English Tenses

Simple Present
Affirmative She drinks.
Negative She does not drink.
Interrogative Does she drink?
Form I, you we they play | he, she, it plays
Present Progressive (continuous)
Affirmative He is reading.
Negative He is not reading.
Interrogative Is he reading?
Form To be (in the simple present) + verb + ing
Simple Past
Affirmative I cried.
Negative I did not cry
Interrogative Did I cry?
Form Regular verbs: Verb + ed | Irregular verbs: forms differ and should be learned by
heart. This is a list of irregular verbs
Past Progressive (continuous)
Affirmative He was driving.
Negative He was not driving.
Interrogative Was he driving?
Form to be (in the simple past) + verb + ing
Present Perfect Simple
Affirmative They have slept.
Negative They have not slept.
Interrogative Have they slept?
Form Have / has + past participle (past participle of regular verbs: verb + ed | Past
participle of irregular verbs
Present Perfect Progressive
Affirmative He has been thinking.
Negative He has not been thinking.
Interrogative Has he been thinking?
Form have or has + been + verb + ing
Past Perfect Simple
Affirmative She had won.
Negative She had not won.
Interrogative Had she won?
Form had + past participle (past participle of regular verbs: verb + ed | Past participle of
irregular verbs
Past Perfect Progressive
Affirmative He had been waiting.
Negative He had not been waiting.
Interrogative Had he been waiting?
Form had + been + verb + ing
Future Simple
Affirmative You will win.
Negative You will not win.
Interrogative Will you win?
Form will + verb

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 Reported Speech (Indirect Speech)
What is reported speech?
Reported speech is when you tell somebody else what you or a person said before.
Distinction must be made between direct speech and reported speech.
Direct speech vs Reported speech:
Direct speech Reported speech
She says: "I like tuna fish." She says that she likes tuna fish.
She said: "I'm visiting Paris next weekend" She said that she was visiting Paris the following weekend.
Different types of sentences
When you use reported speech, you either report:
 statements
 questions
 requests / commands
 other types
A. Reporting Statements
When transforming statements, check whether you have to change:
 pronouns
 tense
 place and time expression
1- Pronouns
In reported speech, you often have to change the pronoun depending on who says what.
Example:
She says, “My dad likes roast chicken.” – She says that her dad likes roast chicken.
2- Tenses
 If the sentence starts in the present, there is no backshift of tenses in reported speech.
 If the sentence starts in the past, there is often backshift of tenses in reported speech.
Direct speech Reported speech
(no backshift) “I write poems.” He says that he writes poems.
(backshift) “I write poems.” He said that he wrote poems.
Do not change the tense if the introductory clause is in a present tense (e. g. He says). Note, however, that
you might have to change the form of the present tense verb (3rd person singular).
Example:
He says, “I write poems.” – He says that he writes English.
Backshift
You must change the tense if the introductory clause is in a past tense (e. g. He said).
Example:
He said, “I am happy.” – He said that he was happy.
Examples of the main changes in tense:
Direct Speech Reported Speech
Simple Present Simple Past
He said: "I am happy" He said that he was happy
Present Progressive Past Progressive
He said: "I'm looking for my keys" He said that he was looking for his keys
Simple Past Past Perfect Simple
He said: "I visited New York last year" He said that he had visited New York the previous
year.
Present Perfect Past Perfect
He said: " I've lived here for a long time " He said that he had lived there for a long time
Past Perfect Past Perfect
He said: "They had finished the work when I He said that they had finished the work when he had
arrived" arrived"
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 Past Progressive Past Perfect Progressive
He said: "I was playing football when the He said that he had been playing football when the
accident occurred" accident had occurred
Present Perfect Progressive Past Perfect Progressive
He said:"I have been playing football for two He said that he had been playing football for two
hours." hours
Past Perfect Progressive Past Perfect Progressive
He said: "I had been reading a newspaper when He said that he had been reading a newspaper when
the light went off" the light had gone off
Future Simple (will+verb) Conditional (would+verb)
He said: "I will open the door." He said that he would open the door.
Conditional (would+verb) Conditional (would+verb)
He said: "I would buy Mercedes if I were rich" He said that he would buy Mercedes if he had been
rich"
The modal verbs could, should, would, might, needn't, ought to, used to do not normally change.
Example:
He said, "She might be right." – He said that she might be right.
Other modal verbs may change:
Modal Direct speec Repored speech
can "I can do it." He said he could do it.
may "May I go out?" He wanted to know if he might go out.
must "She must apply for the job." He said that she must/had to apply for the job.
will "They will call you." He tod her that they would call her.
3- Place, demonstratives and time expressions
Place, demonstratives and time expressions change if the context of the reported statement (i.e. the location
and/or the period of time) is different from that of the direct speech.
In the following table, you will find the different changes of place; demonstratives and time expressions.
Direct Speech Reported Speech
Time Expressions
today that day
now then
yesterday the day before
… days ago … days before
last week the week before
next year the following year
tomorrow the next day / the following day
Place
here there
Demonstratives
this that
these those

B. Reporting Questions
When transforming questions, check whether you have to change:
 pronouns
 place and time expressions
 tenses (backshift)
Also note that you have to:
 transform the question into an indirect question
 use the question word (where, when, what, how) or if / whether

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 Types of questions Direct speech Reported speech
With question word (what, why, "Why" don’t you speak He asked me why I didn’t
where, how...) English?” speak English.
Without question word (yes or no “Do you speak English?” He asked me whether / if I
questions) spoke English.
C. Reporting requests / commands
When transforming requests and commands, check whether you have to change:
 pronouns
 place and time expressions
Direct speech Reported speech
“Nancy,do the exercise.“ He told Nancy to do the exercise.
"Nancy, give me your pen, please." He asked Nancy to give him her pen.

Tenses are not relevant for requests – simply use to / not to + verb (infinitive without "to")

Example:
She said, “Sit down." - She asked me to sit down.
She said, "don't be lazy" - She asked me not to be lazy
For affirmative use to + infinitive (without to)
For negative requests, use not to + infinitive (without to).
D. Other transformations
 Expressions of advice with must, should and ought are usually reported using advise / urge.
Example:
“You must read this book.“
He advised / urged me to read that book.
 The expression let’s is usually reported using suggest. In this case, there are two possibilities
for reported speech: gerund or statement with should.
Example:
“Let’s go to the cinema.“=
1. He suggested going to the cinema.
2. He suggested that we should go to the cinema.
Main clauses connected with and/but
If two complete main clauses are connected with ‚and or ‚but, put ‚that after the conjunction.
Example:
He said,“I saw her but she didn't see me.“ – He said that he had seen her but that she hadn't seen him.“
If the subject is dropped in the second main clause (the conjunction is followed by a verb), do not use ‚that‘.
Example:
She said,“I am a nurse and work in a hospital.“ – He said that she was a nurse and worked in a hospital.“
Complete the sentences in reported speech.
1. John said, "I love this town."
John said
2. "Do you like soccer ?" He asked me.
He asked me
3. "I can't drive a lorry," he said.
He said
4. "Be nice to your brother," he said.
He asked me

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5. "Don't be nasty," he said.
He urged me
6. "Don't waste your money" she said.
She told the boys
7. "What have you decided to do?" she asked him.
She asked him
8. "I always wake up early," he said.
He said
9. "You should revise your lessons," he said.
He advised the students
10. "Where were you born?" he asked me.
He wanted to know

5
 The passive vs the active voice

The Active Voice The Passive Voice

Most countries in Latin America speak Spanish. Spanish is spoken in most countries in latin America.
Use of the passive voice:
1. Passive voice is used when the focus is on the action. It is not important or not known,
however, who or what is performing the action.
Example: "A letter was written."
The focus, here, is on the fact that a letter was written. We don't know, however, who wrote
it.
2. Sometimes a statement in passive is more polite than active voice, as the following example
shows:
Example: A vase was broken.
Focus, here, is on the fact that a vase was broken, but we don't blame anyone. Compare this
to: "You broke the vase."
Form of the passive voice:
Subject + the appropriate form of to be + Past Participle
NOTE: The appropriate form of to be = To be is put in the the tense of the active voice main verb.
When rewriting active sentences in passive voice, note the following:
 The object of the active sentence becomes the subject of the passive sentence.
 The form of the verb is the appropriate form of to be (the tense of the active voice main verb)
+ the past participle.
 The subject of the active sentence becomes the object of the passive sentence (or is dropped.)
Example:
Active Nancy makes tea
subject verb object
Passive Tea is made (by Nancy)
object becoming subject verb subject becoming object or is dropped
Examples of the passive voice:
Tense Subject Verb Object
Simple Present Active: Nancy makes tea.
Passive: Tea is made by Nancy.
Present Progressive Active: Nancy is making tea.
Passive: Tea is being made by Nancy.
Simple Past Active: Nancy made tea.
Passive: Tea was made by Nancy.
Past Progressive Active: Nancy was making tea.
Passive: Tea was being made by Nancy.
Present Perfect Active: Nancy has made Tea.
Passive: Tea has been made by Nancy.
Past Perfect Active: Nancy had made tea.
Passive: Tea had been made by Nancy.
Future simple Active: Nancy will make tea.

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 Passive: Tea will be made by Nancy.
Future perfect Active: Nancy will have made tea.
Passive: Tea will have been made by Nancy.
Conditional Active: Nancy would make tea.
Passive: Tea would be made by Nancy.
Modals Active: Nancy can make tea.
Passive: Tea can be made by Nancy.
Passive voice sentences with two Objects:
Rewriting an active sentence with two objects in passive voice means that one of the two objects becomes
the subject, the other one remains an object. Which object to transform into a subject depends on what you
want to put the focus on.
Active/Passive Subject Verb Object 1 Object 2
Active: Nancy offered a flower to me.
Passive: A flower was offered to me by Nancy.
Passive: I was offered a flower by Nancy.
Impersonal Passive:
Study these examples:
 They say that the planet is in danger.
 It is said that the planet is in danger.
This type of passive is called impersonal because we use the impersonal form "it is..." This is only possible
with verbs of perception (e. g. say, think, know ...)
Examples:
 It is said that...
 It is thought that...
 It is believed that...
 It is known that...
It is also common that we start the passive form of these sentences with the subject of the that-clause:
Examples:
 They say that the planet is in danger.= The planet is said to be in danger.
 They think that women live longer than men. = Women are thought to live longer.

Write passive sentences (use the indications between brackets.)

1. the picture / draw (Simple Present)

2. the door / close (Simple Past)

3. the house / steal (Present Continuous)

4. the bike / repair (Past Continuous)

5. the room/ clean (Present Perfect)

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 6. the homework / do (Past perfect)

7. the window / break (Simple future)

8. the essay / write (Should + Verb)

Rewrite the following sentences as suggested:

1. The boy writes poems.

2. The girl drove the blue car.

3. They have collected enough money.

4. They will open a new restaurant.

5. The little boy can draw pictures.

6. The guard watched the prisoner.

7. They will not play soccer.

8. They believe that he writes good poems.

Rewrite these sentences starting with the words in bold:

1. Her friend gave her a book.

2. They offered him a job.

3. The man showed us the house.

4. My friend gave me a pen.

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 Conditional Sentences
Conditional Sentence Type 0
Conditional type zero is used to talk about general truths, scientific facts or things which always happen
under certain conditions.
Form:
If + Simple Present, + Simple Present
Use:
The zero conditional is used to talk about things which are always true, scientific facts, general truths:
Examples:
If you cross an international date line, the time changes.
Phosphorus burns if you expose it to air.
If I wake up early, I go jogging.
NOTE: you can use "when" instead of "if".

Conditional Sentence Type 1

Often called the "real" conditional because it is used for real or possible situations. These situations take
place if a certain condition is met. It is possible and also very likely that the condition will be fulfilled.
Form:
If + Simple Present, + Simple Future
Use
Conditional Sentences Type 1 refer to the future. An action in the future will only happen if a certain
condition is fulfilled by that time. We don't know for sure whether the condition actually will be fulfilled or
not, but the conditions seems rather realistic – so we think it is likely to happen.
Example:
If I have enough time, I'll watch the football match.
I may have time to watch the match but I'm not sure about it.

Conditional Sentence Type 2

Often called the "unreal" conditional because it is used for unreal impossible or improbable situations. This
conditional provides an imaginary result for a given situation. It is very unlikely that the condition will be
fulfilled.
Form:
if + Simple Past, + would + base verb
Were / Was
In conditional type 2, we usually use in the if clause "were" instead of "was" even if the pronoun is I, he, she
or it. "were" here is a subjunctive form.
NOTE "was" is also a possible form.
Example:
If I were a millionaire, I would buy a castle.
Use
Conditional Sentences Type 2 refer to an action in the present that could happen if the present situation were
different. I don't really expect the situation to change because it is very unlikely.
Example:
If I had a lot of money, I would travel around the world.

Conditional Sentence Type 3

It is impossible that the condition will be met because it refers to the past.
Form:

9
 if + Past Perfect, + would + have + Past Participle
Use
Conditional Sentences Type 3 refer to situations in the past. They express hypothetical results to past given
situations.
Example:
If he had been careful, he wouldn't have had that terrible accident.
Sometimes in the past, he was careless. He drove so fast. So he had a terrible accident
Things to remember
1. The main clause can also be at the beginning of the sentence. In this case, don't use a comma.
Examples:
"Phosphorus burns if you expose it to air."
" I will send her an invitation if I find her address."
" I would travel around the world if I had a million dollars."
"He wouldn't have had that terrible accident if he had been careful."
2. Main clause and/or if clause might be negative.
Example:
If I don’t see him this afternoon, I will phone him in the evening.
If he had been careful, he wouldn't have had an accident.

Exersice

Decide which of the sentences below is conditional type 1, 2 & 3 :

1. If I were rich, I would travel around the world.

2. She wouldn't have missed the train if she had woken up earlier.
3. I’ll call you if I come back early.

Put the verbs in brackets in the correct tense (conditional 1):

1. If I (finish) early, I will call you.

2. I (catch) the 9:00 train if I hurry up .
3. She will know the answer, if she (try) to understand.

Put the verbs in brackets in the correct tense (conditional 2):

1. If I (be) a star, I would help the needy.

2. He (buy) a house if he had a job.
3. She (be) happy, if she married him .

Put the verbs in brackets in the correct tense (conditional 3):

1. If he (be) careful, he would not have had that terrible accident.

2. I (pass) the exam if I had worked hard .
3. Her father would not have died, if he (go) to the doctor.

10
 The pronunciation of the final “S”

1. The /s/ sound

The final “s” is pronounced /s /when it comes after:

 P: cups stops, sleeps

 T: hats, students, hits, writes
 K: cooks, books, drinks, walks
 F: cliffs, sniffs, beliefs, laughs, graphs, apostrophes (the -gh and -ph here are pronounced like a F)
 TH: myths, tablecloths, months (voiceless th)

2. The /z/ sound

The final “s” is pronounced /z /when it comes after:

 B: crabs, rubs
 D: cards, words, rides, ends
 G: rugs, bags, begs
 L: deals calls, falls, hills
 M: plums, dreams
 N: fans, drains, runs, pens
 NG: kings, belongs, sings
 R: wears, cures
 V: gloves, wives, shelves, drives
 Y: plays, boys, says,
 THE: clothes, bathes, breathes
 VOWEL SOUNDS: sees, fleas, universities, families (note here the “s” is pronounced /Z/ and not
/IZ/ because the “I” is a part of the word.

3. The /ɪz/ sound

The final “s” is pronounced /Iz /when it comes after:

 C: races (sounds like "race-iz")

 S: pauses, nurses, buses, rises
 X: fixes, boxes, hoaxes
 Z: amazes, freezes, prizes, quizzes
 SS: kisses, misses, passes, bosses
 CH: churches, sandwiches, witches, teaches
 SH: dishes, wishes, pushes, crashes
 GE: garages, changes, ages, judges

11
 The pronunciation of the final “ed”

1. The sound /T/

The final “ed” is pronounced /t /when it comes after:

 P: helped
 K:looked
 F: sniffed, sucked, laughed, telephoned (the -gh and -ph here are pronounced like a F)
 C: danced
 X: fixed
 SS: kissed
 CH: watched
 SH: washed
 TH: brathed

2. The sound /d/

The final “ed” is pronounced /d /when it comes after:

 L: called
 N: cleaned
 R: offered
 G: damaged
 V: loved
 S: used
 W: followed
 Y: enjoyed
 Z: amazed

3. The sound /Id/

The final “ed” is pronounced /Id /when it comes after:

 T: wanted
 D: needed

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 Word Formation

1. Noun Formation:

e.g. Suffix added to a verb (V), noun (N) or adjective (A) noun

Suffix Examples
-tion alteration, demonstration
-sion expansion, inclusion, admission
-er advertiser, driver
computer, silencer
-ment development, punishment, unemployment
-ant assistant, consultant
-ent student
-age breakage, wastage, package
-al denial, proposal, refusal, dismissal
-ence preference, dependence, interference
-ance attendance, acceptance, endurance
-ery/-ry bribery, robbery, misery
refinery, bakery
-ity ability, similarity, responsibility, curiosity
-ness darkness, preparedness, consciousness
-cy urgency, efficiency, frequency

2. Adjective Formation

UFFIX VERB – ADJECTIVE VERB – ADJECTIVE VERB – ADJECTIVE

-Able agree – agreeable expand – expandable laugh – laughable
pass – passable remark – remarkable pay – payable
-Ible access – accessible force – forcible sense – sensible
flex – flexible permit – permissible force – forcible
-Ant please – pleasant rely – reliant ignore – ignorant
resist – resistant vacate – vacant comply – compliant
-Ent excel – excellent depend – dependent confide – confident
urge – urgent differ – different equal – equivalent
-Ive attract – attractive create – creative select – selective
posses – possessive prevent – preventive destruct – destructive
-Ing amuse – amusing excite – exciting confuse – confusing
relax –relaxing surprise –surprising amaze – amusing
-Ed amuse – amused excite – excited confuse – confused
relax – relaxed surprise – surprised overwhelm – overwhelmed
-En freeze – frozen lighten – lightened darken – darkened
braze – brazen shorten – shortened widen – widened

UFFIX NOUN – ADJECTIVE NOUN – ADJECTIVE NOUN – ADJECTIVE

-Al accident – accidental brute – brutal region – regional
region – regional person – personal universe –universal
-Ary custom – customary moment – momentary caution – cautionary
compliment – complimentary honor – honorary diet – dietary
-Ful beauty – beautiful wonder – wonderful awe – awful
13
 skill – skillful success – successful delight – delightful
-Ic athlete – athletic base – basic history – historic
photograph – photographic science – scientific rhythm– rhythmic
-Ical magic – magical logic – logical history – historical
practice – practical statistic – statistical alphabet – alphabetical
-Ish fool – foolish child – childish self – selfish
sheep – sheepish pink – pinkish girl – girlish
-Less power – powerless friend – friendless worth – worthless
use – useless home – homeless penny – penniless
-Like like – lifelike lady – ladylike war – warlike
child – childlike bird – birdlike spring – springlike
-Ly friend – friendly cost – costly month – monthly
day – daily order – orderly coward – cowardly
-Ous poison – poisonous danger – dangerous nerve – nervous
courtesy – courteous mystery – mysterious victory – victorious
-Y rain – rainy fun – funny dirt – dirty
mess – messy dirt – dirty spot – spotty
3. Verb Formation
e.g. Suffix used to form verbs with the meaning "cause to be".

Suffix Example
-ise stabilise, characterise, symbolise, visualise, specialise
-ate differentiate, liquidate, pollinate, duplicate, fabricate
-fy classify, exemplify, simplify, justify
-en awaken, fasten, shorten, moisten
4. Negative Prefixes

We use the negative prefixes un- / in- /im- /il- /ir- /dis- to give the adjective the
opposite meaning:

grateful – ungrateful conclusive – inconclusive

personal – impersonal liberal – illiberal

retrievable – irretrievable contented – discontented

Syllable Division Rules

1. To find the number of syllables:

---count the vowels in the word,
---subtract any silent vowels, (like the silent "e" at the end of a word or the second vowel when two vowels
are together in a syllable)
---subtract one vowel from every diphthong, (diphthongs only count as one vowel sound.)
---the number of vowels sounds left is the same as the number of syllables.
The number of syllables that you hear when you pronounce a word is the same as the number of vowels
sounds heard. For example:
The word "came" has 2 vowels, but the "e" is silent, leaving one vowel sound andone syllable.
The word "outside" has 4 vowels, but the "e" is silent and the "ou" is a diphthong which counts as only one
sound, so this word has only two vowels sounds and therefore, two syllables.

14
2. Divide between two middle consonants.
Split up words that have two middle consonants. For example:
hap/pen, bas/ket, let/ter, sup/per, din/ner, and Den/nis. The only exceptions are the consonant digraphs.
Never split up consonant digraphs as they really represent only one sound. The exceptions are "th", "sh",
"ph", "th", "ch", and "wh".

3. Usually divide before a single middle consonant.

When there is only one syllable, you usually divide in front of it, as in:
"o/pen", "i/tem", "e/vil", and "re/port". The only exceptions are those times when the first syllable has
an obvious short sound, as in "cab/in".

4. Divide before the consonant before an "-le" syllable.

When you have a word that has the old-style spelling in which the "-le" sounds like "-el", divide before the
consonant before the "-le". For example: "a/ble", "fum/ble", "rub/ble" "mum/ble" and "this/tle". The
only exception to this are "ckle" words like "tick/le".

5. Divide off any compound words, prefixes, suffixes and roots which have vowel sounds.
Split off the parts of compound words like "sports/car" and "house/boat". Divide off prefixes such at
"un/happy", "pre/paid", or "re/write". Also divide off suffixes as in the words "farm/er", "teach/er",
"hope/less" and "care/ful". In the word "stop/ping", the suffix is actually "-ping" because this word follows
the rule that when you add "-ing" to a word with one syllable, you double the last consonant and add the "-
ing".

Silent Letters

In the following examples, all silent letters are given in brackets.

Silent 'b'

The 'b' is silent in the combination 'mb' at the end of a word. For
example:

bom(b) clim(b) com(b) crum(b)

lam(b) lim(b) plum(b)er num(b)
The 'b' is silent in the combination 'bt'. For example:

de(b)t dou(b)t su(b)tle

but not in some words, e.g. obtain, unobtrusive

Silent 'd'

The 'd' is silent in the combination 'dg'. For example:

ba(d)ge e(d)ge han(d)kerchief he(d)ge

han(d)some ple(d)ge we(d)ge We(d)nesday

Silent 'k'

15
The 'k' is silent in the combination 'kn'. For example:

(k)nack (k)nee (k)new (k)nickers

(k)nife (k)night (k)nitting (k)nob
(k)nock (k)not (k)now (k)nuckle

Silent 'n'

The 'n' is silent in the combination 'mn' at the end of a word. For
example:

Autum(n) dam(n) hym(n) colum(n)

condem(n) solem(n)

Silent 'p'

The 'p' is silent in the combination 'ps' at the beginning of a word.

For example:

(p)salm (p)sychiatry (p)syche (p)sychology

Silent 'h'

The 'h' is silent at the end of word when it follows a vowel. For
example:

cheeta(h) Sara(h) messia(h) savana(h)

The 'h' is silent between two vowels. For example:

anni(h)ilate ve(h)ement ve(h)icle

The 'h' is silent after the letter 'r'. For example:

r(h)yme r(h)ubarb r(h)ythm

The 'h' is silent after the letters 'ex' For example:

ex(h)austing ex(h)ibition ex(h)ort

but not in some words, e.g. exhale, exhume

Silent 'g'

The 'g' is silent in the combination 'gn'. For example:

Si(g)n desi(g)n resi(g)n forei(g)ner

Silent 'u'
The 'u' is silent in the combinations 'gu', 'qu' or 'bu'. For example:

G(u)itar g(u)ard g(u)ilty rog(u)e vog(u)e tong(u)e

B(u)ild b(u)y b(u)oy
Q(u)iet
16
17
 Grammar
"Provided/Providing that"

The link words above introduce condition. They mean the same as “but only if” or “if “and “only if”. E.g.
Provided/Providing that you work harder, you will pass your exam. Or you will pass your exam provided/
providing that you work harder.
“As long as/ So long as”
As Long as / so long as she studies harder, she will pass the exam. Or She will pass the exam as Long as/
so long as she studies harder.

The rule
as Long as/ so long as + present simple + will (future simple).
Provided/Providing that

Expressing wish and desire

 We use wish + past simple to express a regret about a present situation by imagining its
opposites:

 we use wish + the past perfect to express a regret about something in the past .
 We use wish + would to express a desire for change in the near future, especially when some one or
something is annoying. (note: with the pronoun “I” we say I wish I could but we do not say I
wish I would)

 when we want to say that now is a suitable moment to do something, either for ourselves or for
someone else, we use it's (high) time + present tense

Eg: It’s high time I go to school. (which means I am not late)

 But when you say It’s time someone did something, it means that this action should have been done
before. We use it's (high) time + past tense

Eg: It’s high time I went to school. (which means I am late)

Expressing advice

We use “had better”, “should”, and “ought to” plus the infinitive without “to” to give advice. We use
them to give advice about the present or future.

The negative form: ought not to, should not and had better not

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 Expressing prohibition, obligation, and necessity

These consumers know well that they mustn’t buy imitations. (prohibition)
They must refrain from buying them.(obligation)
They have to buy them. (necessity)
Rich people don’t have to buy imitations. (absence of obligation)

Expressing obligation/necessity, ability and habit in the past

(For literary and language classes)

‘Had to’ express obligation/necessity in the past

‘were able to’ express ability in the past,

‘used to’ express habit in the past

express warning using ‘Unless’.

(For literary and language classes)

a. You won’t pass your Baccalaureate unless you study more.

b. unless you listen carefully, you won’t know what to do in your exam.

- Unless can be replaced with except if and if…not.

-The verbs preceding or following ‘unless’ are in the present simple and future simple accordingly.

Comparative and Superlative of Quantifiers

(For literary and language classes)

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 Link words (discourse connectors)
1-Enumerating:
• Beginning a list: first, to begin with, to start with, first of all, etc.
E.g. To begin with, I suggest you get yourself a job.
• Continuing a list: second (or secondly), next, then, after this, etc.
E.g. Next you look for a convenient place to live in.
• Finishing a list: lastly, at long last, finally, eventually, in the end, etc.
E.g. Finally she managed to escape.
2-Re-inforcing:
Besides, furthermore, moreover, what is more, in addition, etc. are to reinforce an argument in a
situation where a preceding argument is considered insufficient.
E.g. I won't be attending the lecture this afternoon. I have some work to complete. Besides, the lecturer
stammers so much that one can hardly understands what he says.
3-Explaining:
You can explain a point already made in three ways:
• by clarifying its meaning : that is, that is to say (often written i.e.)
• by giving a more precise description : namely, in other words, to put it in more
simply, rather..
E.g. Cheating at exams, namely asking your classmates to help you, is punishable.
• by giving an illustration: for example, E.g., for instance, etc.
4-Comparing:
In comparison with, like, likewise, similarly, compared, both ... and ..., neither ...nor..., etc.
E.g. the doctor advised him to stop smoking. Similarly, he recommended him to eat much less and take
plenty of exercise.

5-Contrasting:
But, however, and yet, while, whereas, conversely, on the one hand, on the other hand express
contrast.
E.g. Living in the country is quite healthy; and yet it can be rather boring at times.
6-Conceding: (very very important)
Although, despite (the fact that), in spite of (the fact that), though, express concession.
E.g. Although I was tired, I could not sleep
In spite studying hard, he did not succeed
7-Expressing cause/reason:
Because, as, since, for, due to, owing to, etc. signal cause or reason.
E.g. She has to stay in bed as she is ill.
8-Expressing effect/result/consequence:
So, and so, thus, as a result, as a consequence, consequently, therefore, so + adjective + that , such+
noun (phrase) +that etc.
E.g. He was involved in a car crash yesterday; as a consequence, he had to be taken to hospital.
9-Expressing purpose:
So that, to, in order to, so as to, in order that, etc. are used to express purpose.
E.g. You must cross that bridge in order to reach the other bank of the river.
10-Expressing time:
After, before, when, while, since, meanwhile, shortly afterwards, later, earlier, up to , from...to, at
the same time, etc.
E.g. Said came back home at 5 p.m. Shortly afterwards, his father arrived.
11- Summing up/concluding:
In a word, to sum up, in short, on the whole, to conclude, all in all, in conclusion, etc.
E.g. In conclusion, I feel confident that she will make the best of her stay in your establishment.

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