(*)
Thermal state of overhead une conductors
WG 05 () of SC 22 (Overhead unes)
PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH THE THERMAL STATE 0F CONDUCTORS
1. GENERAL
The problem of thermal state of
conductors in overhead unes has been
under consideration and debated by
researchers and power liner users for
a number of years and WGO5 has
been concerned with this abject.
There is therefore a great deal of
material available on the subject, ai
beit sometimes approached from enti
rely different points of view. The
Working Group is of the opinion that
its own activity should consist mainly
in careful analysis of previaus re
search, followed by selection of prac
tical methods and models depending
on the type of application, in pinpoin
ting sectors where the phenomenon is
really likeiy to matter or to have a
significant influence, and in the issue
of documents of an applicational na
ture.
It is therefore a question of syste
maticaily collating material on the
subject and the Group’s activity has
been broken down into a number of
headings, under which study is cur
rently in progress
The causes of the phenomenon.
—
The effects of the phenomenon.
—
Practical importance.
—
Means and methods of application.
—
1.1. Causes of the phenomenon
The problem is that of analyzing
quantities that determine the thermal
state of the conductor and to investi
gate the extent these vary, which
quantities must be considered and
which can be ignored from a practical
() Report on the activities of the WG 05 on
the Subject prepared on the request of the
SC 22 Chairman.
() Mr. J. Bradbury (U.K.) .— Mr. E. Brandt’
(F.R.G.) Mr. B. Dalle (France) Mr. T.J.
—
Hafstad (Norway) — Mr. T. lkeya (Japan) — Mr.
D.T. Jones (U.S.A.) — Mr. A,R. McCulloch (Ca
nada) Mr. V.T. Morgan )Australia) Mr. P.
—
—
Nicolini )ltaly)
— Mr. E. Palazuelos Serto (Spain)
— Mr. P. Paoli (Italyl— Mr. P. Ralston (Canada).
PART 1
point af view. This is discussed ri
detail in the third part of this report.
1.2. Effect of the phenomenon
This sphere of activity s the one
that provides a justification for the
research, without which it would by
purely a theoretical exercise.
The phenomenon under examina
tion is seen from the point of view of
the reliability of the electrical system,
whether as regards service cantinuity
or as regards operating reliability, it
does become important, because re
liabiiity is strongly influenced by une
performance under extreme, unusual
conditions, which, however, may oc
cur several times during the life of the
system.
There are a number of effects that
depend on the thermal state of
conductor and influencing the line
design and operation; their impor
tance is briefly reviewed below.
1.2.1. Vertical clearance
It should be borne in mirid that the
position of the conductor in relation ta
an obstruction crossed by the line is
flot fixed, but varies with the thermal
state of the conductor or its tempera
ture. During the design the position
can anly be defined statistically and
the risk of flashover does not depend
only on the electrical stress (operating
voltage or overvoltage), but also on
the probability of the conductor sag
relatively to the obstruction.
Prevention in design may consist in
fixing a safety clearance which takes
into account the statistical aspect and
makes the risk of flashover negligible.
Recent development adopted by
some power line users is ta canti
nuously monitor the conductor tempe
rature, during the operation of the line,
ta prevent the clearance from drop
ping below pre-set limits.
1.2.2. Loss of cor,ductor’s mechanical
strength
Many of the metals commonly used
in the manufacture of the conducting
parts of conductors (e.g. aluminium,
aluminum alloy, copper and copper
alloy) have a micro-structure that is
sensitive ta temperature in transfor
mation of the crystaliine structure to
that obtained by an annealing process.
Consequently, there is a loss in me
chanical strength and a drop in une
reliability. This effect is accelerated by
higher temperatures. This process is
cumulative in the sense that the effect
due ta a medium-high temperature
adds up over a period of time, sa that
the conductor’s mechanical strength
generally depends upon the tempera
ture duration curve during the life of
the line [1].
1.2.3. Joint ageing
The thermal state of the conductor
is one of the factors that affect the
development and performance of
joints.
Obviously, apart from the characte
ristics particular to the joint, a know
ledge of the conductor temperature is
necessary ta appiy the laws of joint
ageing [2].
1.2.4. Conductor creep
The research conducted and pu
blished by the Working Group regar
ding the prablem of creep evaluation
has shown that non-elastic conductor
elongation depends largely on the
temperature reached by the material
concerned. lndeed, creep is caused by
the settling down of the micro-struc
ture in the metal and, since the state
of the latter depends upon the tempe
rature, the amount af creep and, the
refare, the planning of clearances,
have ta take into accaunt the thermal
history of the conductor [3].
N’ 121
1.2.5. JouIe Iosses
During the initial design of a une or
system, if an attempt is made to
optimize the conductor cross-section,
one of the chief components of the
cost objective function, which must be
minimized is Joule losses cost.
In calculating the Joule losses,
generally, a single conductor tempera
ture is assumed, but a greater know
ledge of the probable statistical rela
tionship between the conductor tem
perature and the load carried out by
the conductor, a better evaluation of
the Joules losses may be obtained.
1.2.6. Ice formation
Some quantitative evaluations have
already been made in relationship
between the formation of ice over
loads, environmental conditions, and
conductor temperature. It is possible,
in the future, that a better understan
ANALYSIS 0F REPLIES TO THE QUESTIONNAIRE
2. GENERAL
The 1984 questionnaire was broken
down into three sections:
Section A
The respondent was asked how the
problem of thermal rating was treated,
for what conditions and in what terms
rating was specified, what effects
were taken into account, and lastly,
what means were used to evaluate
those effects.
Section B
This section was the more practical
part of the survey, inasmuch as res
pondents were asked about the para
meters relating to the thermal rating
for the various types of conductor
used on mes and in respect of various
conditions that may be considered
(normal or exceptional operating
conditions, short-circuit, etc..).
Section C
This section asked respondents for
any information considered useful but
not included in previous questions,
E LE CIRA 53
ding of the thermol state of the actual practical significance of the
conductor and associated environ- problem.
mental conditions may help in the
Part 2 reports on the results of this
prediction of ice load and consequen
survey.
tly a possible improvement in une
relia bility.
1.3. Practical importance 1.4. Means and methods of applica
tion
In reviewing the effects due to
conductor temperature, we may note Once the state of the art has been
that this parameter is one of great ascertained from the respondents, the
importance in the design and opera work of the Group will continue with
tion of lines, therefore it cannot be the preparation of a practical guide
neglected. The Working Group has that, starting with the experiments and
therefore decided that it would be achievements of a large number of
worth having direct information on the researchers, will provide information,
opinions of power line users, manu on the basis of which calculations or
facturers and contractors. To this end, methods may be applied for a correct
a survey on thermal problems was set evaluation of conductor temperatures
up among the members of SC 22, and under any condition.
a questionnaire circulated with the
A brief outline of this work is
object of collecting information that
would make it possible to evaluate the presented in part 3.
PART 2
ON THERMAL STATE
2.1. Analysis of the replies of section
TABLE I
A
figures 1 to 4 summarize the replies
to the first four questions of the
. Nunber of
Geographical area questionnaire.
rus pond en ts
This was arranged such that the
Africa 1
respondents were asked to give a
YES/NO reply to a number of specific
America 26 questions.
Asia and Australia 12
75
Europe 27
50
25
Calcul
FRDM A
CALCULATION
especially detailed information on SIANDAPI
D[TEMINlsTg FRAEA8II.ISDI
equations that the user normally em HETHID METHDD
ploys to determine the parameters A partir Méthode Méthode
involved in thermal rating. 66 replies dune déter- proba
norme ministe biliste
were received to the questionnaire,
from a total of 16 countries.
Fig. 2. Approches différentes utilisées
—
These countries are listed by geo pour guider le calcul de la capacité ther
graphical area in Table I. This report mique.
summarizes only the replies to part A Fig. 2. — Different approaches used to
and part B. govern thermal rating calculation.
N 121 E LE CIRA 55

The analysis given in this section 10

When analyzing these figures
was obtained by simply expressing the consideration must be made that the
75
number of positive replies as a per solar radiation and the maximum tem
centage of the number of respondents 50 perature depend, to some extent, to
repiying to the specific questions. 25
the geographical area of the respon
Many questions required multiple re o
50

plies, this explains why the sum of the DOLAI MAGNETIC 40

JOULE
percentages of a given question may EFF[tT RADIATION EFFECT
30
by higher than 100%. Effet Radia- Effet
Joule lion magné- 20
In some cases some respondents
solaire tique
did not reply to individual questions 10

and in this case when dealing with this 100 O

question the respondent was omitted. b)
75 SLMM[R PEUR SOLAR RADIATION
lt wiii be noted that ail the respon Radiation solaire de pointe en été
50
dents referred to the thermal rating of 100 100
conductors in normai conditions, a 25
high percentage of respondents aiso 0 75 75
referred to the temporary and emer CONVECTION RADIATION EVAP000TION
gency conditions, and even over 25 °h 53 50
of respondents also referred to fault Convec- Radia- Evapo.
lion lion ration
conditions (Fig. 1).
Fig. 6. — Pourcentage d’utilisatiQn des 2: 2:
Many different appoaches to the différentes sources de : e) gains de cha
problem are used, the most common leur, b) pertes de chaleur, dans les cal 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 Q8 1 0 0.2 0./, 0.6 0.8 1
being the deterministic calculation culs. ta NEW LONOUCÏDB
— —NEW CONDUCTOR
(Fig. 2). Fig. 6.— Percentage 0f use, in calculation, Conducteur neuf Es Conducteur neuf
Ea — —

of different sources of: a) heat gains.

Many respondents are governed in b) heat fosses. 100J 100
their caiculation by some forms of
standard (National Code, internai 75 75
conditions, figure 6 summarizes the
standard, conductor manufacturer
replies obtained figure 6a gives the
standard, etc..). In addition the ques 50 50
heat gains and figure 6b gives the heat
tionnaire reveaied (Fig. 3) that a high
losses. As expected the 100 % of res
proportion of the respondents suppor 2:_fl25
pondents consider Joule effect and
ted the Group activity for improving
convection and a lower percentage
the knowledge of the thermal state
consider solar radiation and conductor
under normal, temporary, emergency O 0.2 06 05 0.8 1 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.6 1
radiation. Ea—WNEAIHER[D LUNAUCIOR ts—WHEAONER[D CONDUCIOR
conditions (approximately 75% of the
respondents repiying in the affirma The questionnaire also asked ques Ea — Conducteur vieilli Es — Conducteur vieilli

tive). Even when considering thermal
state under fault conditions, just under
50 % replies feit it necessary to consi
der this matter further.
tions on the reference parameters and 50
coefficients which are used in the heat
1.0
balance equation, as follows
a) Peak value of solar radiation, 30

The reasons the respondents feit a b) Coefficients of surface absorp 20

detaiied knowledge is required on tion and emission, 10

thermal state are given in figure 4. The c) Wind speed,
main reasons were in ensuring clea d) Ambient temperature. o 0.2 0.4 QA 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 15 mIs
rances are maintained and for obtai TRANSVERSE WIND SPEOS

ning a better evaluation of the loss of Figure 7 shows in form of histo Vitesse de vent transversal
grams the results of the replies obtai
strength due to annealing and creep.
0f these replies the WG was surprised ned. Briefly, it may be noted that the
by the reply to the annealing which average values are:
was previously considered a less im — Summer solar radia
20
portant factor. tion 1000 W/m
2
With specific reference to the pro — Emission coefficient: 10

new conductor 0.4

blem of clearances, the situation here
wheathered conductor
is shown in figure 5 which indicates
Absorptivity coeffi
the relationship between the various
—
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70’C
0.6
MAXIMUM SOMMER AMOIEXI IEMPERAIURE
Température ambiante maximale en éte

cient : new conductor 0.4

states of the system and une clearan Fig. 7. Distribution statistique des diffé
—

wheathered conductor 0.6 rents paramètres utilisés dans les équa

ces.
— Wind speed 0.6 m/s tions d’équilibre thermique.
Another group of replies concerns Maximum ambient Statistical distribution of diffe
Fig. 7.
—

the thermal balance equation used to temperature (sum refit parameters used in the heat balance
calculate temperature under normal mer) 35°C equations.
 N° 121 ELECTRA 57

dent. The WG was particularly surpri
sed when considering the low devia
tian in the maximum ambient tempe
rature. These values coincide whith
those normally used in calculations
employing the deterministic approach
ta the probiem.
Figure 8 cortsiders the respondents
who collect meteorological data. This
section of the questionnaire conclu
ded by considerating the measure
ments of the conductor temperature
under operating conditions.
The first part, figure 8a, deals with
the current practice of respondents
who monitor meteorological data,
while figure 8b deals with respondents
who monitor live conductors.
conductor temperature (ordinate), ing the replies relating ta section C of
with reference ta normal operation the questionnaire.
conditions and ta ACSR conductors of
As a first conclusion, however, t
lines above 220 kV.
may be said that the problem of the
The central narrow band, includes thermal state of conductors has arou
about the 50% of the replies, the sed considerable interest, and, above
larger one the 90 %. ail, that a great deal of work is called
for to coliate aIl the information avail
The replies concern lines located in
able, which it is hoped may be possi
different climatological areas; this fact
ble in the later documents.
may explain the notable scattering of
the data because the quantities assu
med for temperature calculation are,
130
normally, dependent on the location of
the line. 120
110
C-,
2.3. Final considerations
The Working Group is now examin
90

C W
80
2.2. Analysis of the replies of section o o.
B D W 70
Fig. 9. Résumé des réponses concer
—

As regards Section B, which mainly nant la température admissible des 60

asks about boundary conditions, ex conducteurs alu-acier des lignes de ten
D
pressed as the temperature and cur sion supérieure à 220 kV. Chaque point o
D.
EZ
représente la densité du courant et la OC 0
rent admissible in conductors, more température admissible applicable sous
i—W

than 300 replies relating to as many des conditions normales de fonctionne 30

conductors have been summarized. ment.
20
By way of an initial processing Fig. 9. Summary of the replies cancer
—

10
result, the diagrams in figure 9 sum ning the admissible temperature of A CSR
conductors of unes above 220 kV: each
marizes the replies concerning the
point represents the current density and
current densities (abscissa) as a func the relevant admissible temperature in CURFCENT DENSITY 2
A/mm
tian of the admissible maximum normal operation. Densité de courant A/mm’

PART 3

METHODS AND MODELS

3. GENERAL following equation

This part presents a summary of heat stored = heat supplied heat lost
the work that WG is developing with in conductor to conductor by conductor
the aim of issuing a practical guide ta
the application of thermal rating which in mathematical terms, s the t = time (s)
concepts bath in design and in ope- equation
ration. The solution O = 0(t) expresses
CdO (P + M + F’ — —

the variability over a period of time of

3.1. Basic equations used for evalua
ting the heat transfer of an
overhead conductor
Physical observation shows that
the environmental quantities (wind,
ambient temperature, solar radiation
etc.) vary over a period of time, and
often the load transmitted. For these
reasons the thermal state of the
conductor varies continuously and so,
consequently, does its temperature
[4].
ln general, the thermal behaviour
of the conductor is represented by the
Pr — Pjdt (1) conductor temperature.
where
C = conductor thermal capacity The above terms depend, in gene
rai, on the temperature itself, on
(J/m °C)
meteorological quantities such as
O = conductor temperature (°C)
wind, ambient temperature, etc., and
= heat gain due ta Joule effect
on the electrical ioad. t is evident that
(W/m)
calculation of O (t) is mathematically
= heat gain due to magnetic
effect (W/m) complex and would be possible only
if the “time series” of the aforemen
= heat gain due ta solar radia
tioned quantities were available.
tion (W/m)
For the sake of simplicity t is
P, = heat loss by convection (W/m)
convenient ta consider three different
= heat loss by radiation (W/m)
P = heat loss by evaporation situations in respect of the boundary
(W/m) conditions of equation (1):
 N° 121
a) Steady state
If the meteorological parameters
are assumed ta be constant and the
electrical load does flot change, the
heat supplied to the conductor is
constant in time and it is balanced by
an equal constant in respect of heat
dissipation. This condition is defined
as steady-state and, in practice, s
assumed to be true even when the
parameters involved vary little around
an average constant value.
In this case CdO = 0, and therefore
equation (1) is simplified as follows
P + S + M = 00
P0 Pr + ‘‘v
that is, the well-known “balance equa
tion”.
This is the characteristic situation
during normal operation or, during
temporary operation, after the tran
sient due ta the load change has been
normalized.
b) Transient state
When the electrical load varies
suddenly with constant, or practically
constant, meteorological parameters,
the terms P., P, in equation (1)
depend only on the temperature 9, and
5 and Pv may be assu
the terms P,,, P
med ta be constant.
In this case, the following expres
sion can be used;
9(t) =
ç’ R ( I±() + PM + Ps
—
which can be solved by numerical
integration [5]. This equation repre
sents the thermal state of the conduc
tor during temporary and emergency
operation if there is no marked varia
tion in atmospheric conditions.
c) Unsteady state
This condition must be considered
when variation in the meteorological
parameters, especially wind intensity
and direction cannot be kept within a
Iimited range. AIl the terms of equa
tian (1) depend, in general, both on
temperature 9 and time t, sa that only
the solution of the general differential
equation (1) has ta be considered [6].
d) Adiabatic state
During a short circuit, the current
flawing in that very short space of
time produces an adiabatic thermal
response of the conductor. In this
ELECTRA
case, the total heat supplied is due
only ta the Joule effect, and there is
na heat exchange with the environ-
ment: this heat must therefore have
been stored in the conductor. The
equation expressing this fact is the
following
cd9
= Ç P(t) R(9) dt
(4)
where 1(t) is the current flowing during
the short circuit, R (9)is the conductor
resistance and t is the duration of the
short circuit [7]. The factors included
in equations (1), (2), (3), (4) wilI be
(2) examined in the items that follow.
3.1.1. JouIe heating
The heat generated by the Joule
effect is expressed by:
= k /2
0 (1 + co 7)
R (5)
where
I = effective (r.m.s.) current flow
ing through the conductor (A)
0
R = electrical resistance (d.c.) per
unit length at 0 oC (/m)
7, = average conductor tempera
ture °C
= temperature coefficient of re
sistance between O OC and 7,
(oc)-’
k = coefficient, taking into account
skin effect (with d.c. k = 1)
The resistance temperature coeffi
cient, con, for steel cored conductors
“ depends an the ratio of cross-section
dt
area of the non-ferrous wires to that
(3) of the steel wires, and the coefficient
K, for conductors in common use,
varies from 1.0 ta 1.05 [8].
It is worth noting that skin effect is
usually negligible for steady-state ra
tings.
3. 1.2. Solar heating
The solar heat gain P depends on
[9] : the diameter D of the conductor
and its inclination ta the horizontal;
the absorptivity c5 of the surface of
the conductor; the intensity / of the
direct solar beam on a surface normal
of the
ta the beam; the intensity ,
diffuse sky radiation in relation ta a
horizontal surface; the solar altitude
H; the angle ri of the solar beam with
respect ta the axis of the canductor;
and the albedo (reflectance) F of the
surface of the ground beneath the
conductor. The total solar heat recei
ved per unit length of the conductor
59
is expressed by the following simpli
fied relationship if, for the sake of
simplicity, the reflectance effect is
ignored and it is assumed that = O
P = e D [I sin + it/2 ‘d j (6)
The intensity of the direct beam l
varies with the air-mass traversed, and
hence with the solar altitude H , and
5
with the turbidity of the atmosphere.
The turbidity is due ta the attenua
tian of the solar beam as the resuit of
scattering by air molecules, dust parti
des and water vapour, and absorption
by ozone.
In still air, solar heating of a
conductor s significant, even on
cloudy days. In windy conditions, the
relative importance of solar heating
decreases as the wind velocity increa
ses. Although the coincidence of high
solar heating with low convective
cooling is important, hardly any field
tests have been carried out ta carre
late these twa parameters on a proba
bilistic basis. The solar absorptivity of
weathered conductors is greater than
0.5 and may approach unity.
3.1.3. Magnetic heating
With alternating current, the cyclic
magnetic flux causes heating by eddy
currents, hysteresis and magnetic vis
cosity. The eddy-current heating P. is
usually negligible with non-ferrous
canductors at power frequency, but
may be significant with steel-cored
conductors, because a longitudinal
magnetic flux is produced in the steel
wires by the current in the non-ferrous
wires spiralling around the steel core.
The heat gain, P0 due ta eddy
currents in the steel wires, s a func
tian of the magnetic induction in the
steel wires due ta the magnetizing
force, and s also a function of the
physical characteristics of the conduc
tor [10].
The hysteresis heat gain, PH, of the
steel wires due to the alternating
magnetic field depends on the magne-
tic induction, the conductor characte
ristics, and the chemical composition
of the steel.
The ferramagnetic heat gain is PM
= P. + PH, because the heating due
ta magnetic viscasity is negligible. t
is also possible ta include the ferra
magnetic heating term PM with the
Joule heating term P. in equation (5),
, taking
by redefining the coefficient k
2
 N° 121
into account both skin and magnetic
effects.
Magnetic heating in steel-cored
conductors produces a small increase
in the effective resistance with increa
sing current when there is an even
number of layers of non ferrous wires
with alternately reversed directions of
lay. With an odd number of layers, the
increase in resistance is greatest for a
single layer; for three layers, the resis
tance increases by 5-10% at full rated
load current.
Typical ranges of variation of k for
conductors having various layers of
non-ferrous wires, at full-load current
are
k = 1,15 for 1 layer of non-ferrous
wires,
k = 1,01 1,04 for 2 layers,
—
k = 1,05 1,10 for 3 layers.
— thod and the real-time conductor
Because magnetic induction de-
pends on the current flowing through
the aluminium (or alloy) wires, the
magnetic heating becomes important
in temporary or emergency conditions.
3.1.4. Con vective cooling
During zero-wind-speed or still-air
conditions, the density of the air near
the heated conductor is less than that
of the rest of the air; this fact produ
ces buoyancy forces, thus causing an
upward flow of the air around the
conductor surface. This process is
called natural or free convection.
On the other hand, forced convec
tion occurs when the wind blows on
the heated conductor. The heat trans
fer in this condition is a function of
many variables, the primary ones
being the speed, its direction and the
intensity of turbulence.
Others factors affecting the phe
nomenon are conductor roughness,
and the arrangement of phases (single
or bundled conductors) [11].
The general expression of heat loss
by convection is
P,,,, = it (7; —
7;) (Nu)D (7)
where (Nu)Df is the Nusselt number
based on the diameter D, and is equal
000 D/X, ,,
to h . 00 being the convective
h viour of an overhead conductor can be
heat transfer coefficient and the
thermal conductivity of the air. The
subscript f signifies that the value of
the relevant quantity is based on film
temperature T, equal to 1/2 (7; + 7;),
T and 7; being the surface and am
bient temperatures, respectively.
E LE CIRA
In stili air, convection cooling de
creases as the orientation of the
conductor to the horizontal increases.
In wind, convection cooling increases
with wind velocity and turbulence in
tensity; stranding increases the heat
transfer by approximately 10 per cent
for 100 < (Re)Df 2650, and by 50
per cent at (Re)Df = l0 for crossflow.
Forced convection cooling decreases
with the angle of attack of the wind in
relation to the conductor axis. The
orientation of the forced flow in rela
tion to the natural flow is important.
3.1.5. Radiative cooling
Because the radiation loss is
usually only a small fraction of the
total heat loss, particularly with forced
convection, it s sufficiently accurate
to write
P, = 5 + 273)
itDa[(T
—
(7; + 273)9 (8)
where B is the Stefan-Boltzmann
constant (5.67 x 10.8 W/m
2 K ); T
4 , 7
5 In the deterministic model repre
are the temperatures of the conductor
surface and the ambient respectively,
and E 5 the effective emissivity of the
conductor. In still air, the radiation
heat loss is usually less than one third
of the total heat Ioss. With wind, this
fraction falls to a much lower value;
hence, the value chosen for the total
emissivity of the conductor is not
critical.
3.1.6. Evaporative cooling
The presence of water vapour in
the air flowing over the conductor has
a negligible effect on heat transfer.
When water droplets are entrained
in the flow, they have little effect as
long as the conductor remains dry;
but, when the surface of the conduc
tor is wetted, the heat transfer increa
ses considerably due to evaporation
from the surface, particularly the front
surface where the droplets impinge.
3.2. Analysis of methods and models
of solutions
Knowledge of the thermal beha
acquired by applying different me
thod, and modelling of the phenome
non, depending on the purpose (de
sign or operation), and on the condi
tion to which the analysis is referred
(normal, temporary, emergency, fault
condition).
61
The models are based on different
philosophies
— One modelling method is based on
fixed conventional terms of refe
rence and is the welI-known and
very widely used deterministic
method.
— Two modelling methods take into
account the statistical nature of
the relevant parameters appearing
in the thermal equation of the
conductor. They are known as the
statistical parametric method and
the real-time parametric method.
Two other modelling methods are
—
based on direct observation of an
exposed conductor, either of a line
or of a model, monitored conti
nuously. These are called the sta
tistical con ductor- temperature me
tempera ture method.
3.2. 1. The deterministic method
senting the thermal state of the
conductor, the maximum permissible
temperature is fixed and is determined
by the need to limit mechanical dete
rioration, the loss of clearance, and
creep of the conductors.
This temperature, and chosen value
for the atmospheric parameters and
the emissivity and absorptivity of the
conductor surface, are inserted in the
appropriate heat equation to obtain
the maximum permissible current. The
wind is usually assumed to be non-
turbulent and normal to the axis of the
conductor.
The determinist method is clear-cut
and only requires computing facilities,
once the values of the various para
meters have been chosen; hence, it s
the method usually used for system
design, and it may be used for control
ling operation.
This model is applied to control of
any type of operation, because it does
not take into consideration variation,
in the parameters involved in the tem
perature rise.
However, it is fairly inflexible, and
results in rather conservative ratings,
because of the Iow probability of
coincidence of the value usually cho
sen for the wind velocity and the air
temperature; for example, U =
0.6 m/s and 7; = 35 °C. Some impro
vement s achieved by time zoning
 N°121
that s by using different values for /,
7; and U for different parts of the day
(e.g., Is = O at night) and in different
seasons (e.g., 7; = 10°C in winter, and
7 = 35°C in summer).
The potential increase in rating as
a result of wind turbulence is neyer
considered, and the decrease in rating
when the wind is in the same direction
as the une is usually either ignored, or
allowed for to some extent by adop
ting a very low crossflow velocity. This
method s clearly of limited use to
system operators.
3.2.2. The statistical parametric me
thod
The statistical parametric method
takes into account the statistical varia
tion of the parameters involved in
conductor heating that is, their pro
bability distributions [12].
Referring to figure 10, which gives
a time sample of the quantities in
fluencing the temperature of the
conductor, the assumption is made
that each of them could be represen
ted by a series of discrete constant
values, at intervals of t, the magni
tude of the quantity in that interval
being equal to the mean value of the
quantity itsef.
Therefore, in the i’’ interval of time
Ai, the relevant parameters can be
characterized by the group of values
(U, 7;, I, I, X
1 X) which are the
mean values of the following quanti
ties during that interval
— Wind speed, U,
— Ambient temperature, 7,
— Solar radiation, 1
s,
— Current, I.
— 1
X X other parameters pre
viously described.
In generating this statistical model,
the problem is that of determining the
interval of time Aisuch that the actual
mean value of the temperature in the
conductor during the interval is equal
to the value calculated on the assump
tion of steady-state conditions, cha
racterized by the constant values (U,
T, ‘‘ I, X X;,).
This interval is chosen by conside
ring the following requirements
(a) The average value of each para
meter must be ‘stationary”, i.e. it
must flot be affected by fluctuations
around the mean value; therefore, the
chosen interval must not be too short,
nor must t be affected by longer-term
E LE CT RA
Chaleur stockée
Chaleur fournie
Chaleur perdue
Fig. 10.
variations in the meteorological phe
nomena, which means that the chosen
interval must no be too long either.
calculated
(b) The temperature
should be an accurate estimate of the
actual average temperature of the
conductor during the interval in ques
tion. The appropriate choice would be
an interval /xt of one hour.
If the above basic assumption is
accepted, the time trends of the va-
nous quantities may be discretized
into intervals of one hour, during
which each of those quantities may be
considered constant and equal to its
average hourly value.
This is equivalent to making calcu
lations whith the temperature in the
steady-state, and therefore the tem
perature at each interval is irrespec
tive of the temperature reached during
the previous intervals. At his point,
there is no longer any interest in the
time series of the average values, but
only in the frequency of their appea
rance; that is, their statistical distri
bution.
In general, each parameter invol
ved in the thermal state of the conduc
tor may be correlated with other
parameters. This correlation depends
on the nature of the parameters (me
teorological data may be more or less
strictly correlated with each other)
and on line operation (peak Ioads
occur during given periods of the day
and the year, and relevant meteorolo
63
gical quantities may be correlated
with the electrical Ioad). Methods of
calculation may or may not take into
account this aspect.
Specifically within the framework
of the above-mentioned assumptions,
the use of Monte Carlo calculation
method requires these steps
— Random selection from the statis
tical distributions of the set values
of the variables U, 7;, I, I, X X,,
taking account possible correlation
between them.
— Determination of the hourly ave-
rage conductor temperature by
means of the heat equation.
— Repetition of this process for a
sufficient number of times by ob
taining the simulated distribution
of conductor temperature.
Clearly, this method of calculation
approximates to the temperature sta
tistical distribution around its mean
value, while the tails of distribution
must be evaluated by using methods
that take into account temporary and
emergency conditions.
This means that the method can
profitably be applied to me design,
because knowledge of the tempera
ture distribution is obtained merely by
starting from general information on
meteorological quantities and forecast
electrical load and does not require an
assumption on the possible or actual
quantities in operation. On the basis of
N°121
this distribution, the system designer
can assess the risk of exceeding the
maximum permissible temperature of
conductors, or estimate the probable
loss of tensile strength of the conduc
tors from their thermal history. The
statistical parametric method could,
on the contrary, be used by system
operators with the same limitations as
the deterministic method, the only
difference being that the former pro-
vides knowledge of the probability
that a given limiting temperature may
or may flot be reached. No information
on the actual conductor temperature
can be obtained from this model.
3.2.3. ReaI-time parametric method
In this method, an appropriate time
interval t is selected, as in the statisti
cal parametric method. The average,
calculated in the interval A t, of the
actual measured values of the metea
rological and load parameters (or
stored data from previous measure
ments) are inserted in the heat equa
tion to determine the calculated value
of the conductor temperature at that
specific time.
The distribution of the conductor
temperature can then be determined,
after repeating this process a suffi
cient number of times ta include data
from ail four seasons. The advantage
of this method lies in the fact that the
meteorological quantities taken as
above are automatically correlated
with each other and the temperature
evaluated approximates ta the real
average coriductor temperature in the
interval A t. The parametric method
requires access to electrical load pat
terns and meteorological data measu
red at fairly frequent intervals over a
period of at least one year, and a
computer ta solve the equation repea
tedly, to obtain conductor temperature
distribution.
The resultant temperature distribu
tion wiIl be an approximation, even if
the wind direction and turbulence
have been measured, because no
aceaunt has been taken of random
factars such as rainfall, and the cup
anemometers used at meteorological
stations rarely record velocities lower
than about 1 m/s.
The statistical information obtained
by collecting the results of the model
may be used in designing unes having
similar structural and operation cha
ELECTRA
racteristics, as in the case of the line
to which the model s applied.
As far as operation is concerned,
bearing in mmd that the method
would be unlikely to predict actual
conductor temperature with any pre
cision, because the data are usually
only available at too long, (say hourly),
intervals, its application is reliable only
in normal operation, while, in tempo
rary or emergency operation, cannot
supply any information on the dyna
mic aspect of the termal behaviour of
the conductor.
3.2.4. Statistical conductor-tempera
ture method
In this method, a conductor car
rying a constant current at low voltage
is exposed outdoors for a period of at
least one year, and the conductor
temperature and the air temperature
are monitored. The distribution of the
temperature rise of the conductor is a
function of the distribution of the
meteorological parameters. This pro
cedure can be repeated for other
values in respect of current.
The method requires to continuous
monitoring the sample, and its appli
cation s meinly for design, because its
use in operation is similar to that of
previous models.
3.2.5. Real-time conductor tempera
ture method
In this method, the temperature of
one or more of the conductors of an
energized high-voitage line is measu
red, either continuously or at short
intervais, by means of a transducer,
and the signal is transmitted ta ground
by means of an optical or telemetry
Iink. Because the actual temperature
of the conductor is measured, this
method is the most appropriate one
for the une operator to use; however,
since the conductor has a fixed azimu
thal direction, the temperature of
conductors of other azimuths should
also be monitored, in order to ensure
that the worst combination of meteo
rological parameters is obtained. if the
me is long, it is also advisable to
measure the temperature at other
points along the une. This method
enables the thermal history of the
conductors to be recorded : this s
useful for estimating the loss of
strength of the conductor due to
annealing and the progressive creep
ot the conductor.
65
An alternaltive ta performing mea
surements on an energized line s to
use a thermal model of the conductor
at Iow voltage. The model consists of
a cylinder that is long enough ta
enable axial heat flow ta be ignored,
and has the same diameter, surface
properties and thermal time-constant
as the me conductor. The current
passed through the model should
produce the same Joule heat as that
in the me conductar. The temperature
of the model should be measured at
its mid-point. An advantage of the
thermal model several samples can be
placed with different orientations in
the same place; or else one model can
be ratated to various azimuths.
A third and pramising solution is
represented by the purely analytical
thermal models that can predict the
temperature af an overhead conduc
tor. The system involves cailecting
data an the actual metearological
quantities at the lacation of the une
these data are then entered in a
computer program that, provided the
line characteristics and electrical load
through dispatching are known, pre
dicts actual line temperature at pre
selected locations (i.e. particularly
critical spans versus clearances...) in
many cases, the three alternatives are
combined and used to contrai a whole
network.
At present, these systems are
knawn as Dynamic thermal une rating.
The real-time conductor-tempera
ture method takes into accaunt ail
meteorologicai and Ioad fluctuations.
From the system design point af view,
the methad wiiI provide temperature
distribution curves that enable the
probability, or risk, of exceeding a
given temperature to be assessed.
Moreover, the real-time conduc
tor-temperature method gives ta the
system control engineer a continuaus
indication af the temperature of the
conductor, so that he can handie load
dispatching, particularly in emergency
conditions, confident that there
should be no risk of overheating the
conductor.
References
[1] V.T. Morgan The Ioss of tensile
strength of hard-drawn conduc
tors by annealing in service, IEEE
Trans. PAS Vol. 98 (1979).
N° 121
[2] B. Dalle Etude théorique et ex
périmentale de la capacité de
vieillissement des raccords de
conducteurs nus des lignes aé
riennes; Technical Memorandum
EdF HM/72-04566/BD/MC, pre
sented by WGO5 SC 22
— —
CIGRE.
[3] CIGRE : Permanent elongation of
conductors. Predictor equations
and evaluation methods. CIGRE
Study Committee No. 22, Paper
22-78 (WGO5) 02, 1978, Electra,
No. 75 (1981), pp. 63-98.
[4] V.T. Morgan The current-car
rying capacity of bare overhead
conductors. Institution of Engi
neers, Australia, Electrical Engi
neering Transactions, Vol. EE4,
(1968), pp. 63-72.
[5] P. Johannet and B. Dalle Calcul
de chutes de tension, des échauf
ELECTRA 67
femerits et des effects électrody [10] R.D. Findlay and H. Riaz A non
namiques. Techniques de l’ingé linear diffusion model for the
nieur DG73 — 12— 1978. electromagnetic field configura
tion of single layer ACSR, Proc.
[6] S.D. Foss, S.H. Lin, R.A. Fernan
IEEE Power Engineering Society
dez : Dynamic Thermal Line Ra
Winter Meeting, New York, NY,
tings Part I Dynamic am
3 February 1978,
— —
29 January —
pacity rating algorithm. IEEE
Paper A 78 152-1.
Trans. PAS — Vol. PAS-102, N°6,
June 1983.
[11] V.T. Morgan The heat transfer
[7] V.T. Morgan Ratings of conduc
from bare stranded conductors
tors for short-duration currents.
by natural and forced convection
Proc. IEE, Vol. 118, No. 3/4,
in air. Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer,
March/April 1971.
V. 16 (1973), pp. 2023-2034.
[8] H.B. Dwight : Skin effect and
proximity effect in tubular
[12] G. Di Giacomo, P. Nicolini and P.
conductors, AIEE Trans. Vol. 41
Paoli Criteria for the statistical
(1922) pp. 203-209.
evaluation of the temperature in
[9] R. King and R.O. Buckius Direct conductors. Thermal rating pro
solar transmittance for a clear blems, CIGRE Study Committee
sky, Solar energy, Vol. 22 (1979), No. 22 Colloquium, Sienna, 1979,
pp. 297-301. Paper 3.18.