E24 Steam Turbines Internal Review

467
Chapter 24
Steam Turbines
F or more than a century, steam turbines have been the preferred choice as a
driver for compressors, generators, pumps, and other equipment. They offer
variable speed operation and can be easily used as the prime mover for
machines in a petrochemical plant, utility, or steamship. Although the efficien-
cy of a steam turbine may be one third that of an electric motor, this may not be
important if heat is already available from another process or if the turbine
exhaust steam can be used elsewhere in the process. The steam turbine also
offers an efficient way to produce lower pressure and temperature steam for use
elsewhere.
Regardless of what industry they serve or what their application is, steam
turbines fall in the same general class of machines. The boiler feed pump turbine
is frequently the same turbine that is used as a power generation turbine or
aboard ships as a drive turbine. While different manufacturers’ turbines will
have unique features, they will generally behave similarly to each other.
This chapter will concentrate on the construction, malfunction behavior,
and monitoring requirements of steam turbines. We will start with a brief dis-
cussion of impulse and reaction turbines and then cover the mechanical com-
ponents of the turbine. After discussing various industrial applications, we will
examine specific malfunctions of steam turbines and recommended transducer
and monitoring suites.
Introduction to Steam Turbines

A steam turbine is a device that converts some of the energy content of
high-pressure, high-temperature steam into power in the form of shaft rotation.
The turbine does this by the interaction of the rotor blades with the moving
468 Machines and Machine Elements
steam. The blades change the velocity of the steam flow, thus changing its
momentum. The momentum change produces a reaction force that pushes on
the blade in the circumferential direction, producing a torque on the rotor.
There are two basic types of turbines, impulse and reaction. While they both
convert steam momentum changes into rotation, they do it using different prin-
ciples [1].
An impulse turbine uses convergent-divergent nozzles, spaced circumferen-
tially around the turbine, to direct high-velocity jets of steam at relatively small
regions of the blading. The nozzle converts steam pressure to steam velocity;
high-pressure, low-velocity steam is converted to lower-pressure, higher-veloci-
ty steam. The steam is directed by the nozzles at the turbine disk, at a shallow
angle to the direction of blade motion. Newer turbines have nozzles distributed
over 360°; however, many older turbines have nozzles only over a 180° arc, an
example of partial arc steam admission.
Impulse turbines are used where steam density is high and specific volume
(volume per unit mass) is low. They use short blades that are symmetric in cross
section (buckets) and a constant distance from each other along the steam flow
path. Therefore, there is no pressure drop through impulse blading. As the steam
passes through the blades, it is turned and directed backward, producing an
impulse that propels the blade forward and reduces the absolute steam velocity
(Figure 24-1a).
A single-stage impulse turbine (called a de Laval turbine, for its inventor) is
not very efficient when used with high pressure steam, so additional stages are
often added. Multistage impulse turbines are designed to operate in velocity- or
pressure-compounded modes. In a velocity-compounded turbine, once the steam
passes through the nozzle, its pressure is constant and its absolute velocity
decreases through each stage. In a pressure-compounded, or Rateau turbine, the
steam goes through a nozzle at each stage, decreasing in pressure and increas-
ing in velocity. At each stage, the pressure drops in steps and the velocity goes
from low to high to low.
A Curtis turbine is a two-stage, velocity-compounded impulse turbine. Like
a single stage impulse turbine, a Curtis turbine has a set of nozzles directed at
the first turbine disk. After exiting the disk, the steam velocity is nearly reversed
(against the direction of rotation). The steam now passes through a set of fixed
(stator) blades that reverse the direction of steam flow again. The steam, now
moving in the direction of rotation, enters the second impulse turbine disk
(Figure 24-1b).
This concept can be extended to velocity-compounded turbines with more
than two stages. However, in such turbines, the work is not divided equally
among the stages, and the first stage does the most work. For this reason, veloc-
Chapter 24 Steam Turbines 469
Impulse turbine Curtis turbine Rateau turbine Reaction turbine
Diaphragm
Direction of blade motion
Fixed Fixed
Fixed
zzle
No
Pressure
Pressure compounded
Absolute velocity
Velocity compounded
a b c d
Figure 24-1. Basic turbine types.
In an impulse turbine (a), steam enters through a nozzle, which reduces steam pressure, increases
steam velocity, and directs it at the blades. The blades (buckets) are short, symmetric in cross sec-
tion, and provide a constant width flow path; there is no pressure drop through impulse blading,
but there is a reduction in absolute velocity.
A Curtis turbine (b) is a two-stage, velocity-compounded impulse turbine. A single set of nozzles is
directed at the first turbine disk. After exiting the disk, the steam encounters a set of fixed, stator
blades which reverse the direction of steam flow back toward the direction of motion. The steam
then enters the second impulse turbine disk.
The Rateau turbine (c), a multistage, pressure-compounded turbine, uses a set of nozzles for each
stage of the turbine. Each stage acts like a single stage impulse turbine. After exiting the disk, the
steam encounters a set of stator blades in the diaphragm (shown as a nozzle in the figure) that
act as nozzles for the next disk.
A reaction turbine (d) has asymmetric fixed and moving blades that act as nozzles. A pressure
drop and flow speed increase occur in each set of stator and moving blades.
ity-compounded turbines are best suited to small steam turbines. When more
than two stages are required, a pressure-compounded turbine is often chosen.
A multistage, pressure-compounded (Rateau) turbine acts like a series of
single-stage impulse turbines. The steam velocity increases and the pressure
drops through a set of stator blades, which act as nozzles, ahead of each turbine
disk. These blades are mounted in a pressure bulkhead (a diaphragm), which has
labyrinth seals (packing) that prevent steam from leaking from stage to stage
(Figure 24-1c). As the pressure drops in each stage, the specific volume of the
steam increases. Thus, the blading of each successive stage must be longer to
provide an adequate steam flow area. Rateau turbines can be designed to equal-
ize the work per stage, increasing efficiency, but because of the additional com-
plexity of diaphragms, seals, and nozzles, they are more expensive. They are pri-
marily used for large turbines.
Reaction turbines change the momentum of the turbine disk using a reac-
tion force similar to that produced by a rocket. The turbine stage consists of a set
of stator and moving blades that are asymmetric in shape, similar to a highly
curved airfoil (Figure 24-1d). The moving blades act partially as nozzles and par-
tially as impulse blades; the pressure drops, the steam is turned, and the relative
velocity increases as the steam passes through the moving blades. Because the
steam exits the blades in a direction opposite to the blade velocity, the absolute
steam velocity decreases. The stator blades act as nozzles to redirect and
increase the absolute steam velocity for the next moving blade section. Thus a
pressure drop and an absolute velocity decrease occur in each stage of stator
and moving blades (note the similarity to the Rateau turbine). Because pressure
drops in each stage, volume and blade lengths increase in subsequent stages.
Reaction blading is often used in lower pressure sections of a turbine. Blade
lengths become so large that they are twisted to compensate for blade speed dif-
ferences between blade root and tip.
Because of the pressure drop across each turbine disk, an axial thrust load
(relative pressure times surface area) is developed. This thrust load can become
substantial. On small turbines, thrust bearings often carry the full load; on larg-
er turbines, thrust bearing load is reduced by using a balance piston. Balance
pistons are solid disks that partially balance the thrust load from the turbine
stages; the differential pressure across the balance piston is opposite that across
a disk. On the largest steam turbines, the thrust load is reduced by using a dual
flow case design; high pressure steam enters in the middle of the case and flows
in opposite directions, producing a nearly balanced thrust load (Figures 24-2
and 24-4).
HP Dual flow IP Dual flow LP Dual flow LP
Figure 24-2. Cross-section view of a typical steam turbine set used in a power generation application. The turbine consists of separate cases
that are optimized for different ranges of steam conditions.
Chapter 24
Steam Turbines
471
Each type of turbine is best used for different ranges of pressure and flow.
Thus, for best overall efficiency, different types are used in combination turbines.
Typically, an impulse turbine will be used for the first few stages, followed by a
reaction turbine for subsequent stages. A common combination is to use a
Curtis turbine at the high pressure end of a case, followed by multiple reaction
turbine stages. In small turbines, a single Curtis turbine may deliver up to 1.5
MW (2000 hp). In some combination turbines, it is not uncommon for the Curtis
turbine to deliver ¼ to ⅓ of the power. The nozzles of the Curtis turbine can be
automatically controlled in groups, allowing its use as a control stage.
The steam turbine stages reduce the temperature and pressure of the steam
as it moves from section to section. Steam is often extracted from the turbine to
increase the efficiency of the process or for use in other processes. In power gen-
eration plants, steam is often extracted at several points from the HP, IP, and LP
turbines for use in boiler feedwater preheaters. In petrochemical applications,
extraction steam, at pressures ranging from 7 bar (100 psi) to 40 bar (600 psi), is
used for heating or other steam turbines.
Steam can also be introduced at different points in the turbine, a process
called induction.
Modern fossil-fueled power plant boilers can deliver steam as high as 250
bar (3600 psi) and 565 °C (1050 °F). It is not practical to extract all of the avail-
able energy from steam at this condition in a single, multistage steam turbine.
For this reason, large power plant turbines are separated into several sections,
cylinders, or cases, each optimized for a particular range of steam conditions.
Typical sections are a high pressure (HP) case, an intermediate pressure (IP)
case, and one or more low pressure (LP) cases (Figure 24-2). Often, the HP and
IP sections are combined into a single HP/IP case.
A compound turbine consists of more than one case. If all of the sections are
on a single shaft, it is a tandem-compound configuration, which typically runs at
line frequency (3000 or 3600 rpm). If the cases are on two parallel shafts, it is a
cross-compound configuration (Figure 24-3). In a cross-compound configura-
tion, the HP and IP cases are typically in tandem on one shaft and operate at line
frequency (3000 or 3600 rpm), and the LP cases operate in tandem on the sec-
ond shaft at one-half line frequency (1500 or 1800 rpm).
Each case is a multistage turbine; HP turbines typically have five to seven
stages and operate with the steam delivered from the boiler or superheater
through the control valves. After exiting the HP section at lower pressure and
temperature, the steam is usually routed to a reheater, which increases the tem-
perature in a constant pressure process (Table 24-1); it is then delivered to the IP
section (typically six or seven stages).
Tandem compound
Figure 24-3. Two common power 3000/3600 rpm
generation configurations. All of the
HP/IP LP Generator Exciter
sections can be assembled as a sin-
gle shaft, a tandem-compound con-
figuration (top), or divided among
separate shafts, a cross-compound
configuration (bottom). In a cross- Cross compound
compound configuration, the HP 3000/3600 rpm
and IP sections are typically in tan-
HP IP Generator Exciter
dem on one shaft, operating at line
frequency (3000 or 3600 rpm), with
one or more LP sections operating in
1500/1800 rpm
tandem on the second shaft at one-
half line frequency (1500 or 1800 LP LP Generator Exciter
rpm).
Table 24-1. Typical steam conditions for fossil-fueled power generation sections. Pressures are
gauge except for LP exhaust, which is absolute.
Inlet Exhaust
Section P T P T
HP 250 bar 600 °C 28-41 bar 320-370 °C
3600 psi 1100 °F 400-600 psi 600-700 °F
IP 28-41 bar 510-570 °C 4.8-14 bar 290-370 °C

400-600 psi 950-1050 °F 70-200 psi 550-700 °F
LP 4.8-14 bar 290-370 °C 17-120 mbar Cooling water

70-200 psi 550-700 °F 0.5-3.5 in Hg
Most modern power plant systems combine the HP and IP cases into a sin-
gle HP/IP case to reduce the number of shaft/casing penetrations. With this
configuration, steam leaking past the HP seal in the center enters the high pres-
sure side of the IP section, increasing efficiency.
After exiting the IP section, the steam is piped through a crossover to one or
more LP turbines, which typically contain six or seven stages each. The multiple
LP sections, running on the same shaft, each share a portion of the low-pressure
IP exhaust steam. The exhaust pressure and temperature of the LP turbines is
determined by the temperature of the cooling water in the condenser, a heat
exchanger that returns the steam to liquid. Because (ideally) no air exists in the
condenser, the pressure there is well below atmospheric pressure, increasing the
power output of the turbine. Steam turbines that connect to a condenser are
called condensing turbines.
Nuclear plants cannot generate the temperatures and pressures of fossil
fueled plants. The steam available to the HP section is typically only 66 bar (960
psi) at 280 °C (540 °F), only about 28 °C (50 °F) above saturation temperature.
Nuclear plants rely on large mass flow rates to develop their power, requiring
large LP turbines. Because of the size and resulting stresses, large steam turbine
generator sets at nuclear plants usually operate at one half line frequency.
Steam Turbine Components

The basic design features that are common to most steam turbines are
imposed by metallurgy, pressure, size, efficiency, and expense, among other
things. These common denominators make steam turbines similar when it
comes to their problems, their components, and their dynamic behavior.
Diagnosing a problem in a steam turbine, or determining the condition of a
steam turbine, becomes easier if you understand the basic design features com-
mon to most steam turbines.
Steam turbines have the following common components: cases, rotors, bear-
ings, seals, and couplings. Large steam turbines also have a turning gear, which
keeps the hot rotor turning at 2 to 3 rpm after shutdown.
Cases
The case is the shell that encloses the turbine rotor and contains the steam.
A high pressure case is a pressure vessel and must be built to withstand the large
forces and stresses caused by the high pressure steam. Because of this, it is usu-
ally significantly heavier than its rotor and very stiff. The low pressure case,
which does not need to withstand such extreme conditions, may not be heavier
than its rotor.
Modern HP case designs have inner and outer cases, which are attached by
machined fits and aligning dowels. The steam control valves are attached to the
HP case, are partially cast into them, or are in a separate steam chest (a volume
containing several steam valves). The high pressure steam lines are attached to
the case directly or indirectly through the valves.
The weight of the casing has a large influence on the casing vibration level.
If the case is significantly more massive than the rotor, then the relatively light
rotor will move more than the case, casing vibration will be small, and a shaft rel-
ative measurement transducer (proximity probe) will yield the best information.
Even if a rotor to stator rub occurs, the rotor will move more than the case.
A turbine case, which is much more massive, warms and cools more slowly
than the rotor; differential expansion during startup is a major concern.
However, because the high pressure case is so massive and stiff, it usually won’t
warp unless there is a severe water induction incident.
In HP cases, most of the diaphragms are fixed to the inner case, the bearings
are fixed to the outer case, and steam seals are fixed to both cases; thus, there is
increased potential for misalignments within the turbine. Because the HP case
has all the high-pressure steam pipes attached to it, as well as extraction and
numerous drain pipes, any movement or binding of any of the larger pipes may
shift the position of the case or restrict its normal expansion. This could change
the alignment of the whole turbine, cause rubs, change the vibration level, or
affect resonance frequencies.
LP cases, in most situations, have differential expansion characteristics that
are similar to HP cases. LP cases usually don’t have stiff pipes attached to them,
but are connected to the condenser and are affected by condenser vacuum. A
dramatic change in vacuum can cause a change in shaft and bearing position.
The lighter LP cases will usually warm up faster than the LP rotor. The dif-
ferential expansion problems are not as severe, partially because LP rotors have
greater clearances than HP rotors and the maximum steam temperature is lower
than it is in the high pressure side. When rotors expand, they expand away from
the thrust bearing. This means that the LP rotor, which is usually farthest from
the thrust bearing, will experience the greatest movement due to expansion. LP
cases are usually fitted with hood spray systems for temperature control. These
systems are not terribly complicated and seldom fail. However, the injection of
cool water at the wrong time, or not spraying water when needed, could cer-
tainly cause differential expansion and alignment problems.
Rotors
Rotors are generally constructed from a chromium-nickel-molybdenum
steel (for example, AISI 4340) forging. This forging will be vacuum degassed in
the furnace, heat treated, and double tempered.
Many steam turbine rotors are machined from one forged piece, so the only
parts attached to them are the blades (Figure 24-4). Some of the very large LP
rotors will have the last stage disks shrunk on and pinned or keyed. Some rotor
designs are made from parts welded together; however, the rotor will act simi-
larly to a forged rotor for the purposes of this discussion.
If the blade disks are shrunk on the rotor, the shrink fit is typically 50 µm (2
mil) interference per 25 mm (1 in) of bore diameter, corresponding to a contact
pressure of 400 MPa (60 000 psi). Important factors in a built-up rotor include
the placement of each disk, the squareness of each fit, the skew of each disk, the
bow of the shaft, and thermal ratcheting down a shaft. For these reasons, when
a long bearing span has a large number of stages, an integral rotor is far superi-
or to a built-up rotor. It is also more expensive and, for small turbines, may not
be necessary.
Typical LP rotors are hollow with bore plugs fitted in both ends. The bore
plugs keep water from collecting in the rotor bore space, causing the rotor to
become thermally sensitive and difficult to balance.
Journal area
Labyrinth
seal area
Blade
shrouds
Tie wires
Figure 24-4. New, dual flow, 7-stage LP rotor awaiting installation. The steam will
enter at the center of the rotor, and flow toward each end. Blade shrouds are visi-
ble on the first six stages, and two sets of tie wires are used on the last stage. The
labyrinth seal area and bearing journal are identified.
Rotors are usually machined with grooves for labyrinth seals. These are the
areas that frequently rub, so it is a good idea to get familiar with their locations
in relation to the cases. The rotors are usually well-balanced at the factory and
only require a trim balance after installation. If the vibration amplitude or phase
angle changes during the course of operation, this always means that the unbal-
ance force or Dynamic Stiffness (or both) has changed. If the vibration ampli-
tude or phase angle moves outside of an established acceptance region deter-
mined by normal operating conditions, the cause should be investigated.
A turbine rotor generally operates as a flexible rotor above the first, rigid,
cylindrical mode resonance. However, the rotors in small backpressure turbines
(noncondensing turbines where the exhaust pressure is significant), which oper-
ate at low speed and with few stages, may operate as rigid rotors, usually in a piv-
otal mode.
An overhung bearing support complicates a rotor’s predicted response.
Long overhangs of the governor drive gears, the thrust collar, and the coupling
affect the bending mode strongly and the first (usually rigid body) mode only
slightly. The weight of the coupling also greatly affects the predicted critical
response. Anything which binds the coupling will affect radial and axial vibra-
tion.
Blades
Blades must resist the steam impurities and temperature and are often
made from a heat-treated, martensitic, 403 stainless steel, a tough steel with a
good blend of strength and fatigue resistance. Heat treatment, case hardening,
shot peening, and coatings are all parts of the modern blade manufacturing
process.
HP/IP blades are usually not a major concern; LP blading tends to have the
most problems of the rotor system. This is largely due to the length and flexibil-
Figure 24-5. LP turbine blades. The airfoil

shape is typical of reaction blading, and the
blades are twisted because of the large
change in blade velocity from root to tip. The
tie wires are not continuous and define blade
Airfoil
cluster assemblies. shape
Tie
wires
ity of the LP blades (Figure 24-5). LP blades break for many reasons, often due to
overheating. The LP blades can overheat if the unit is run with inadequate con-
denser vacuum; the heat generated by windage (the aerodynamic drag on rotor
parts) builds up very quickly and can lead to premature blade failure.
LP blades made from certain stainless steels are subject to stress-corrosion
cracking, which can be started by a boiler chemistry upset. LP blades also expe-
rience erosion due to moisture. Usually this erosion happens slowly, so it is
unlikely that a blade will erode quickly enough between inspections to fail unex-
pectedly. In either case, blade loss can result in significant changes in unbalance.
Some moving blade sets are matched by weight to improve the balance, then
installed into the disks on opposite sides. The blades are fitted into the disk
using, typically, a “T” slot or “fir tree” root design. To suppress vibration, blades
are usually restrained using blade shrouds (a perimeter band that attaches to the
tips of the blades) or tie wires (heavy wires that pass through the blades). Blade
shrouds are typically not used on the last LP stage because of stress considera-
tions. Reliefs, which touch as they thermally expand, and other dampers are
sometimes used in blade designs in place of tie wires.
A group of shrouded blades constitutes a blade cluster assembly. The assem-
blies are tested for the resonance of each blade and of the clusters. Blades can
have many resonance frequencies and modes of vibration, which are not usual-
ly seen in rotor vibration. Blade vibration is excited primarily by passage of the
blade across nozzles. Excitation of blade resonances should be avoided; blades
will break if they are operated in resonance for extended periods of time. Many
of the speed hold ranges defined in a turbine manufacturer’s operating instruc-
tions are speed ranges where there is no blade resonance. The running speed of
most machines is well away from blade natural frequencies.
Bearings
Most large steam turbines have two, babbitt-lined, oil-lubricated journal
bearings per rotor. These bearings are horizontally split and are usually self-
aligning (under no-load conditions) by means of a spherical support cradle
(Figure 24-6). There are many different bearing configurations, all designed to
prevent fluid-induced instabilities.
The most common steam turbine bearings used are pressure dam, elliptical
(lemon bore), and tilting pad; tilting pad bearings are now used more often in
the HP, IP, and sometimes LP rotors. Multilobe and offset half bearings are less
often used. Tilting pad bearings have either four or five pads and may be load-
on-pad or load-between pad designs (see Chapter {Bearings}). Bearing clear-
ances will typically be between 0.15% and 0.20% of shaft diameter. For example,
a 200 mm (8 in) diameter shaft will have from 300 µm (12 mil) to 400 µm (16 mil)
Antirotation pin
Figure 24-6. The bottom half of an LP bearing

and seal. Most large steam turbines are
equipped with babbitt-lined, oil-lubricated jour-
nal bearings. These bearings are horizontally Labyrinth
split and have a spherical seat. Jacking oil holes seal
admit oil to lift the rotor before startup and Jacking oil
after shutdown, and an antirotation pin pre- inlet holes
vents rotation of the bearing in the seat.
Spherical seat
diametral clearance. Bearing babbitt thickness is generally in one of three

ranges: 10 mils, 30 mils, or 60 mils (0.25 mm, 0.75 mm, or 1.5 mm), with the
midrange value most typical.
The pressure dam bearing, while only partially effective against oil whirl, can
be mistakenly installed backwards, causing instabilities at very low speeds.
Elliptical bearings are probably the most widely used bearings for low or
moderate speed operation, but are subject to fluid-induced instabilities at high
speeds.
A tilting pad bearing itself cannot be the source of fluid-induced instability,
but its oil control ring can cause stability problems, as can other components in
the machine, such as seals and the rotor disks themselves.
If the bearing is cocked in relation to the rotor center line, then the bearing
system can be stiffer than it should be. The oil flow pattern through the bearing
will be disturbed, and rubbing could occur between the bearing and the shaft at
diagonally opposite ends of the bearing. The bearing metal temperature and oil
drain temperature will be higher than normal. Most bearing assemblies can be
shimmed to change their vertical position for alignment.
Some bearing assemblies are designated as self-aligning; the outside of the
bearing is spherical-convex and rests in a spherical-concave cradle or seat.
Under static radial load, the bearing is supposed to move so that the centerline
of the bearing is parallel with the centerline of the shaft. Under radial load, how-
ever, the bearing often binds in its seat.
Thrust bearings are typically located between the HP/IP and the LP unit.
Thus, the HP/IP rotor thermally grows in the opposite direction from the LP
rotor. The thrust load is transferred from the shaft to the bearing surface
through a thrust collar, a short section of the rotor with a larger diameter.
The thrust collar can be integral (machined as part of the rotor) or it can be
separate, secured to the shaft using a nut. Integral collars are the norm in power
generation applications.
Seals
Steam seals (also called shaft packing, or packing) will be found anywhere on
the rotor where the shaft penetrates the case (a gland seal) or where higher pres-
sure steam needs to be isolated from lower pressure steam. Seals can be fixed,
spring-loaded, or retractable (see Chapter {Seals}).
Labyrinth seals are used between stages. Small turbines sometimes use car-
bon seals as the gland seals, but larger turbines use labyrinth seals. Since the
pressure is lowered in stages, several sections are normally used. The high pres-
sure end may relieve to the extraction point pressure in the first section of
labyrinths, then to a lower stage (possibly a second bleeder or extraction point),
then to the sealing steam pressure, then to the condenser (Figure 24-7). The
steam inlet valve sealing glands may leak off to one of these intermediate pres-
sures in one or more stages. Sealing steam is never applied to a stopped turbine.
Labyrinth packing can be straight (constant height) or staggered (high/low).
Staggered is more effective, but difficult to use when there is much thermal
expansion. One type of labyrinth seal has a series of tines or thin strips (J strips)
that are installed in grooves in the shaft. They rotate with the shaft, tend to be
self-cleaning, and generate less shaft heat during a rub. However, they require
machined grooves on the rotor, are difficult to maintain, and require more care
against crimping or crushing.
Fixed, spring-loaded, and retractable seals are also common. Fixed seals are
usually slid into a groove in the case and locked in place. The clearance between
the seals and the shaft is fixed, so if the shaft comes in contact with the seal, the
seal will probably be damaged. Hard contact with one of these seals is likely to
be seen in the vibration data as a rub.
Spring-loaded seals can move away from the rotor because they only have a
spring and steam pressure pushing them toward the rotor. When the rotor con-
tacts the seal, it is free to move. These seals have a limited range of motion; if
they freeze in position (lock up), there is usually not enough clearance remain-
ing to accommodate the normal range of rotor movement. Seal lockup is a com-
mon cause of rubs and may cause damage to the rotor. Hard rubs of seals usual-
ly don’t last long; the seals are easily worn away by the rotor.
Another type of seal that is becoming popular is the retractable seal. During
startup, the seal retracts from the shaft at low steam flows, then moves toward
Steam to 'A'
Steam and air to
gland condenser
HP
gland seal Steam
Air
Steam and air to

Steam gland condenser
from 'A'
LP
gland seal
Steam Air
Staggered Straight type seal

height
seal
Figure 24-7. Labyrinth gland seals in HP (top) and LP (bottom) turbines. Each seal section relieves
to a lower pressure. In this example, the first HP seal relieves to the LP sealing steam pressure (A).
The second section relieves to the gland condenser, which is maintained below atmospheric
pressure. The labyrinth packing can be straight or high/low (staggered). Staggered is more effec-
tive, but must allow for thermal expansion. At right is a photo of the bottom half of an LP gland
seal assembly.
Bearings
LP case
Coupling
Figure 24-8. Rigid coupling on large steam
turbine set. A self-aligning bearing is on
either side of the coupling between the HP/IP
(left) and LP (right) cases.
the shaft as the steam flow increases. The advantage of this seal is that it should
not rub during startup and, therefore, will seal better when the unit is online.
Like any other seal, though, if it is not correctly installed or if it locks up, it can
rub.
Couplings
Couplings on power generation steam turbines will generally be the rigid
type and an integral part of the shaft (Figure 24-8).
Coupling problems can occur when coupling bolts are damaged and have to
be replaced. Sometimes coupling bolts have to be drilled out and the bolt hole
has to be honed. If a larger diameter coupling bolt is installed, the balance con-
dition of the rotor system will change, possibly requiring a rebalance. Coupling
bolts, nuts, and washers are often matched sets and should be returned to the
same holes.
Couplings are rarely a source of trouble in themselves; if, however, the gen-
erator is synchronized significantly out of phase, the torsional shock can dam-
age the coupling or coupling bolts. Other damage to the turbine is also likely in
this circumstance; however, the couplings are sometimes designed to be the
weak link that prevents irreparable damage to the turbine.
If a removable coupling (shrunk on, keyed, etc.) shifts position on the shaft,
the rotor balance state can change.
Turning Gear
Most steam turbines will have a turning gear that is normally installed
between the LP and the generator rotor coupling halves. It is used after shut-
down to keep the hot rotor turning at 2 to 3 rpm so that it won’t develop a ther-
mal or gravity bow (see Chapter 18 {Rotor Bow}). It is also used before startup to
Turning gear
LP case
Generator
Figure 24-9. Turning gear on large

steam turbine generator set. The
turning gear is usually located
between the rigid coupling halves of
LP unit and the generator, as shown.
Turning gear
motor
roll out any rotor bow that may have developed. The turning gear motor usually
drives the rotor through a bull gear that is mounted to the shaft or is sandwiched
between coupling halves (Figure 24-9). There are also fluid-drive turning gears.
During shutdown, it is very important that the rotor is put on turning gear
before it stops. When the rotor has cooled, typically to below 150 °C (300 °F), the
rotor can be stopped for an extended period of time without damage.
Prior to starting a steam turbine, and any time the rotor has been stopped
for more than a few minutes, it is important to put the rotor on the turning gear
until any bow is reduced to an acceptable level.
Steam Turbine Applications

Steam turbines are broadly classified into two categories: power generation
and mechanical drives. Steam turbines for power generation applications are
large, multisection turbines that produce high power and operate at either line
frequency or half line frequency. They consist of multiple cases (HP, IP, or HP/IP,
and LP), which are optimized for different steam conditions.
Mechanical drive steam turbines are used for low-power generation and all
other applications. They are smaller, predominantly high-pressure turbines,
with multiple stages in a single case, and operate at speeds up to 14 000 rpm.
They may be coupled to the load directly or through a gearbox.
Some mechanical drive steam turbines operate as condensing turbines, with
a very low exhaust pressure. Others operate without condensers as backpressure
turbines, where the exhaust pressure is usually much higher than atmospheric
pressure. Table 24-2 lists a variety of typical steam turbine applications.
Steam Turbine Malfunctions

This section covers the specific aspects of the most common malfunctions
in a typical steam turbine. The reader is urged to read Chapters 16 - 22
{Malfunctions chapters} for generic discussions of different malfunctions. Rotor
bow is a very important topic for steam turbines and was discussed in Chapter
18 {Rotor Bow}, primarily from a steam turbine point of view.
Unbalance
A turbine rotor is usually balanced at the factory to run properly in the tur-
bine. After the turbine is assembled, trim balancing may be required for several
reasons:
1. The rotor may have been damaged, and some blades may have
been replaced.
Power generation
HP, IP, LP units
1500/3000 or 1800/3600 rpm, > 50MW (67 000 hp)
Boiler feed pump
Variable speed, direct drive, driven by extraction steam from IP case
5 to 6 stages, condensing unit
Barrel compressor(s)
HP or LP turbine
Direct drive
10 000 rpm, 7.5 MW (10 000 hp) per compressor
Forced or induced draft fan (for boiler or furnace)
Variable speed, reduction gearbox drive (around 1500 rpm)
Coupling at inlet end (common) or outlet end of turbine
FCC main air blower train startup turbine
Table 24-2. Some Backpressure turbine
steam turbine applica- Direct drive
tions. The typical steam Horizontally split case with 2 to 4 stages
turbine driver in an eth- Inlet at 31 to 41 bar (450 to 600 psi)
ylene plant has spheri- Exhaust at 3.4 bar (50 psi)
cally seated, fluid-film 3000 or 3600 rpm (to match motor/generator)
bearings, with a pres- 750 to 1100 kW (1000 to 1500 hp)
sure dam in the top half Wet gas compressor train
and/or two axial Variable speed, direct drive
grooves and babbitt 4-stage condensing unit
thickness of 1.6 mm (65 4500 to 6000 rpm
mils); a bearing load of 2.2 MW (3000 hp)
150 psi to 200 psi; an Charge gas compressor train
integral thrust collar; Typically drives 3 compressors
labyrinth shaft seals; Direct drive or gearbox (speed increaser)
and, on condensing tur- 7 to 8 stages, condensing unit
bines, inlet sealing Inlet at 38 to 41 bar (550 to 600 psi), 370 to 400 °C (700 to 750 °F)
steam injected to the Exhaust at 130 mm Hg abs (5 in Hg abs), 57 °C (134 °F)
exhaust gland seal. 5000 to 5500 rpm
22 MW (30 000 hp)
Propylene refrigeration compressor train
Direct drive
11 stages, condensing unit
Inlet at 41 bar (600 psi), 400 °C (750 °F)
Exhaust at 100 mm Hg abs (4 in Hg abs)
3900 to 4400 rpm
19 to 21 MW (26 000 to 28 000 hp)
Ethylene refrigeration compressor train
Direct drive
3 stages, backpressure unit
Inlet at 41 bar (600 psi), 400 °C (750 °F)
Exhaust at 3.4 bar (50 psi), 150 °C (300 °F)
10 000 rpm to 11 400 rpm, 3.1 to 3.9 MW (4200 to 5200 hp)
2. The rotor may have developed a slight bow, due to improper

handling or storage. It is not really proper to balance out a bow,
because, if the bow goes away (as most do), then the rotor will
be out of balance again. There may be a conscious decision
made to balance out the bow as a temporary fix. This fix is not
desirable from an engineering standpoint; however, operational
requirements may dictate a temporary solution.
3. The rotor may not have been well balanced at the factory, and
the operating criteria require a better balance, or the rotor may
have been balanced to a different specification.
4. The factory’s instrumentation was different than the plant’s

instrumentation. Differences in documentation can occur due
to instrumentation calibration problems; different types of
transducers; different measurement locations on the shaft; or
differences in slow roll compensation (or in the use of compen-
sation).
5. The rotor was balanced out of its case. Once the rotor is
installed and coupled to the rest of the machine, the effects of
the other rotors, bearings, and bearing support assemblies pro-
duce a system. The Dynamic Stiffness that now controls the
rotor response is different than it was at the manufacturer’s
plant.
Once a steam turbine is operating, changes in the balance state can occur
for several reasons.
Poor water chemistry can lead to a buildup of material on turbine blades. If
the material builds up nonuniformly, the unbalance state can change slowly. If
the buildup is uniform, but a piece of material breaks off suddenly, then there
will be a sudden change in the unbalance and the 1X vibration amplitude and
phase of the rotor.
If a blade breaks off the turbine, not only can there be a sudden, large
increase in vibration, the blade fragment can move through the machine, caus-
ing additional damage.
If a blade shroud breaks (Figure 24-10), it can change the unbalance and,
possibly, alter the aerodynamic flow through the turbine.
Figure 24-10. Damaged LP turbine Undamaged

blade shroud. The shroud in the upper shroud
part of the image is undamaged, but
the next section of the shroud has
Damaged
been worn away due to a rub. The LP blade
missing shroud mass will cause an
unbalance in the LP turbine rotor. Damaged
shroud
In the condensing stages of LP turbines, water droplet erosion can gradual-

ly remove blade material. If the erosion is nonuniform, an unbalance condition
can develop slowly.
Power generation turbines use rigid couplings and require careful align-
ment. If the machines are poorly aligned, the coupling may not fit well. Forcing
the coupling halves together will produce large bending moments at the base of
the coupling flanges. These moments produce large, alternating stresses, which
can cause a fatigue crack. The crack will weaken the shaft and allow the rotor to
bow, changing the 1X vibration response. While the shaft crack is the root cause
of the unbalance, it can be mistaken for unbalance.
Misalignment
A change in the rotor system’s alignment will modify the static forces that
are applied to the rotor. Misalignment changes the system Dynamic Stiffness
and, therefore, changes how the already-existing forces affect the system’s
response.
It is not uncommon for a machine that was recently overhauled to experi-
ence a fluid-induced instability. This can occur when mechanical work disturbs
the alignment and causes the shaft to operate at a lower eccentricity ratio in the
bearing. Suddenly, a marginally stable system can become unstable.
Severe misalignments will cause bearings and seals to wear out and can
transfer enough force to the rotor to cause it to bend and start a crack. When a
Figure 24-11. Sliding support for

machine casing. The casing must be
free to move in response to growth
during thermal transients. Note the
range of motion of this machine.
Thermal growth
steam turbine is properly aligned, there are no excessive radial loads from bear-
ings or seals. The thrust bearing is properly loaded, the rotor/bearing eccentric-
ity ratio is in the proper range, the shaft will be running in the bottom half of the
bearings (on most horizontal machines), and the orbits will be slightly elliptical.
During thermal transients, the casing must be able to expand freely (Figure
24-11). If the keys that guide the expansion are rusted or covered with dirt or
other foreign material, they can stick. If the casing slides stick, the casing will
warp or distort. These keys should be properly lubricated on a regular basis.
The keys are typically one piece. It is not a good practice to replace or mod-
ify them with multiple pieces; the multiple pieces, like multiple shims, can act
like springs and cause a reduction in casing support stiffness.
Mechanical damage to the keys or slideways could prevent the machine
from sliding, as could jacking bolts that are not backed off. Piping may also
restrict the free movement of the turbine during thermal transients, especially
when hangers or supports haven’t been properly maintained.
Internal misalignment will change the turbine’s internal clearances, often
causing a rub and decreasing efficiency. Misalignment can result from incorrect
alignment technique, bolt failures, grout failures, a loose or broken centering
beam, a loose transverse anchor, or too many shims under the feet. As a general
rule, a shim pack should have no more than four shims; too many shims will act
as springs.
Any time the vibration changes, remember that there may be a change in
alignment.
Rub
In a steam turbine, seals, either at the packing, blade tips, or diaphragms, are
the most likely to be involved in either radial or axial rubs.
An axial rub can occur when the differential expansion between the case
and rotor exceeds clearances, when the thrust position changes, or when a
diaphragm warps.
Differential expansion can’t happen if the turbine is operating in a steady
state condition and shouldn’t cause a problem if the proper warmup procedures
are followed.
The thrust position can change during steady state operation if deposits
form on the blades due to poor water chemistry (plugging), the blades wear
away, or a rub damages the seals. However, an axial rub due to thrust position
changes while the machine is online implies a worn thrust bearing or a loose
thrust collar.
An axial rub caused by a warped diaphragm could be quite serious and
would change both axial and radial vibration. However, the classic orbits associ-
ated with light rubs may not be present, and a light, axial rub is unlikely to cause
a thermally induced rotor bow with accompanying amplitude and phase angle
changes. The classic light, radial rub orbits are formed due to impact and
rebounding of the shaft in the radial direction. In the case of a warped
diaphragm, there would be no impact or increased stiffness in the radial direc-
tion.
Radial rubs can be caused by alignment changes due to foundation move-
ment or a warped or distorted case. Bearing pedestals, which are often separate
from the turbine case supports, can move due to mechanical or thermal effects.
If the turbine foundations are decaying or the turbine is installed on separate
foundations, the turbine cases and pedestals can move relative to each other.
When a case moves toward the shaft, there will probably only be gland seal rubs,
because these seals have the tightest clearances in the turbine.
Warped cases are most often caused by differential cooling due to water
induction. Cool water enters and collects on the bottom of the hot turbine case,
causes it to contract, and the case bows upward. This can cause packing and
blade tip rubs and can warp diaphragms. If the turbine was being shut down
when the water induction event occurred, the warped case could cause severe
rubs as the rotor vibration increases during resonances.
Piping strains can push or pull cases in any direction, based on the piping
configuration. A mistake in the design or the erection of the piping can cause
strain. This may be observed in the pipe hangers, when the expected hot and
cold positions do not correspond to the actual hot and cold positions.
Bent hanger supports, fully extended or retracted snubbers, or bent piping
are also common indications of piping strain. Piping strain will be more likely to
show up after years of running because maintenance is virtually ignored and
hangers and snubbers can lock in position. If this happens, the piping will not be
where it is supposed to be during the next startup or shutdown and can move
the turbine out of alignment.
Machinery maintenance can lead to piping strain problems. On some units,
piping is supported when disconnected from the turbine during overhauls. Also,
when piping is hydrostatically tested, the hangers are frequently “pinned” to
lock them in position. If the supports or pins are not removed, then piping strain
may occur.
Radial rub can be caused by high vibration. An out-of-balance rotor will pro-
duce high 1X vibration and require more clearance. If the available clearance is
not sufficient, a rub will occur, most likely on seals. This situation can be made
worse if spring-loaded or retractable seals fail. When the seal doesn’t move out
of the way of the shaft, what should be a light contact becomes a hard rub.
Resonance mode shapes affect the location of rubs. What part will rub
depends on clearances and the mode shape of the rotor at a particular speed.
Rotor bow is also a cause of radial rubs. If the bow has not been rolled out
adequately when the machine is started, then the large unbalance due to the
bow may cause a rub as the machine speeds up. The rub may also cause local
heating, making the situation worse. On many rotors with an HP/IP section, the
rub will occur in the balance piston packing near midspan. If this packing is
damaged, the thrust loading will increase because of pressure changes in the two
sections, possibly leading to a thrust bearing failure and axial rub.
A heavy rub can cause the turbine to coast down more quickly than normal,
because the rub provides an additional braking torque. It is useful to have a gen-
eral idea of the time it takes a turbine to coast down normally. Conversely, if a
turbine takes an unusually long time to coast down, or doesn’t seem to want to
stop, then you probably have a leaking steam inlet valve.
Fluid-induced Instability
Steam turbines can experience fluid-induced instability due to rotor inter-
action with the oil in bearings (oil whirl or whip) or due to rotor interaction with
steam (steam whip).
There are some online remedies that may be helpful in temporarily elimi-
nating a fluid-induced instability. Oil-related instabilities may be sensitive to oil
temperature. Try changing the oil temperature up or down a few degrees at a
time. Do this carefully, and watch the response. If the oil supply pressure can be
raised or lowered, carefully adjust it to see if that affects the instability. Cooling
of a bearing pedestal can temporarily change alignment and can affect instabil-
ity.
Steam-related instability is most likely to occur in the HP section, where
steam densities are highest. If a steam-related instability is suspected, try vary-
ing the steam flow or pressure while watching the eccentricity ratio on the shaft
centerline plot. In almost every case, increasing the eccentricity ratio will tend
to make instabilities go away.
All of these techniques involve fixing a symptom and do not address the root
cause of the problem, which should be identified and addressed.
Shaft Crack
Turbine rotors are very large forgings made of alloy steel that is strong and
tough at elevated temperatures, but, compared to mild steel, they are more brit-
tle and subject to cracking as a result of thermal shocks. Typical turbine rotor
alloys have a nil ductility (ductile/brittle) transition temperature at or well above
ambient temperature.
Being a massive part, turbine rotors will take a long time to warm up to
operating temperatures. If the rate of heating or cooling of a rotor is in excess of
the manufacturer’s recommendations, thermal shock stresses large enough to
initiate a crack can appear (see Chapter 18 {Rotor Bow}).
Usually turbine operators follow the manufacturer’s temperature soak rec-
ommendations carefully. However, operational and boiler upsets can easily
cause stress to exceed desired limits. Usually, the number and severity of the
thermal cycles that the turbine experiences defines its expected life. Thermal
transients, particularly transients that cause temperature differentials within
the rotor, must be avoided.
Any sudden heating or cooling can be a factor in producing a shaft crack or
a bow. Steam seal piping that has condensation in it can inject the water and
quench a spot on the rotor. Cold air sucked in through a gland seal can quench
the shaft in the area of the seal. If there is a problem with the steam seal supply,
then a temperature gradient may develop in the shaft which is large enough to
initiate a crack.
The extraction system can also be a major source of cool water. Most power
plants are equipped with check or nonreturn valves to prevent water from enter-
ing the turbine from the extraction system. These valves should be checked reg-
ularly, as a water induction incident of this type can cause major damage.
Most of these types of problems occur when the turbine is stopped or on

turning gear. When a turbine is running, the amount of stray cold air or water
coming through seals will be negligible.
There are also mechanical factors that cause shaft cracks. Severe misalign-
ment will cause the rotor to bend and go through one complete cycle of stress
reversal every revolution. In one 48 hour period, a 3600 rpm unit will go through
10 368 000 cycles of stress and will reach the high cycle fatigue limit in less than
a month.
Properly designed turbine rotors minimize both mechanical and thermal
stress concentrations. The addition of any keyways, pins and holes should be
avoided.
Effects of Process Changes on Steam Turbine Vibration

Steam turbines do not operate in isolation; they are part of an extended sys-
tem that has several key components. A large power plant will have a steam gen-
erator system, a condensate feedwater system, a cooling water system, and aux-
iliary systems: a lube oil system, and one or more sealing systems. It is beyond
this scope of this chapter to discuss these subsystems in detail; however, it is
important to keep in mind that the steam turbine is part of an extended system.
Changes or upsets in any part of the system can affect steam turbine behavior.
Changes in process conditions can have a direct effect on steam turbine
vibration. The process is defined as those flows and loads that affect the turbine,
but are not part of the turbine or its auxiliaries. In a large power plant, the
process will include the steam generator, condensate feedwater system, cooling
water system, and the generator and exciter. In petrochemical applications, it
includes loads from coupled machinery, such as pumps and compressors.
Process changes are important, because everything connects to everything
in a plant. If the turbine vibration has changed, tracking the change to its source
will often tell you what to do about it.
Very often, when turbine vibration changes, the first reaction is to ask,
“What is wrong with the turbine?” This thought is natural if the change is not
easily correlated to the process. A person has to get into the mindset of asking,
“What in the process could cause the turbine to do this?”
In this section, we are going to look at the effects of changes in the steam
process, the condenser, and the load. The lube oil system or hydraulic control
system will be considered to be outside the process.
Steam Condition
The operation of a steam turbine is a dynamic process; the change and the
rate of change in steam conditions are factors that can affect turbine vibration.
There are four steam parameters that can change: temperature, pressure, flow
rate, and chemistry.
The effects of temperature changes depend on the relative mass of the rotor
and the case, as well as the amount of surface area exposed to the steam. The
lighter rotor will change temperature and length much faster than the heavier
case. This situation could cause rubs or change the shaft position in the bearing
and, therefore, the rotor’s unbalance response or Margin of Stability. Anyone
who has seen lower temperature steam used to cure a rotor long condition has
witnessed this effect.
A steam temperature change can also cause the shaft observing vibration
probes to observe a different axial location on the shaft due to thermal growth.
If the probe sees a different level of runout, the change might be interpreted as
a change in vibration. In this case, the rotor’s dynamic response has not
changed. Good record keeping can help here.
Other things that can cause a change in steam temperature are load
changes, attemperation (reducing steam temperature by the injection of water in
the steam line), soot blowing, a change in burner configuration, slagging, a big
slag fall, a change in fuel type, or a change in an auxiliary steam source. When
you interview operators about a change in vibration, be sure to listen for infor-
mation that relates to a change in steam and other process conditions.
Steam pressure can also affect turbine vibration. Changes in pressure mod-
ify the bending stresses on the blades and the shaft radial position in the bear-
ing. Turbine thrust position can also shift when steam pressure changes. If the
pressure differential between HP inlet and reheat steam supply (IP inlet)
changes, the thrust load will change, and the thrust position will change accord-
ingly. Changes in pressure are also directly related to output power changes,
which affect torque and shaft radial position. Usually anything that changes
steam pressure will also affect the steam temperature. The difference in fuel for
a multiple fuel unit often makes a big difference in the rate at which pressure
changes occur.
The rate of temperature or pressure change can be important. Any time a
rapid change is made in steam flow demand, the control system is likely to over-
shoot to some degree, along with temperatures and pressures.
When temperature changes occur, the case will not expand or contract as
smoothly as the rotor; a rapid change could cause a case to stick or, more likely,
it will cause a stuck case to break free. A trip will sometimes result in a reduc-
tion in vibration during subsequent operation, because the rapid temperature
and pressure change (along with any shaking pipes) will jolt a stuck case loose,
and it will move to its proper position.
Steam flow may also affect the vibration response of the turbine.
Attemperating steam in the reheater will increase IP flow as the injected water
changes to steam, but will not affect HP flow. Increased steam flow is associat-
ed with an increase in load and changes in shaft radial and thrust position.
There are plants that have low steam purity and poor chemistry. Usually
chemistry problems will have long term effects (such as stress corrosion crack-
ing of blades), but when water chemistry causes deposits on the blading, the
effects can appear more quickly. When blading starts to plug, there is usually a
great increase in thrust bearing load. The turbine is designed with a specific
pressure drop across the stages, and the balance piston is designed to keep
thrust load at a predetermined level. When pressure drops start to occur across
impulse blading, which wasn’t designed for a pressure drop, the thrust load can
increase dramatically enough to wipe out the thrust bearing.
Deposits have mass; if the deposits form uniformly, the balance state
shouldn’t change. When a chunk of deposit breaks off, the rotor will become
unbalanced. An upset in boiler chemistry can cause a chunk of deposit to break
off within a short time of the upset.
Condenser Vacuum
Condenser vacuum can affect the radial and thrust loading of the unit.
When a unit is starting up and the vacuum is pulled in the condenser, more
often than not, the shaft centerline position will change. While some units are
more susceptible than others to this effect, it is easy to see that changes in vac-
uum can change the vibration.
Several things can affect condenser vacuum: load changes, cooling water
temperature changes, condenser fouling, circulating water pump failure, suction
screen fouling, and the growth of Zebra mussels, algae, and a myriad of other
creatures that live in circulating water systems.
Other sources of condenser problems can be less direct. Suppose your cool-
ing water supply comes from a river or delta, and there is a major storm up river.
There is a good chance that in a couple of days there will be silt or debris trying
to find it’s way into your condenser. Look at the condenser temperature and dif-
ferential pressure; decreased vacuum will indicate a fouled condenser.
Extraction Steam Flow

The extraction system takes steam from one or more intermediate stages in
the steam turbine for use at some other location. One such use is to heat the
boiler feedwater. Changes in extraction system flow affect the turbine vibration
response. For example, if a feedwater heater is out of service, the steam that
would normally flow to that heater instead now moves downstream through the
turbine, causing unusual steam flows and internal temperatures for that load. If
a nonreturn valve or check valve in an extraction line does not open fully, the
flow through the extraction line and the turbine will be affected.
On many units, steam for the auxiliaries and boiler feed pump turbine is
supplied via a second or third extraction point. If the auxiliary steam supply is
switched to the main steam supply, then the steam flow in the turbine will
increase, and the vibration may change.
Load
Changes in load will produce changes in steam flow, pressure, and tempera-
ture; torque; extraction conditions; and control settings. All of these affect shaft
vibration and position directly or indirectly. In power generation service, the
turbine produces a given amount of power for a given electrical load. If the VAs
(volt-amperes) or the VARs (volt-amperes reactive) change, the turbine shaft
torque and the shaft centerline position in the bearings will change. If the elec-
trical load is raised very quickly, steam flow will increase, steam temperature
and pressure will decrease, and torque will increase. The turbine vibration may
change until the temperature and pressure come to equilibrium. With the tem-
perature change comes rapid expansion or contraction of the shaft and case; it
is possible that some part will not slide properly, changing shaft position or
machine alignment.
Partial or full arc steam admission can affect rotor position and vibration.
Compare the vibration level and shaft centerline position at the high pressure
turbine bearings when going from partial arc to full arc or from sequential valve
mode to single valve mode. Often partial arc admission will lift or move the rotor
in the bearing, change vibration, and occasionally cause fluid-induced instabili-
ty.
Radial Vibration Measurement in Steam Turbines

Steam turbines range in application from relatively small, mechanical drives
to large, multicase, power generation machines. From a diagnostics and moni-
toring point of view, steam turbine generators (TG) are the most complex steam
turbine application, and we will concentrate on the TG set in our discussion. We
will show later that mechanical drive applications can use a relatively simple
subset of the TG monitoring system.
Any TG set is an extremely expensive investment. Protection and manage-
ment of the asset throughout its planned operational life is essential.
Information derived from inadequate transducer systems may be misleading,
leading to inadequate machine protection. Loss of production may occur
because a machine is shut down unnecessarily (a false trip) because indicated
vibration levels are spuriously high. A necessary shutdown may not happen (a
missed trip) if the indicated vibration level is low and does not reveal the true
severity of the dynamic forces applied to the rotor or bearing structure.
The effects of initiating a TG trip (either automatically or through operator
action) based on high vibration should be considered carefully. In many cases,
the risk to the TG set and associated plant machinery is much greater from a
sudden trip from high load operation than it is from a short period of high vibra-
tion operation, during which vibration alarms are investigated.
The selection of vibration measurement transducers requires consideration
of the design of individual machines within the TG train and the effects of cou-
pling their rotors. Traditional methods of vibration measurement are based on
manufacturers’ preferences, which have been influenced by corporate end user
preference and, sometimes, industry and national standards. Installed systems
on older TG sets may not be adequate for either the protection of the machines
or their management. Installations may be inadequate because of use of the
wrong transducer type or insufficient measurement points. Most original
Turbine Supervisory Instrumentation (TSI) systems were specified without con-
sideration of the need for continuous acquisition of information for diagnostics
and management.
Both shaft relative and bearing absolute radial vibration measurements can
be made on TGs. It is argued that shaft absolute measurements are essential to
carry out effective balancing of TGs. The rational is that only absolute (inertial-
ly referenced) vibration measurement can truly indicate the dynamic motion of
a rotor. However, in practical machinery applications, shaft relative measure-
ment is most important; we need to know where the rotor is inside the casing.
That measurement should be supplemented by bearing housing absolute vibra-
tion measurement when necessary.
If the bearing absolute vibration is zero, then shaft relative motion is identi-
cal to the shaft absolute motion. When the bearing dynamic motion is not zero,
the deviation between shaft relative and shaft absolute measurement becomes
more significant. The system characteristics of a TG may result in significant
bearing motion, either as a design characteristic or as a result of a malfunction.
Regardless of the amount of bearing absolute vibration, though, the shaft rela-
tive vibration measurement provides necessary information about the relative
motion between the rotor and the bearing.
The relative measurement alone may not indicate the significance of the
bearing vibration, for example, if there is structural weakness or looseness of a
bearing pedestal or related structure. Depending on the phase relationship
between the shaft relative and the bearing absolute vibration, the shaft absolute
vibration may be considerably different in magnitude.
The bearing and casing support characteristics will determine the relation-
ship between the shaft and bearing vibration. A well-designed TG and founda-
tion system will have bearing support characteristics which provide high
Dynamic Stiffness at operating speeds within 20% of rated speed (a similar oper-
ating margin should apply to rotor balance resonance speeds). A well-designed
machine will have effective bearing support stiffnesses which are considerably
higher than the bearing oil film stiffnesses. For such a machine, the shaft rela-
tive vibration amplitudes will be in the range 5 to 10 times higher than the bear-
ing housing absolute vibration amplitudes. In this case, the difference between
the shaft relative vibration and the shaft absolute vibration will be small.
However, due to the complexity of the design, most TG sets exhibit reso-
nance of the bearing support system at speeds below the rated operating speed
of the machine. This is characteristic of fabricated steel foundations, which may
exhibit numerous resonances from low speed to above the operating speed of
the TG. The bearing vibration levels during startup or shutdown on large (300
MW to 800 MW) turbine generators on steel foundations are higher than for
machines on concrete foundations. Concrete foundation structures, which
appear to be much more rigid than steel foundations, though, have their own
structural resonance-related problems.
When the bearing and case vibration is significant, or is believed to be sig-
nificant under special circumstances (by design or due to malfunction), the
shaft relative vibration measurements should be supplemented by bearing
absolute vibration measurements at each bearing in a TG set.
Transducer and Installation Recommendations

Figure 24-12 shows the recommended transducer suite for a typical power
generation application. In the figure, a combination HP/IP unit and an LP unit
drive a generator and exciter in a tandem configuration. Figure 24-13 shows the
recommended transducer suite for a typical mechanical drive steam turbine
application. The following discussion is a summary of recommended transduc-
er types for the significant measurement parameters. It is not complete; the
reader should consult API 670 [2] for more detail on the types of transducers
and the specifics of mounting locations and methods.
Shaft Relative Vibration

For any steam turbine, the first measurement priority is radial vibration.
Installation of two, orthogonal (XY), shaft relative, radial vibration probes at
every bearing is essential for machine protection, diagnostics, and management.
Using a single probe is not recommended. These probes are, typically, noncon-
tacting, eddy current transducers with 5 mm or 8 mm tip diameter and a linear
LP Case Exp Left
Keyphasor
4 Y Disp
HP Case Exp Left Active Thrust Temp
4 Y Vel
Inactive Thrust Temp
8 Y Disp
Eccentricity LP Diff Exp A 8 Y Vel
3 Y Disp LP Diff Exp B
HP Diff Exp A 6 Y Disp
3 Y Vel 6 Y Vel
HP Diff Exp B 5 Y Disp
1 Y Disp 2 Y Disp 5 Y Vel 7 Y Disp
1 Y Vel 2 Y Vel 7 Y Vel
HP/IP LP GENERATOR EXCITER
1 X Disp 2 X Disp
1 X Vel 2 X Vel 7 X Disp
5 X Disp 7 X Vel
1 Temp 2 Temp
5 X Vel 7 Temp
3 X Disp 6 X Disp
Zero speed 5 Temp
3 X Vel 6 X Vel
Rotor accel 3 Temp 6 Temp 8 X Disp
HP Case Exp Right 8 X Vel
Thrust Pos A 4 X Disp Up 8 Temp
Thrust Pos B 4 X Vel
4 Temp Y 90˚ X
Valve Pos
LP Case Exp Right
Shaft
As viewed from driver (HP end)

Chapter 24
Figure 24-12. Recommended transducer suite for a typical steam turbine generator set in a power generation
application. See the text for details.
Steam Turbines
497
range of 250 to 2300 µm (10 to 90 mil). XY pairs are needed to provide the infor-
mation (shaft orbit, average shaft centerline position, and full spectrum) that is
needed for effective machinery management.
The mounting orientation of the XY probes can be at any convenient angle,
as long as the probes remain orthogonal (90° from each other). Looking from the
driver end towards the driven machine (the conventional view), the Y probe will
always be located 90° counterclockwise from the X probe, regardless of the
direction of machine rotation. 45° left (L) and 45° right (R) of vertical is the most
common orientation (Figure 24-14). The XY pair may be installed at different
orientations at different axial locations, if necessary, but consistency is favored.
For example, 90° R and 0° could be used in one plane, and 135° L and 135° R
could be used in another. In the latter case, the X probe is at 135° L.
The probe can be mounted on the bearing itself or on the outer cover. The
outer cover may be used only if it is the primary bearing retaining structure.
Secondary covers that do not directly support the bearing are unsuitable for rela-
tive shaft vibration or position measurements because they can vibrate independ-
ently of the bearing. Figure 24-15 shows a recommended installation for shaft rel-
ative and bearing absolute transducers. The shaft relative vibration probes are
directly mounted on the face of the bearing.
For machinery management applications, mode identification probes are
desirable. These are additional pairs of XY, shaft relative, vibration transducers
that are mounted on the opposite side of the bearing at each measurement
plane They enable better definition of the mode shapes of the coupled turbine
and generator rotors. Mode identification probes allow more accurate interpo-
lation of rotor deflections at midspan locations inside the machines.
Bearing Absolute Vibration

XY velocity transducers are recommended at each bearing location to meas-
ure bearing absolute vibration.
Accelerometers are not recommended for this application. For effective
machine protection and diagnostics, it is necessary to measure displacement of
the bearing housing for comparison with the shaft relative displacement.
Double integration of the acceleration signal, required to produce a displace-
ment measurement, and the use of external electronics for integration make dis-
placement signal accuracy and stability unsatisfactory for protection or diag-
nostics.
Moving-coil velocity (Seismoprobe) transducers are also not recommended
for TG protection when internally mounted, where access to the transducer
requires removal of the cover. The springs that suspend the moving coil have a
finite service life; failure of the springs may occur after a relatively short period
Keyphasor
Thrust Pos A
Thrust Pos B
1 Y Disp 2 Y Disp 3 Y Disp 4 Y Disp 5 Y Disp 6 Y Disp

Thrust Pos A
Thrust Pos B
LP HP
TURBINE
COMPRESSOR COMPRESSOR
6 X Disp
1 X Disp 2 X Disp 3 X Disp 4 X Disp 5 X Disp
Up Thrust Pos A
Thrust Pos B
Y 90˚ X
As viewed from turbine end Shaft
Figure 24-13. Recommended transducer suite for a typical mechanical drive steam turbine appli-
cation. See the text for details.
Up Up
Figure 24-14. Shaft relative transduc- 0˚
er mounting orientations. The coordi- 45˚ L 45˚ R
Y
nate system is viewed looking from Y X
the driver toward the driven machine. X
90˚ R
Regardless of the direction of shaft
rotation, the Y transducer is located
90° counterclockwise from the X
transducer. Transducers are located Up
relative to an external reference; for a 0˚
horizontal machine,“Up” is used, but Up
for a vertical machine, any convenient X
permanent physical reference can be Y
used.
90˚ L X Y
135˚ L 135˚ R
of service, especially when there is significant cross-axis vibration (vibration per-

pendicular to the transducer’s sensitive axis). Transducer life may not be ade-
quate when extended operating periods between planned maintenance shut-
downs are standard operating practice, and internal mounting would prevent
replacement between outages.
Bently Nevada Velomitor transducers are recommended for bearing
absolute vibration measurement. A Velomitor transducer is an accelerometer
with an internally mounted integrator; the output of the transducer is velocity.
Appropriate high pass filtering of the signal is required and provided in Bently
Nevada 3300 Series and later monitors.
The velocity transducers should be mounted as close as possible to the shaft
relative probes, and they must be mounted at the same angular orientation. They
may be mounted on the bearing itself or, with certain precautions, externally on
the bearing cover. The mounting position must move rigidly with the bearing to
provide a meaningful indication of the bearing vibration behavior. Figure 24-15
shows an example of a recommended internal installation design.
Thrust Position
Even though steam turbines have features designed to minimize thrust
loads (dual flow turbines and balance pistons), there will always be some resid-
ual thrust load. If steam flow is disrupted through part of the system or if a bal-
ance piston fails, unusually large thrust loads can appear that can change the
axial position of the rotor and, occasionally, lead to catastrophic thrust bearing
failure.
Wear or failure of a thrust bearing will cause the rotor to move axially; sud-
den failure can result in rapid movement of the rotor and immediate rubs.
Machine trip on thrust position measurement is necessary for adequate
machine protection because human operators cannot react fast enough in the
event of a sudden thrust bearing failure.
Two or three eddy current proximity probes are used to measure thrust posi-
tion so that the monitor has voting capability. If a single probe is used for thrust
measurement and is incorporated into the machinery protection system, failure
of the probe will cause a voltage shift that could be interpreted as rotor motion,
resulting in a false trip. In a two-out-of-two (dual voting) configuration, both
transducer signals must reach alarm levels in order to trigger a shutdown. Two-
out-of-three voting (triple modular redundancy) provides the highest level of
redundancy and protection against false trips.
Axial float is the free axial motion of the shaft between the two sides of the
thrust bearing. On TG turbines, float usually ranges from 250 to 500 µm (10 to
20 mil). This is well within the normal linear range of the standard 5 mm or 8
Cable Reference
tiedown direction
0˚
45˚ L 45˚ R
Y X
Shaft
A
A
Viewed from driver towards driven Safety wire
Bearing
absolute
velocity
Bearing Bearing transducer
pedestal CL CL
cover Shaft
relative
CL
displacement
transducer
Babbitt Bearing
Figure 24-15. A recommended vibration transducer installation on a bear-

ing. The shaft relative vibration probes are directly mounted on the bear-
ing face. The velocity transducers are mounted on the bearing as close as
possible to and in the same orientation as the shaft relative probes.
Secondary covers that are not rigidly connected to the bearing are unsuit-
able for probe mounting because they can vibrate independently of the
bearing.
mm eddy current probes that are used for this application. Some machines need
a larger measurement range, and 11 mm and 14 mm probes are used for this pur-
pose.
The Keyphasor Transducer

A Keyphasor transducer is absolutely essential. This transducer provides the
timing reference that makes absolute phase measurement possible. The
Keyphasor transducer is an eddy current transducer that can be mounted at any
angular orientation. The transducer must be able to reliably detect a once-per-
turn mark on the shaft, which can be either a notch or projection, such as a key.
For mechanical drive steam turbines coupled to a gearbox, a separate
Keyphasor transducer should be installed for each shaft operating at a different
speed.
Differential Expansion
Differential expansion (DE) transducers measure the axial growth of the
rotor relative to the casing during thermal transients. DE measurements are
made on all TG sections. Because of the large amount of relative growth that can
take place, DE is usually measured with 25 mm, 35 mm, or 50 mm eddy current
probes. When large axial excursions are expected or sufficient target area is not
available, the probes can be installed in complementary configurations that
increase the range (Complementary Input and Ramp DE).
Case Expansion
Case expansion transducers are used to ensure that the casing is moving
properly during thermal transients. Linear Variable Differential Transformer
(LVDT) transducers are used for this application. All large steam turbine cases
are equipped with LVDTs. They are often used on both sides of the case to
ensure that motion on each side of the case is uniform.
Eccentricity
An eccentricity probe is used to detect rotor bow problems at startup in
large steam turbine units. This is a single eddy current transducer that is usual-
ly mounted as near as possible to the free end of the HP unit.
Bearing Metal Temperature

Bearing metal temperature transducers are installed on all radial bearings
and on both the active and inactive thrust bearings. These transducers are
either J type thermocouples or 100 ohm, three-lead, resistance temperature
detectors (RTDs). They are installed into the bearing backing (not in the bab-
bitt) in the load zone of the bearing [2].
Other Transducers
Other transducers include a valve position transducer, an LVDT that reads
the position of the HP steam inlet control valve; a zero speed transducer; and a
rotor acceleration transducer. The last two are usually eddy current probes that
view a toothed wheel or gear mounted on the shaft.
Monitoring Recommendations
Vibration
The vibration signals from the XY shaft relative probes and the XY bearing
absolute transducers should be connected directly to individual monitors or
pairs of monitor channels in a single monitor module. XY shaft absolute infor-
mation is generated in the monitor. If measurement of shaft absolute vibration
is used for machine protection, the shaft relative and bearing absolute raw data
should be kept separately in a database to be available for later diagnostics.
Acquisition of dynamic and static information during startup and shut-
down is essential on all machines. Other machine and process measurements
can be integrated into machinery management software databases, either
through additional monitor channels or from digital control systems.
Automatic machine shutdown is most often based on high shaft relative
vibration or excessive thrust position. Bearing absolute vibration is generally not
used for this purpose.
For petrochemical (mechanical drive) applications, API developed standards
for shop testing of critical [3] and noncritical [4] steam turbines in which the
steam conditions do not exceed 48 bar (700 psi) or 400 °C (750 °F) and rotor
speed does not exceed 6000 rpm. These standards have been adapted by indus-
try for use in defining preliminary alert and danger vibration levels. For this pur-
pose, the baseline vibration level is defined as
12 000
A(µm pp) = 25.4
N
(24-1)
12 000
A(mil pp) =
N
where A is the unfiltered, peak-to-peak amplitude measured adjacent to a bear-

ing, and N is the maximum rotor speed in rpm. Preliminary alarm limits are set
at
Alert 1.5 A
Danger 2.0 A
These values assume that shaft electrical and mechanical runout have been
reduced below the API recommended maximum of 6 µm pp (0.25 mil pp). These
calculated values should be considered only as preliminary guidelines; they may
not be appropriate for your machine.
Power generation steam turbines are a more complex problem. Many factors
must be considered when setting vibration limits for these machines, such as
the machine design, the amount of shaft relative vibration versus bearing
absolute vibration, bearing types, journal diameter and clearance, and support
structure. Typically, vibration alarms are set for steady state operation; for start-
up and shutdown, vibration limits are sometimes increased temporarily, often
using trip multiply capabilities in monitors.
Common practice in the United States is to operate these units with ampli-
tudes of unfiltered shaft relative vibration near bearings of less than 75 µm pp (3
mil pp). The alert alarm is typically set in the range from 125 to 150 µm pp (5 to
6 mil pp), and the danger alarm (shutdown) in the range from 200 to 225 µm pp
(8 to 9 mil pp). Again, these numbers should be considered as guidelines only;
each machine is different, and alarm settings should be carefully evaluated
based on your experience and the particular machine characteristics.
ISO has developed a vibration standard [5] for power generation applica-
tions. This standard applies to large, steam turbine generator sets in land-based
applications operating at 1500 rpm to 3600 rpm and more than 50 MW (67 000
hp) output. This standard should be read carefully before attempting to define
vibration limits for a particular machine.
Bearing Temperature
High bearing temperature can significantly weaken babbitt and shorten its
life. The babbitt temperature of a normally loaded, fluid-film bearing is 70 to 80
°C (160 to 180 °F). Babbitt is significantly weakened and will start to creep at 125
°C (260 °F), and melt at 240 °C (460 °F). For this reason, good operating practice
dictates that fluid-film bearing metal temperature should not exceed 100 °C
(210 °F). While bearing temperature is not used for automatic shutdown, it
should be used to alert operators so that appropriate action can be taken, such
as reducing bearing oil temperature, increasing oil flow, or manually shutting

down the machine.
Configuration of appropriate software alarms (for example, peak-to-peak
unfiltered vibration, or filtered vibration acceptance regions) for all vibration
measurements can alert operators to a change in machine behavior at an early
stage in the development of a problem.
Expert systems that have the capability to identify turbine generator mal-
functions on line at an early stage are now available. Incorporating comprehen-
sive knowledge bases and rule sets, these systems provide an automated diag-
nosis capability with multilevel, advisory alarm messages. Whenever a signifi-
cant machine event occurs, these systems can notify operators and provide spe-
cific reports and recommended actions, even before annunciation of a first level
alarm on the monitor.
Summary
A steam turbine converts some of the energy content of high-pressure, high-
temperature steam into shaft rotation. The two basic types of turbines, impulse
and reaction, convert steam momentum changes into rotation using different
principles, and are often combined into one, multistage turbine.
Large power plant turbines are separated into several sections, cylinders, or
cases, each optimized for a particular range of steam conditions. They are the
high pressure (HP), intermediate pressure (IP), and low pressure (LP) cases.
Often, for mechanical reasons, the HP and IP cases are combined into a single
HP/IP case.
Steam turbines are broadly classified into two categories. Steam turbines for
utility power generation applications are large, multicase turbines that produce
high power and operate at either line frequency or half line frequency.
Mechanical drive steam turbines, used for all low power generation and non-
power applications, tend to be smaller, predominantly high-pressure turbines
that operate at speeds up to 14 000 rpm. They may be coupled to the load direct-
ly or through a gearbox.
Most multistage steam turbines have the following components: cases,
rotors, bearings, seals, couplings, and turning gear.
The case is the external shell that encloses the rotor and contains the steam.
Modern HP case designs will have an inner and outer case. The weight of the
casing has a large influence on the casing vibration level. If the case is signifi-
cantly heavier than the rotor, then the relatively light rotor will move more than
the heavy case.
Rotors are generally constructed from a chromium-nickel-molybdenum
steel forging that is vacuum-degassed, heat treated and double tempered.
506
Typical LP rotors are hollow, with bore plugs fitted in both ends. Many steam
turbine rotors are machined from a single piece, with blades attached separate-
ly. Very large LP rotors may have the last stage disks shrunk on and pinned or
keyed.
Blades, to resist steam impurities and temperature, are often made from a
heat-treated, martensitic stainless material. HP/IP blades are usually not a
major reliability concern; LP blades tend to have the most problems of the rotor
system. This is largely due to the length and flexibility of the LP blades. The
blades are fitted into the disk using either a “T” slot or “fir tree” design. Blades
are usually damped using blade shrouds or tie wires through the blades or
groups of blades.
Most large steam turbines are equipped with babbitt-lined, oil-lubricated
journal bearings. There are many different bearing configurations, all designed
to prevent fluid-induced instabilities; the most common are pressure dam, ellip-
tical (lemon bore), and tilting pad. Thrust bearings are typically located between
the HP/IP and the LP unit. The thrust load is transferred from the shaft to the
bearing surface through a thrust collar, which can be integral, machined from
the shaft forging, or separate, secured to the shaft using a nut.
Steam seals are found anywhere the rotor penetrates the case (gland seals)
or where higher and lower pressure stages need to be isolated. Seals can be fixed,
spring-loaded, or retractable. Labyrinth seals are used between stages. While
carbon seals may be used at the turbine ends for small turbines, larger turbines
will use labyrinth seals.
Generally, couplings on power generation turbines are rigid. Typically, a
turning gear is installed between the LP rotor and the generator coupling halves.
The turning gear assembly keeps the rotor turning at 2 to 3 rpm when the
turbine is shut down so the rotor does not develop a bow. The rotor should be
put on turning gear before it coasts to a stop. Prior to starting a steam turbine,
it is important to roll the rotor with the turning gear until any bow has been
reduced to an acceptable level. The turbine should also be on turning gear when
steam is first introduced so that the rotor will heat uniformly.
Changes in process conditions can have a direct effect on steam turbine
vibration. The process is defined as those flows and loads that affect the turbine,
but are not part of the turbine or its auxiliaries. Changes in steam conditions
and the rate of change of steam conditions are factors that can change turbine
vibration. There are four steam parameters that can change: temperature, pres-
sure, chemistry, and flow rate.
Power generation is the most complex steam turbine application from a
diagnostics and monitoring point of view. Both shaft relative and bearing
absolute radial vibration measurements are usually necessary. These can be
used to calculate shaft absolute vibration, but shaft relative measurements are
critical from a machinery protection viewpoint. Additional measurements
include thrust position, differential expansion, case expansion, eccentricity, and
bearing metal temperature. These can be supplemented by valve position, zero
speed, and rotor acceleration measurements. A Keyphasor transducer is neces-
sary to provide phase information for diagnostic purposes.
Automatic machine shutdown is most often based on high shaft relative
vibration or excessive thrust position. Bearing absolute vibration and tempera-
ture are generally not used for this purpose.
References
1. El-Wakil, M. M., Powerplant Technology (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1984).
2. American Petroleum Institute, Vibration, Axial Position, and Bearing
Temperature Monitoring Systems, API Standard 670, Third Ed.
(Washington, D.C.: American Petroleum Institute, November 1993).
http://www.api.org/
3. American Petroleum Institute, Special Purpose Steam Turbines For
Petroleum, Chemical, and Gas Industry Services, API Standard 612, Fourth
Ed. (Washington, D.C.: American Petroleum Institute, June1995).
http://www.api.org/
4. American Petroleum Institute, General-Purpose Steam Turbines For
Petroleum, Chemical, and Gas Industry Services, API Standard 611, Fourth
Ed. (Washington, D.C.: American Petroleum Institute, June1997).
http://www.api.org/
5. International Organization for Standardization, Mechanical Vibration of
non-reciprocating machines – Measurements on rotating shafts and evalua-
tion criteria – Part 2, ISO 7919-2 (Geneve: International Organization for
Standardization, 1996).

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Introduction to Steam Turbines

Impulse turbine Curtis turbine Rateau turbine Reaction turbine

Figure 24-1. Basic turbine types.

IP 28-41 bar 510-570 °C 4.8-14 bar 290-370 °C

LP 4.8-14 bar 290-370 °C 17-120 mbar Cooling water

Steam Turbine Components

Figure 24-5. LP turbine blades. The airfoil

Figure 24-6. The bottom half of an LP bearing

diametral clearance. Bearing babbitt thickness is generally in one of three

Steam and air to

Staggered Straight type seal

Figure 24-9. Turning gear on large

Steam Turbine Applications

Steam Turbine Malfunctions

2. The rotor may have developed a slight bow, due to improper

4. The factory’s instrumentation was different than the plant’s

Figure 24-10. Damaged LP turbine Undamaged

In the condensing stages of LP turbines, water droplet erosion can gradual-

Figure 24-11. Sliding support for

Most of these types of problems occur when the turbine is stopped or on

Effects of Process Changes on Steam Turbine Vibration

Extraction Steam Flow

Radial Vibration Measurement in Steam Turbines

Transducer and Installation Recommendations

Shaft Relative Vibration

HP/IP LP GENERATOR EXCITER

As viewed from driver (HP end)

Bearing Absolute Vibration

1 Y Disp 2 Y Disp 3 Y Disp 4 Y Disp 5 Y Disp 6 Y Disp

As viewed from turbine end Shaft

of service, especially when there is significant cross-axis vibration (vibration per-

Viewed from driver towards driven Safety wire

Figure 24-15. A recommended vibration transducer installation on a bear-

The Keyphasor Transducer

Bearing Metal Temperature

where A is the unfiltered, peak-to-peak amplitude measured adjacent to a bear-

as reducing bearing oil temperature, increasing oil flow, or manually shutting

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