) 25

2.8 Symbol for operational amplifier 27

2.9 Inverting amplifier circuit 29

2.10 Non-inverting amplifier circuit 29

2.11 Adder circuit with operational amplifier 29

2.12 Ideal integrator circuit with operational amplifier 30

2.13 Generalization of inverter amplifier circuit 30

2.14 First-order lag circuit using ideal operational amplifier 31

2.15 Voltage-controlled current source ( V C C S ) 31

2.16 Ideal transformer 33

2.17 Independent current source 34

2.18 Independent voltage source 35

2.19 Newton-Raphson algorithm experimentally implemented in MicroTran 39

2.20 Circuit with ideal operational amplifier 41

2.22 Transfer function 42

2.23 Observer form block-diagram of transfer function in equation 2.80 44

2.25 Block-diagram representation of a first-order transfer function 45

2.26 Observer form block-diagram of first-order transfer function of Fig. 2.25 46

2.27 Possible computer implementation of first-order transfer function of Fig. 2.25 46

2.28 Realistic first-order lag circuit 47

2.29 Time domain simulation of first-order transfer function 47

2.30 First-order transfer function with windup (static) limiter 49

2.31 First-order transfer function with non-windup (dynamic) limiter 49

2.33 Soft limits 52

2.34 Zero-order transfer function with soft limits 53

and soft limits on the output x(t) 53

2.37 Nonlinear control block-diagram with a sinusoidal intrinsic F O R T R A N function 55

2.38 Circuit implementation for the simultaneous solution of a sinusoidal F O R T R A N function. 55

2.41 Transient simulation of a transport delay control device 60

2.42 Transient simulation of a pulse delay control device 61

2.43 Pulse delay control device with arbitrary input signal 62

2.44 Logic gate " N O T " 62

3.1 Power semiconductor devices 66

3.2 Voltage-controlled switch in E M T P - b a s e d programs 70