Mineral resources are one of the natural resources of a country and are obtained from under the surface of the earth, (though they may not be far under). How are minerals formed? @ Some minerals are originally formed from hot magma, which contains the minerals. When the magma cools, crystals of minerals appear. Most minerals are formed underground when heat and pressure transform one form of the rock into another @ Some minerals are formed near or on the surface. These occur when mineral-rich fluids, such as silica-bearing water, evaporate. They can also be formed when volcanic rocks are broken down by the action of water and wind. © Many minerals form crystals. The shape of a crystal is determined by the arrangement of its atoms. If the crystals form slowly these may become gemstones. Note: The formation of mineral fuels is covered in Unit 8 Mining Processes Mining is a process of digging rocks and minerals from the earth. Minerals are found at different depths. There are three main methods of mining, shown in Fig.5.1 [Fass Mineral Resources Open-cast Mining Some minerals like coal and iron often lie near the surface. Open-cast mining scoops up these minerals from near the surface. The mineral bearing rocks are stripped off by giant excavators and power shovels, which then load the material into lorries railway wagons to be carried away. Underground Mining There are two methods by which minerals are cessed underground: ») adit mining b) shaft mining a) Adit mining - An adit is an opening or passage. Adit mining is done in hilly districts where a mineral seam is exposed on a hillside Fig 5.1 shows a coal seam exposed on a hillside. After the coal is dug out of an opening on the hillside, the miners create a passage as they go deeper into the hill to dig out the coal. The passage may be horizontal or may slope up or down depending on the angle of the mineral seam. Horizontal tunnels are dug into the side of a valley or hill to reach the mineral deposit as in the case of the Sor coalfield near Quetta b) Shaft mining - Vertical shafts are dug downto the minerals, especially for coal. Tunnels are then dug horizontally to the layers or seams Shaft mining Coal seams exposed (on the hill side The coal is prox Open-cast mining ory Tunnelsthe mineral which is then removed through the Linnels. This method is expensive and can be fangerous. x both adit and shaft mining consideration must he given to the problems of ventilation and Inderground transport. Dangerous gases are 2ls0 present underground, with the risk of poisoning Bod explosions, causing the tunnel roofs to collapse Mnother hazard in some areas is flooding. Miners Ihave been trapped deep underground on many eccasions Metallic and Non-m etallic Minerals Metallic minerals are one of the mankind's most highly prized possessions. Many of the everyday aricles in our homes are made from metallic srinerais (Fig.5.2). A few metals such as gold and Topper occur in pure form as " metallic elements ut most are found as " which are chemical nds containing a high al ores! rtion of the compo po Mineral resources can be classified into two types: metallic and non-metallic. vit 5 Metallic Minerals Non-metallic Minerals }—tronOre foal Pe, + Copper = Sulphur + Antimony = Rock Salt = Chromite | = Barite | + Celestite = Gypsum | + Manganese + Soapstone + Gold | = Fluorite + Silver = Limestone | + Tin = Marble ry | + Bauxite | = Clays | = ——— ee ne Metallic ores are cut or blasted from surrounding Tock, The ore is crushed and the worthless rock removed Is quarrying, Ov which any useful stone is extracted for building 4 and engineering purposes. Quarrying is < ‘ent methods and ‘equipment such out by diffe as hand tools, explosiv ding to the purpose for which the stone is J tools alone may be used for extracted. Hi srying stone t The principal hand tools nd wedge. A wedge is a solid bl is thick at one end and thin at the 1 lies in easily accessible beds. ck of iron that other. It is used to split a lump of rock into tw hammering to break up The pure metal can be ig 53 1. The raw materia re separated by heating uimege | ” a ‘ground and acum |} Minera resources are non Powdered ap) | Bese renewable although many gypsum) || can be recycled and used | again. Though we obtain aarary Kn | most minerals from quarries Sie * 2 and mines, the seabed and sea-water are also rich in minerals, a thoy are heated na 3: Tha ln produc Sf6 2°01 rane Tasty in, Goal or of ThesLi sulphate (gypsum) to make | : (eushd as uel tales ships arpsit) atzing | coment_|| Metallic miners Se hose “aa Gement is made. Non-metalle miners tke ime tone, gypsum @ ow coment Nut portant ngredientn constuction, $2"Gurenly afer water is added) that are made up of a metal compound or resemble @ SKawuediomaecenen | | fetal, for example ron 0Copper, Chromite, Bauxite. Non-metallic minerals include gypsum, rock salt, marble, clay and limestone. Metallic and non-metallic minerals have some basic differences that can be identified in Fig.5.4, which refers to the minerals derived from ores. Fig. 64] Metalic Minerals Nonsmetallic Minerals | Maya era The Mining Industry in Pakistan There are few deposits of metallic minerals but substantial deposits of some non-metallic minerals. Fig.5.5. shows large deposits of marble, chromite, Fuller's Earth, limestone, silica sand and natural gas. The presence of minerals does not suggest that the country is utilizing all the minerals. Exploration by the Geological Survey of Pakistan, [Faces Extraction: 2005-6 Minerat_| (000 tons) Reserves 41. Coal ~_ 2081 2. Natal ope facrara Tx | eter tian | These Very ae deposi [5 Rocksat 0 ition tons 6. Chromite Fairy large deposits. | 8. China Cay “3 miont [cote Moderate ceonis | 10. Fireciy 234 [ orton ts] 11 False 1 [12 Gypsum 465 | 354 mation tne 13. Magnesite | 532 _ | Large deposits | 14 Super 28 ion on 16. on Ore (ver 430 millon tons Reserves and Extraction of Principal Minerals (Economie sursey of Pakistan 30058) foreign oil companies and other agencies is continuing, but mineral production contributes only about 0.5 % of the GDP (Gross Domestic Product). There are certain problems associated with the mineral sector as identified in Fig institutional mismanagement Lack of experis | Cow priority given to mineral extraction The infrastructure required for the exploration of minerals is very weak so the minerals provide a ligible base for industrial development. The government has set up a number of organizations to promote mineral resources but to little avail Organization serge’) Function * Pakistan Hine Tem [F ona er ralian companies have explored the proven deposits of copper, gold and silver in district Chagai, Balochistan. The Chinese Metallurgical Const Company and two other il do the extraction of metals for the next six years o The Chinese built the Saindak Plant and also arranged for the water supply, whic! next 200 years is considered enough German and French companies provided the powe supply system ensuring a power generation of 40 megawatts at the plant site The Federal government had already picked up th ntire international credit to companies on schedule The project will provide make pay b opportunities to the skilled | ind unskilled labourers and, according to an estimate here will be a turnover of around $80 million a From 1996 to 2000, the project was closed for want of ‘working capital and mismanagement in gover departments. The project was restarted in 2001, t } ' ' 7 }‘Apart from the above institutions, there are mineral development boards established at the provincial Insel. They are coordinated by the Mineral Corporation Bonrd set up at the federal level. Again they ove had only limited success in exploiting the country’s natural resources. rig5.8 and Fig.5.13 give a brief description of selected metallic and non-metallic minerals found in Pakistan Description and uses 20 to 100 meters thick. The rocks ar lay. Rock salt is used for cooking eof soda ash, bicarbonate of soda, caustic | 1 (@) Rock Salt Seams of rock salt vary in thickness H&M © rween | Gphite or pink in colour. The salt is overlain by gypsum for the n and preservative purpos soda and other sodas for (by Brine Used inthe chemical and fertizer industry r F dane ee Tris aso used inthe manufacture of leach | treat salinity |3.Coal Pakistan has low-quality coal. Coal is mainly used in brick kilns, some is used to make coke an coal briquettes and a small percentage is used for power BETES Iris planned to build a thermal power station to use the coal from a new coalfield in Thar District sed in detail in Unit 8“Power Resources” 4. Natural Gas Domestic and Industrial uses are d $i Mineral Oil _Itis used as a power source (petroleum) ‘tis dicussed in dealin Unit a lubricant for machines, and as motor fuel “Power Resources 6. Gypsum Found in grey, white and pink colour. pre-fabricated constructions boards. White gypsum * used for pe Paris, Spread on Saline soil to help land reclamation for far7NE paints, fertilizers and Tris used in the manufacture ‘making cement and Plaster aking, |7. Marble Found in bands of white, grey, yellow ad brown. It is used in buildings and for chips for flooring and decor Clays are fine-grained minerals. In Pakistan, ¢ Clay, Fire Clay and Fuller's Earth. China Clay is used in the ceramic industry, for a special eyPe of <& most important industrial clays are Chin ment and has other industrial uses ji, Fire Clay, a fine clay capable of enduring high tempér Jasulating bricks Its also used to make pottery and chemicals | «i, Paller’s Earth is used to manufacture steel, oil drilling machine and in the process of es ature to make fire bricks and | 9, Magnetite Tehas a high percentage of magnesia (about 50 7). Its used i nliger rayon, paper pulp, chemicals and pharmaceuticals | | 10. sulphur Sulphur is used in chemical industries to ma rayon and fertilizers nufacture sulphuric acid, paints, explosive [Ren wet in yy+. Chromite chromite gives hardness and el ical resistance to steel. } crag for bridges and railway carriages. tis also used 25 2 ining in metallurgical furnaces | | and for making engineering tools and stainless steel etc. eeindusty el making, constr anspo yon and the Sees ana ter eerie potent, Seay vche® | th u that cary curren, also used in making al ys, water pipes and tanks. _ Used in making ary batter s. Its a vital alloy in stee! mat Aluminium ig mainly obtained from bauxite, and 1S 4 VeNuaDIe metal are cans etc. and many other products, } Uses: utensils x Gamstio | Found nthe cavities of seen 246 | | Foute mca buts reworks, ceramics, pans an ashes [eaten Chromite mining in Balochistan ( National Mineral Development there are a number of small deposits of chromite in The a parts of Pakistan. Commercial production ron almost entirely restricted to Balochistan Meena pas, te mos significant and the best known Inthe Pre whole of Pakistan was the Zhob Valley 2a hed the privilege of being the only chrome: vn mroducing centre in the country. Other ore races of chromite inthe province include those oes Mustimbagh, Ras Koh Range in western ot enistan and the Wad deposits of the Khuzdar Balochistay tnern Balochistan | eeiftne provinces to monitor the implementation in these areas chromite is mostly mined By OPE pit of the National Mineral Policy | rr ethod. However, in some areas underground so far MIFA is constituted only in Punjab and | mining methods are also practised depending on #0 echistan, whereas tis still under processin Sindh | the nature of the chromite deposits. and NWFP. Partial promulgation ‘of the mineral | | pot however eider active consideration by || Provincial mineral directorates. | Policy The first ever National Mineral Policy, announced re ftered various attractive regulatory and fiscal incentives to attract foreign and local private | tea ak ivestment i this sector. Unfortunate nigh esas not been enacted and promulgated | | atthe provincial level owing to a host ‘of reasons | eee ermal constraints and delays in setting UP ee paar IvestmentFacitation Authority (MIFA) these deposits vary in size and form. In the Wad ares chromite is lumpy in nature and of high aval | e2s sp Valley deposts in north-eastern Balochistan | The new policy aims to increase the explorer: | Tre7ihe best known, both nationally and | txploitation and development of mineral resources internationally. otal estimated reserves of chromite in the province | © By attracting multinational companies to | ot exactly known. However, previously One | 7 explore and develop these resources: | ate coy chromite had been reported. The | | | Chromite mining started in 1903 on a ‘small scale, je reducing the cost of mineral exploration } ands continuing today at the rate of 15,000 20,000 and development, by rationalization of | tons per year duties and taxes on imported machinery | || equipment and spares | ‘A country with large deposits of mineralt hase | Sound base for the development of many industries | ‘the Mineral Investment Facitation Board is assigned | sre svaluate implementation of the policy. The | e.g. iron and steel industry, cement, pottery and | tose uan et petroleum and Natural Resources has so res The development of the mining | requested the Commons Souretariat (COSMEC) | SS eae |S radvisory Service Division and. | of people. The availability of minerals lessens the | the Government of ‘Australia to extend support to | burden of imports and improves the balance of | the targets of Nal ‘onal Mineral Development Policy.) os S payment position.Effects of mining on the Environment Minerals are part of the physical environment but when people take them from the Earth and use them, they make changes to the physical environment. If human activities are not planned and environmental concerns are not taken into consideration, there could be gradual environmental degradation. However, if mining is carried out in such a way that the environmental losses are kept to the minimum, then the economic benefits could be enormous for the people and economy of Pakistan Fig.5.14 shows how the mining may affect the physical environment. When minerals are extracted, the vegetation has to be cut down which results in soil exposure and natural landscape is deformed. In order to provide infrastructure facilities to the miners, roads and houses are constructed. During the mining process, rocks are blasted which results in vibration and noise pollution. In underground mining the earth is dug. If the depressions are not filled, they may become flooded by heavy rainfall " Fig 518) 9 Po eo The yale af envio 8 degradation as a result of mining {and pollution due to ning waste eee Traditional mining methods are) hazardous to the health of miners | | Noise pollution and ground | vibration from blasting In Pakistan mostly traditional mining is practised which is very hazardous to the health of miners because no hygienic or safety standards are taken into consideration (see Fig.5.16). When minerals are taken out, heaps of mineral waste pollute the jand. Sometimes mineral waste enters into rivers or lakes polluting the water supply. The smoke and dust during the mining activity pollutes the air we breathe in. Fig.5.15 shows a mining site which has been severely damaged as a result of unplanned mining. Destruction of land and envionmental degradation as a result of facibonal mining 1 | Starting extraction of mi Ee Vegetation ct down] —— - | tein | Natural landscape deformed 1 due to construction of roads ‘and miners" houses | digging of earth | 5 | Depressions caused by subsidence | of land may become floodedThe plight of coal miners in Pakistan % The miners generally lead a miserable life Pakistan. Chronic diseases, unhygienic living conditions poor diet, shortage of water, drug addiction nstant threat a way of anda c to life itself is the miners, The poor miners inhale polluted i air and often share its fimited quant of oxygen ering the dark pi bled person with donkeys. Anyone ¢! as healthy man ends up asa dis ter working for 10 to 15 years: The worst kind of human rights violation takes Place 1P 510 10 pet cent of the mines in Punjab where workers take coal out of the mine on theit backs ‘They walk thousands of metres out of the mine carrying sucks weighing, 40 kilograms each According to go per cent of the mines in Punjab are donkeys are used for a stud’ donkey-mines (i.e transportation) where 60 t0 80 miners die every ear in the mines due to the caving of the roof and from in Ike of toxic gases. Coal miners work in small pits whic are four feet deep. They cut the arrow coalfaces with the help of picks. The oil coal in a sitting position In ammers ave used here (or USauae purposes Smoke emitted by these burners: coal dust raised a incident % Quetta: 3 die in mine ine ident > F Quer ta. dunes: Three coal OEM afoeation neath sree 180 brothers. Was mitpainein kiaraseme OF tHe stk ict on Moni s. which® g 5 Crews ried Me Sorking around 2 One woth tone tou him 3.000 et deh € ae by the donkeys which are used for transportation and absence of ventilation causes & hhigh incidence sf lung diseases. It is said that 30 ‘40 pet cent of the miners are drug addicts and half of them started taking drugs after joining the mines. The mine workers are of WO WPES coal cutters vind karcha workers. Coal cutters! WAG range ppetween RS 200 and Rs 250 per day and those of the katcha workers, who are mostly children, are between Rs 100 and Rs 150 Workers in the vronkey-mines get higher salaries than those of the mechanized ones where the working conditions are better. The profit margin of the ‘owners in the mechanized mines is higher Y an in the donkey mines. The atcha workers work vas donkey boys, pickers, loaders and cooks. The living areas of these mines are also unsafe. There ‘are no bathrooms and separate Kitchens. There is no electricity in about go per cent of residential areas. The roofs often collapse when ne it rains, causing many deaths every year. the reason why these people take up jobs in frraeeeare sted 05) ler wae exi tence of agricultural, industrial or busine in their nome towns. They follow In the footsteps of their ause they did not fathers and grandfathers be Jearn any other skill:Protection of the Environment from Mining Hazards In order to minimize the environmental degradation due to mining, the following points should be considered: @ Mining should be done on scientific lines to maximize the benefits and minimize the negative effects. @ When mining is done in an area, special precautions must be taken to prevent the environmental losses, @ The land should be levelled and depressions should be filled in after the mining activity to avoid deformation © All the mining waste, gases, fumes and sem solid waste should be properly treated before their final disposal. © The people involved in the mining process should be given proper with masks so that they are not affected by gases and dust, protective clothing @ The area around a mine should be properly planted with trees so that the atmosphere wil remain healthy, and when workers come out of the mine, they will have fresh air to breathe. © Water treatment plants should be set up to rkers living near supply clean water to the v mines. © inorder to improve the living conditions of miners and their family homes, health and education facilities should be provided near e mines and recreational facilities like television, films and sports should be arranged. n brief, in order to try to conserve the environment and prevent its degradation there should be: © compulsory a! the mining centres, jorestation programmes near © proper disposal of the mining waste products, better safety measures in the mines, © improved working conditions for the miners. Sustainable Development and Mining in mining Sustainable Develop that the mineral raw material needs of society are met without compromising the ability either of future societies to meet their needs, or of the natural That adding environment to sustain them indefinitel means exploring, extracting, producing, value to, using, re-using, recycling and disposing of mineral and metal products necessai in the most efficient, comp’ ive and environ responsible manner. To have sustainable development in the mining sector, the following measure should be taken. @ The government should consider the concept of sustainable development when making policies which affect the minerals and metals industry, © The application of science and technology to enhance the industry's competitiveness and environmental protection © The discharge of toxic substances and the release of heat, in such quantities or conce fh is harmful to environment, should be tio strictly checked in order to ensure that s or irreversible damage is not inflicted uj ecosystems.Mineral Resources QUESTIONS 1. How would you differentiate between metallic and non-metallic minerals? 2. (a) Name four non-metallic minerals (other than coal) which are mined in Pakistan. (b) For each of the minerals you have named in (a), describe its uses in Pakistan () State the meaning of the terms ‘mineral exploration’ and ‘mineral extraction’. Indicate clearly the terms to which you are referring (d) Describe the measures and policies which have been introduced in Pakistan to promote the exploration for and the exploitation of minerals {a) Study the map, Fig. Sa which, shows the distribution in Pakistan of deposits of three minerals. Which of the Fa a] minerals has the most (eee widespread deposits? Which of the minerals has deposits only towards the north of Pakistan? Name one source of limestone that has led to the development of a cement factory at Karachi Name one source of limestone that has enabled a cement factory to be built at Hyderabad Explain your choices in (a) (ii) and (a) (iv). N (b) Why is the extraction of limestone so important to industry and agriculture in Pakistan? (0) i. Look at Fig 5-A and name one gypsum deposit in the S ii, State one use for gypsum. iii, In what ways is rock salt important to industry and to people? (d) i. Name one other non-metallic mineral extracted in Pakistan. ii, How does the production of non-metallic minerals in Pakistan help its economy?