Sensor Review

Embedded wireless strain sensors based on printed RFID tag

Sari Merilampi Toni Björninen Leena Ukkonen Pekka Ruuskanen Lauri Sydänheimo
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Sari Merilampi Toni Björninen Leena Ukkonen Pekka Ruuskanen Lauri Sydänheimo, (2011),"Embedded wireless strain sensors
based on printed RFID tag", Sensor Review, Vol. 31 Iss 1 pp. 32 - 40
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 Research article

Embedded wireless strain sensors based

on printed RFID tag
Sari Merilampi
Tampere University of Technology, Pori, Finland
Toni Björninen and Leena Ukkonen
Rauma Research Unit, Institute of Electronics, Tampere University of Technology, Rauma, Finland
Pekka Ruuskanen
Downloaded by TAMPERE UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY At 08:25 23 June 2016 (PT)

Tampere University of Technology, Pori, Finland, and

Lauri Sydänheimo
Rauma Research Unit, Tampere University of Technology, Rauma, Finland

Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to develop a wireless strain sensor for measuring large strains. The sensor is based on passive ultra
high-frequency radio frequency identification (RFID) technology and it can be embedded into a variety of structures.
Design/methodology/approach – Silver ink conductors and RFID tags were printed by the screen printing method on stretchable polyvinyl chloride
and fabric substrates. The development of the strain-sensitive RFID tag was based on the behavior of the selected antenna and substrate materials.
Performance of the tags and the effect of mechanical strain on tag functioning were examined.
Findings – The results showed that large displacements can be successfully measured wirelessly using a stretchable RFID tag as a strain-sensitive
structure. The behavior of the tag can be modified by selection of the material.
Research limitations/implications – New tag designs, which are more sensitive to small levels of strain and which have a linear response will be the
subject for future work. Tag performance under cyclic loading and in a real environment will also be investigated. Future work relating the investigation
of practical applications and the system designing for the strain sensor will also be required.
Practical implications – Printing is fast and simple manufacturing process which does not produce much waste or material loss. The sensor is a new
application of printed electronics. It also provides new opportunities for system designers.
Originality/value – The paper provides a new kind of wireless strain sensor which can be integrated into many structures (i.e. clothes). The sensor is
a new application of printed electronics and it is made from novel materials.

Keywords Radiofrequencies, Tagging, Wireless, Sensors, Strain measurement

Paper type Research paper

Background and motivation developed by researchers in articles Bhattacharyya et al. (2009),

Embedded and wearable electronics are increasingly used to
monitor structural health and human bodily functions. New
cost-effective low-maintenance sensors are needed in the field.
In many cases it would be useful to be able to monitor strain.
Strain sensors have been increasingly demanded in major
infrastructure projects (for example in buildings and bridges)
for structural health monitoring (Bhattacharyya et al., 2009;
Suzuki et al., 2009). Strain gauges, accelometers and tilt meters
are frequently used in such cases. Novel strain sensors have been
The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at
www.emeraldinsight.com/0260-2288.htm
Sensor Review
31/1 (2011) 32– 40
q Emerald Group Publishing Limited [ISSN 0260-2288]
[DOI 10.1108/02602281111099062]
Suzuki et al. (2009), Kure et al. (2008), Sevkat et al. (2008),
Hu et al. (2008), Hay et al. (2007) and Loh et al. (2008).
Sevkat et al. (2008) used a carbon fiber composite to measure its
own failures during straining. This removes the need for an
external sensor. In articles (Sevkat et al., 2008; Hu et al., 2008;
Hay et al., 2007; Loh et al., 2008), the sensors were developed for
measuring small strain levels (,102 6). Typical displacement
values obtained in, for example, a bridge are from 4 to 20 mm.
Similarly, in monitoring human body movements, the strain
levels are relatively large so that sensors for larger strain
measurements are needed (Bhattacharyya et al., 2009).
In Kure et al. (2008), fabricated flexible displacement sensors
by depositing conductive paste on rubber by the paste injection
method. Pre-strain was applied to the rubber. The pre-strain
(about 40 percent) is the maximum strain which can be
measured with the sensor.
When the sensors are part of other structures, wireless passive
sensors are required. Passive sensors need no battery or
maintenance so the sensors can be embedded in such structures

32
 Embedded wireless strain sensors
Sari Merilampi et al.
as the wall, packaging or in clothing (Suzuki et al., 2009;
Loh et al., 2008). The lifetime of a sensor is then required to be
the same as the lifetime of the structure in which it is embedded
in. Radio frequency identification (RFID) technology can be
utilized in passive sensors. When using passive RFID tags the
form factor is small and the output from the sensor can be read
through different materials (Suzuki et al., 2009; Loh et al.,
2008). RFID with sensing functions is expected to become one
of the important products of the next generation (Gao et al.,
2010). There are two kinds of passive RFID sensor tags: an
RFID tag with the traditional sensor and a tag in which the
sensing ability is integrated into the tag structure. In the former
type, the RFID tag is typically used in power supply and data
transfer (Suzuki et al., 2009). One problem with the technology
is the low-power output of the tag. Usually, RFID-based sensing
has been limited to low-power consumption sensors such as
temperature sensing. In Suzuki et al. (2009), a displacement
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sensor was developed using an external strain gauge and two
tags, one providing power for the on-board electronics and
strain gauge and the other tag for transferring of data.
The sensor was tested in “real” conditions and reading of
signals through many materials used in buildings was
successfully performed (Suzuki et al., 2009).
The main goal of this study is to provide a maintenance-free
displacement sensor without external strain gauges using
passive a ultra high-frequency (UHF) RFID tag. Self-sensing
tags are easy to manufacture. Printing method such as screen
printing, gravure printing, flexography, offset lithography and
ink jet have been used to print RFID tags and other passive
microwave circuits on irregular substrates and hence they can be
used to produce the required kind of sensor (Merilampi et al.,
2009, 2007, 2010; Björninen et al., 2009; Siden et al., 2005;
Mäntysalo and Mansikkamäki, 2007; Radivojevic et al., 2006;
Evans et al., 1999). Since the sensor utilizes passive RFID
technology, it is cheaper than active tags, where external sensors
are usually embedded (Mehrjerdi, 2008). The cost of an
individual tag depends on the manufacturing volumes and
materials, but the cost is no more than the price of a commercial
printed tag. If the sensor is integrated into clothes in example,
there is no additional substrate cost involved. The problem is
typically how to design a proper “sensor component” in the tag
(Gao et al., 2010). Otherwise the problems are similar to those
in RFID technology in general, sensitivity to materials
nearby, multipath propagation, unwanted coupling, etc.
However, successful attempts have been reported in, for
example, articles Gao et al. (2010) and Virtanen et al. (2010) in
which temperature and relative humidity are sensed.
The sensor which has been developed in this study is
designed to detect large displacements and to be embedded
in other structures. It is especially suitable for embedding in
clothing. A wearable displacement sensor could be used in
various applications. It could help in exercise and healthcare.
By wrapping a sensor belt around joints or integrating the
sensor into clothes, it could be used to count movements or to
check that no forbidden movements in a healing limb are
performed. The sensor could also be used in force
measurements, since strain is proportional to force. Another
major future business area could be in games. An embedded
sensor could be used as a wearable game controller. Recently,
such game consoles as Nintendo Wii have become popular.
Nintendo Wii includes game controllers which detect motion
and which are used as controls in a game. Such controllers
typically include a transmitter (for example Bluetooth) and
33
Sensor Review
Volume 31 · Number 1 · 2011 · 32 –40
thus an energy source is needed. When using passive RFID
technology for data transfer, all the electronics (i.e. the
transmitter) are in the game console and no external charging
or battery changing is needed. Kiili and Perttula (2010) have
investigated the use of a cell phone as a game controller in
sports-related games. The functionality of cell phones has
increased recently and this allows embedding of such
technologies as RFID into the phone. This would mean that
a sensor could be used as a game controller which
communicates with the cell phone which then further
communicates with the computer or game console.
Nowadays near field communication readers already exist in
some phones. There is still no UHF RFID readers in game
consoles or in cell phones, but the functionality of the
equipment has increased and researchers are already working
with miniaturizing the UHF readers. Games and the other
applications mentioned above offer end-user applications for
the RFID technology. End-user applications are important
since they have huge market potential.
Foundation of the theory
The full benefits of RFID technology for industry worldwide
will become apparent in several years. RFID technology has
the potential, for example, of improving supply chain
efficiency. One vision is that the use of RFID in tracking
individual items will become as widespread as the use of
barcodes. Many big companies, Wal-Mart, for example, have
become strong supporters of this technology. RFID research
activities have also increased lately. As described in the
introduction, RFID technology can be utilized in sensor
systems. Thus, the tags could be used in item tracking as well
as to monitor the quality of the items (Mehrjerdi, 2008).
In this study, a passive UHF RFID system is utilized.
Passive UHF RFID systems consist of the data processing
system, the reader and the tags. The system is coupled and the
data are transmitted using electromagnetic waves and
backscattering. The reader sends a clock signal and
command to the tag and the tag responds by modulating
and backscattering the carrier wave. The tag consists of an
antenna and a microchip. The tag gets energy from the
electromagnetic wave sent by the reader and no energy source
is needed. The tag modulates the carrier wave by changing
the impedance of the chip between two states which are
differently matched (one well matched and the other poorly
matched). The response from the tag can be manipulated
according to prevailing circumstances and the tag itself can
thus be used as a wireless sensor. The aim of this paper is to
apply the strain behavior of materials studied by Merilampi
et al. (2010) in stretchable RFID tags so as to allow a wireless
displacement measurement method, without external sensors,
to be created.
Sensing strain through threshold power
The directivity (D) of an antenna in a given direction is the
ratio of the power density, relative to the radiated field of the
antenna, to the power density created by a hypothetical
isotropic radiator, which radiates the same total power, Prad.
In practice, the antenna cannot transform energy perfectly
from its input port into the radiated field and only portion
(Prad) of the accepted power to the antenna (Pacc) is radiated
by the antenna. To take this into account, the gain (G) of the
antenna in a given direction is defined in a similar manner to
 Embedded wireless strain sensors
Sari Merilampi et al.
the directivity, but making the comparison with the isotropic
reference with radiated power Prad ¼ Pacc. Thus, for a
hypothetical lossless antenna G ¼ D and in general the
radiation efficiency (erad) of an antenna relates the gain and
directivity through:
G ¼ erad D
for any direction of observation (Stutzman and Thiele, 1998).
In accordance with the above definitions, at a distance d
from a transmitting antenna with gain Gt transmitting power
Ptransmitted, the power density S t is equal to the power density
of an isotropic radiator multiplied by the gain of the
transmitting antenna:
Sensor Review
Volume 31 · Number 1 · 2011 · 32 –40
product of the transmitting antenna gain and the transmitted
power – the equivalent isotropically radiated power – is
limited by local radio communication regulations.
The power received by the tag antenna, given in equation
(5), is the available power for the on-tag microchip, but the
delivered power to the chip depends on the impedance
ð1Þ matching between the tag antenna and the chip. It is well
known that the maximum power transfer between two
complex impedances is achieved under the complex
conjugate-matched conditions and the quality of the power
matching between a tag antenna (source) and the integrated
circuit (IC) (load) can be evaluated in terms of the power
reflection coefficient:
 
Z ic 2 Z* 2
P transmitted Gt 2  tag 
St ¼ : ð2Þ Gtag ¼ jrtag j ¼   ; ð6Þ
4pd 2
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The available power for an RFID tag antenna from an
incident power density is determined by its effective aperture,
Ae;tag , in the direction of the incoming wave and it is related to
the gain of the tag antenna (Gtag) through (Stutzman and
Thiele, 1998):
l2
Ae;tag ¼ Gtag :
4p
Additional power losses may be introduced through a
polarization mismatch between the incident wave and the
tag antenna. The magnitude of this loss depends ultimately on
the tag antenna geometry and its alignment with respect to
the incident field, which determine the induced current
density on the antenna structure.
For instance, between a linearly polarized tag antenna and a
circularly polarized reader antenna, Lpol ¼ 1/2 but between
two linearly polarized antennas it is possible that Lpol ¼ 0. It is
therefore important to include the polarization mismatch in
the link calculations (Tikhov, 2006). Generally, the
polarization loss factor is given by:
Lpol ¼ jr^t · r^tag j2 ;
where the inner product is calculated from the unit electric
field vectors of the transmitting antenna and tag antenna,
respectively, (Balanis, 1982). In practice, the radio channel
may also cause the transmitted wave to depolarize, but for
the purposes of our analysis we have assumed empty space
conditions, so that the polarization of the incident wave at the
tag’s location is determined completely by the characteristics
of the transmitting antenna.
By definition, the tag antenna gain includes the directivity
and radiation efficiency of the tag antenna, but excludes the
polarization loss. Thus, by combining equations (2)-(4), the
power received by the tag antenna P tag can be calculated as:
 
l 2
P tag ¼ Lpol Ae;tag S t ¼ jr^t · r^tag j2 Gt Gtag P transmitted : ð5Þ
4pd
As seen from equation (5), the power received by the tag
antenna is directly proportional to its effective aperture and
gain. However, the directivity of an omnidirectional tag
antenna is typically about 2dBi and the margin for improving
Ptag without compromising the omnidirectionality is fairly
narrow (Loo et al., 2008). The gain of directional patch-type
tag antennas can be higher. Moreover, in RFID systems, the
 Z ic þ Z tag 
where the impedance ratio denoted by rtag is the power wave
reflection coefficient (Kurokawa, 1965). In terms of power,
Gtag is the ratio of the reflected power from the antenna-IC
interface, due to impedance mismatch, to the available power
to the IC. Thus, combining equations (5) and (6), the power
delivered to the IC is:
ð3Þ
P chip ¼ ð1 2 Gtag ÞP tag
 2
l ð7Þ
¼ ð1 2 Gtag Þjr^t · r^tag j2 Gt Gtag P transmitted :
4pd
Obviously, Pchip in equation (7) is maximized by minimizing
Gtag, i.e. by tuning the tag antenna impedance, so that
Z tag ¼ Z*ic .
On the other hand, the power reflection coefficient is
increased, when the tag antenna impedance changes from the
“matched” state. As discussed earlier, this happens when the
antenna is stretched. Also the gain of the tag antenna is changed
by stretching. This is because, stretching increases the losses
and thus decreases the radiation efficiency (Merilampi et al.,
2009) and since change in the antenna geometry affects the
ð4Þ current distribution the directivity is also changed (Saunders
and Aragón-Zavala, 2007).
Since the above-mentioned parameters affect the amount of
power received by the chip, the minimum power required to
activate the tag (threshold power) is changed and the
deformation (strain) can therefore be observed wirelessly by
measurement of the threshold power.
Sensing strain through backscattered signal
Another parameter which can be used to measure the strain in
self-sensing stretchable tags is the backscattered signal power.
To understand this mechanism, the backward link (from tag
to reader) must be examined.
The scattered field of an antenna can be separated into two
components: the structural scattered field and the antenna-
mode scattered field (Hansen, 1989). The structural scattered
field is entirely determined by the diffraction of the incident
wave from a conjugate-matched antenna and its spatial
distribution cannot be predicted from the antenna radiation
characteristics. On the other hand, the antenna-mode
scattered field depends on the antenna termination and its
spatial distribution is completely determined by the antenna
radiation characteristics (Balanis, 1982).
Since the IC modulates the tag’s response, the scattered field,
by switching its input impedance, it is concluded that the
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 Embedded wireless strain sensors Sensor Review
Sari Merilampi et al. Volume 31 · Number 1 · 2011 · 32 –40

information signal is completely contained in the antenna-mode
scattered field. The received signal power can thus be analyzed
by using the antenna parameters, such as directivity and gain.
An important parameter to characterize the strength of the
backscattering from an RFID tag is the vector differential radar
cross section of the tag (DRCS), which maps the incident single-
frequency carrier power to the total scattered signal power.
According to Nikitin and Rao (2008), in a monostatic RFID
system, where the same antenna is used for transmission and
reception, the DRCS can be expressed as:
P received ð4pÞ3 d 4
DRCS ¼ ; ð8Þ
P t G2t l2
where Preceived is the power of the modulated tag signal at the
reader. Equation (8) is in the same form as the classical
monostatic radar equation, commonly used in radar systems, but
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prototype tag antenna, are also printed to examine the
resistance change during stretching. Merilampi et al. (2010)
investigated the ink layer microstructure and the behavior of
the ink layer under strain. The ink layer was found to remain
conductive on polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and fabric substrates
under large levels of strain and thus they were selected as the
substrate materials for this study. Additional information on
the substrates is shown in Table I.
The silver ink selected is based on results in Merilampi et al.
(2009, 2010) and which indicate that the ink tolerates strain
levels up to 50 percent without breaking. The characteristics
of the conductive silver ink are presented in Table II.
The tag antenna for this experiment is a rectangular short
dipole shown in Figure 1. The substrate size is 20 £ 155 mm.
The dimensions of the tag are L ¼ 97 mm, W ¼ 8 mm,
s ¼ 17 mm, t ¼ 0.5 mm, u ¼ 2 mm and v ¼ 5 mm. The design
was arrived at using Ansoft’s high frequency structure simulator

with the difference that the power appearing in the numerator is to determine the dimensions for the matching loop to tune the
the information carrying signal power, whereas the power antenna for an operating frequency of 866 MHz, which is the
appearing the denominator is single-frequency carrier power. mid-frequency of the European UHF RFID band. The IC-chip
Analogously, in the classical radar cross section, the polarization for this design is Alien H2 and it is placed on the gap of diameter
mismatch at the receiver is not included in the definition of the u in Figure 1. The same antenna geometry was used, and the
DRCS and therefore it does not appear in equation (8). impedance matching is discussed in more detail, by Björninen
Equation (8) is of practical value, since it can be used to et al. (2009). The antenna geometry was also successfully used
measure the DRCS of an RFID tag through the transmitted by Merilampi et al. (2010). The geometry is selected because it
and received power. However, for theoretical analysis of a is simple and the outer dimensions are the same as the
strain sensor tag it is interesting to relate DRCS to the level of dimensions of the sample conductors.
strain using the properties of the tag. The area where the IC chip is attached is shielded and
Assuming a commonly used 1:1 duty cycle in the stiffened with epoxy so that the chip does not detach from the
impedance switching scheme to modulate the backscattering structure and the matching structure does not change when
results to (Pursula et al., 2008): the antenna is strained. The epoxy is excluded from Figure 1
l2 G2tag 1 l2 G2tag
DRCS ¼ jr1 2 r2 j2 ¼ Lmod ; ð9Þ Table I The characteristics of the substrate materials
4p 4 4p
Substrate Symbol Thickness (mm)
where r1 and r2 are the power wave reflection coefficients of
the tag in matched and mismatched chip impedance states, Stretchable PVC PVC 300
respectively, and Lmod denotes the modulation loss factor Elastic fabric Fabric 1,100
determined by the impedance matching between the antenna
and the chip, in matched and mismatched chip impedance
Table II The characteristics of the conductive silver ink
states. The rest of the expression (9) is the classical antenna-
mode radar cross section of a conjugate-matched antenna. Curing
In theory, 0 # Lmod #1, but as in practice, the chip needs to Manufacturers conditions Viscosity Conductivity
be matched to antenna in one impedance state to provide description (8C/min) (Pa · s) (MS/m)
power to the chip, the range of Lmod becomes 0 # Lmod # 1/4.
From equations (8) and (9), the received backscattered One component silver 120/20 20-30 1.25
signal power is: ink consisting mainly
of polyester resin and
 
1 l 4 2 2 silver particles. Silver
P received ¼ jr1 2 r2 j2 Gt Gtag P t : ð10Þ
4 4pd content is 60-65 wt%
and polyester resin content i
Equation (10) shows that the received backscattered signal s 11-14 wt%. Particle sizes are
power depends on the power wave reflection coefficients in mainly in the range from
both chip impedance states as well as on the tag antenna gain 3 to 15 mm
Gtag. These parameters are all functions of the antenna
deformation (strain) through the physical properties of the
antenna and thus the backscattered signal power may be used Figure 1 Tag design
in deformation measurements using stretchable RFID tags.
L
W
Experimental
t
s Substrate
A screen printing technique is used to produce prototype Ink
UHF RFID antennas for measuring strain. Conductors, v
whose width and length (8 and 97 mm) are the same as for the u

35
 Embedded wireless strain sensors Sensor Review
Sari Merilampi et al. Volume 31 · Number 1 · 2011 · 32 –40

but it is placed on the area which is presented in the lower Table III The thickness of the ink layer
figure. With this rigid shielding, only the tag antenna “arms”
with the same width and thickness as of the conductors are Substrate Average thickness (mm) SD (mm)
stretched. For this reason, the behavior of the “arms” can be PVC 27 1
assumed to be similar to the behavior of sample conductors. Fabric 53 46

Measurements
The thickness of the ink layer is measured in an unloaded
condition. The thickness is measured using software connected
to an optical microscope. The thickness values are an average
value from 20 different measurement points in the middle of the
cross section in the middle of the conductor.
The resistance of the conductor is measured in unloaded
conditions and during straining. Straining is started from
about 5 percent and increased from , 10 to , 50 percent
by , 10 percent steps.
Downloaded by TAMPERE UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY At 08:25 23 June 2016 (PT)
large thickness variations, which reduces the overall performance
of the conductor. Smaller thickness variation occurs on the PVC
substrate.
The conductor loss resistance under strain is illustrated in
Tables IV and V. The increase of resistance, as a function of
strain, is much more rapid on the fabric substrate. It should be
noted that in case of the fabric substrate the resistance only gives
an idea of the order of magnitude of the resistance and absolute
values should be treated with care.

The relative permittivity of the PVC and the fabric substrate

The relative permittivity of the substrates is measured with as a function of frequency is shown in Figures 2 and 3.
Agilent VNA E8358A, using the Agilent 85070E Di-electric
probe kit. The relative permittivity of the epoxy coating is also
measured. Table IV The resistance of conductor on PVC during stretching
Electronic Product Code Class-1 Generation-2, EPC Gen-2, Strain (%) DC resistance (V)
protocol-based measurements are performed to analyze the tag
performance. As explained in the section “foundation of the 0 1.0
theory”, the performance of the RFID system depends on both 5 1.3
the forward (from reader to tag) and backward (from tag to 10 1.6
reader) communications. When the tag has received enough 20 2.2
power to turn on, it might fail to reflect enough power to be 29 3.9
detectable by the reader. When the tag is strained changes in 40 6.6
both reflection coefficients and tag antenna gain occur 48 8.8
simultaneously and the behavior of a tag may not be linear.
These are reasons why both threshold power and backscattered
signal power are measured to find out the tag performance and if Table V The resistance of conductor on fabric during stretching
the tag is suitable for strain measurements. Strain (%) DC resistance (V)
Threshold power is the minimum transmitted carrier wave
power required to activate the tag at a given distance from 0 0.9
the transmitting antenna. Backscattered signal power is the 5 9.5
time-average power detected from the tag’s response at the 11 30
receiver. As the modulation properties of the IC are power 19 100
dependent, we have measured the backscattered signal power 28 300
while transmitting the threshold power. This way, constant 39 600,000
power, equal to the read sensitivity of the IC, is delivered to 47 1,400,000
the chip at each frequency regardless of the straining
conditions. This simplifies the interpretation of the measured
backscattering results under various strain conditions. Figure 2 The relative permittivity of PVC substrate
Measurements are carried out using a Voyantic Tagformance
3.25
measurement unit (Voyantic Ltd, 2010). The measurement
distance for all tags is 1.5 m and linearly polarized reader 3
antennas are used. The effect of path loss and tag antenna gain
can be approximated using a calibration tag, with known 2.75
Relative permittivity

properties. The calibration tag is provided by the manufacturer

of the measurement device as part of the measurement system. 2.5
Gen-2-based measurements are performed with the tag on PVC
without strain. Then ,5 percent strain is applied, and the strain is 2.25
increased from ,10 percent to ,10 percent steps (like the
2
conductors) until ,50 percent. Tag on fabric measurements was
made under unloaded conditions, under “small” (5-10 percent), Sample average
1.75 Linear approx.
“moderate” (,30 percent) and “large” (.50 percent) strain.
1.5
Results and discussion
1.25
The thickness of the conductive ink layer is presented in Table III. 0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5 1.75 2
The average ink layer thickness is large on fabric, but the layer has Frequency (GHz)

36
 Embedded wireless strain sensors Sensor Review
Sari Merilampi et al. Volume 31 · Number 1 · 2011 · 32 –40

Figure 3 The relative permittivity of fabric substrate Figure 5 The backscattered signal power of a tag on PVC
3.25 –40
–42
3

Backscattered signal power (dBm)

at the transmitted threshold power
–44
2.75 –46
Relative permittivity

Sample average –48

2.5
Linear approx.
–50
2.25
–52
2 –54 0%
5%
1.75 –56 11%
20%
–58 29%
1.5 36%
–60
59%
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1.25 –62
0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5 1.75 2 0.8 0.82 0.84 0.86 0.88 0.9 0.92 0.94 0.96 0.98 1
Frequency (GHz) Frequency (GHz)

The relative permittivity of the substrates does not change
significantly with radio frequency as a function of frequency.
Over the frequency range covered in our measurements, from
800 MHz to 1 GHz, the relative permittivity of the substrate
can be considered to be constant. In the case of fabric, there
are air pockets in the fabric, which affect the measured
relative permittivity, but these air pockets also exist in real
applications so this is why the fabric illustrates the real
situation well. Relative permittivity of epoxy was found to be
2.5 and the effect of the coating on tag performance is
assumed to be minor.
The substrates are considered as low-loss dielectrics and their
properties in the UHF range are assumed to be independent of
frequency. This means that the electrical properties are not a
problem, but the indirect effect of the substrates is more
significant. The substrates affect the ink film morphology and
the behavior of ink layer under strain.
Figures 4 and 5 show the threshold and backscattered signal
power of the tags on PVC.
As can be seen from the results in Figures 4 and 5, stretching
changes the operation of the tag. In the case of the PVC
Figure 4 The transmitted threshold power of a tag on PVC
30
0%
28 5%
11%
26 20%
29%
Transmitted threshold
substrate, the conductor loss resistance increase is significantly
smaller than with samples on fabric (Tables IV and V).
The threshold power shows an unambiguous response to
strain at some frequencies. The gain of the tag antenna (Gtag ,
equation (7)) increases when the tag is strained, because of the
increased physical size. For the conductor on PVC, for example,
the area of the conductor in unloaded conditions is 776 mm2
(97 mm £ 8 mm) and when strained 48 percent 987 mm2
(141 mm £ 7 mm). The increase in gain decreases the required
threshold power. The radiation efficiency decreases due to
increased ohmic losses, but the directivity may also change due
to the stretching. The antenna impedance changes and greater
impedance mismatch occurs which affects the power reflection
coefficient (Gtag, equation (6)). Impedance mismatch and
decreased radiation efficiency increase the required threshold
power. The unambiguous behavior of the tag threshold power is
caused by the impedance matching which changes the
frequency of optimal impedance matching.
A passive UHF RFID displacement sensor based on the
reduction of tag performance near metal was developed by
Bhattacharyya et al. (2009). The distance of the metal plate from
the tag antenna depended on the displacement of the measured
structure and the performance of the tag is thus affected by the
displacement. The variation of the transmitted threshold power
as a function of frequency for tag-plate separation levels from 0 to
47.5 mm was measured. Although the absolute values of
transmitted threshold power varied with frequency, the trends
remained the same in some frequency bands and Bhattacharyya
et al. (2009) suggested that with some calibration effort the sensor

24 36% can be utilized. The behavior of the threshold power of tag on

59%
power (dBm)

PVC is similar and similar conclusion can be drawn.

22 In case of the backscattered signal power, a problem was found
in Bhattacharyya et al. (2009) when large strains were measured.
20
The tag performance was very poor and tags could not be used at
18 all frequencies (power regulations), when backscattered signal
power was used in measurements. This was due to the fact that
16 as the metal plate comes closer to the tag, more transmitted
14
power is lost due to increasing loss in tag antenna efficiency,
impedance mismatch and destructive interference due to
12 reflection off the metal plate. The chip thus receives less power
0.8 0.82 0.84 0.86 0.88 0.9 0.92 0.94 0.96 0.98 1 and this manifests itself in less power being scattered back by the
Frequency (GHz) tag (Bhattacharyya et al., 2009).

37
 Embedded wireless strain sensors
Sari Merilampi et al.
In our measurements, the backscattered signal power of the
samples on PVC actually increases during stretching although
the conductor loss resistance increases (Table IV). This is
clearly an advantage, because the power needed from the reader
remains below the permissible limit through the RFID band and
the sensor could be thus used globally.
Figure 6 shows the backscattered signal power as a function of
strain on 866, 915 and 955 MHz for samples on PVC. The
backscattered signal power at the transmitted threshold power
(differential antenna-mode RCS component) shows an
unambiguous response to strain at all frequencies, which
means that strain measurements could be made based on the
backscattered signal power through the whole tested frequency
band.
The response of the tag on PVC is fairly linear at strain levels
below 30 percent. The backscattered signal power at first
increases due to increasing tag antenna gain (Gtag , equation (10))
Downloaded by TAMPERE UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY At 08:25 23 June 2016 (PT)
but as the ohmic losses start to increase the increase of
backscattered signal power as a function of strain slows down.
Owing to the changed antenna impedance, the power wave
reflection coefficients r1 and r2 (equation (10)) are also affected
by the antenna deformation. It is unclear how jr1 2 r2 j2 and
through that the differential radar cross section is affected. If
jr1 2 r2 j2 increases, this is one of the reasons why the
backscattered signal power increases when the antenna
is stretched. It can be seen from Table IV that after about
30 percent strain the resistance starts to increase slightly faster
and the increase of the backscattered signal power also starts to
slow down at similar strain levels.
In Kure et al. (2008), fabricated two types of flexible
displacement sensors, a straight patterned sensor and a wave
patterned sensor. The straight-patterned sensor had
nonlinearity caused by over strain. The wave-patterned sensor
reduced the strain applied to the material and it was highly
linear, but it generates a smaller signal than a straight patterned
Figure 6 The backscattered signal power of a tag on PVC as a function of strain at 866, 915 and 955 MHz
Measured
–32.5
–35
–37.5
Backscattered signal power (dBm)
at the transmitted threshold power
–40
–42.5
–45
–47.5
–50
–52.5
–55
866 MHz
–57.5 915 MHz
955 MHz
–60
0 20 40
Strain %
Sensor Review
Volume 31 · Number 1 · 2011 · 32 –40
one. The study shows that different conductive geometries
affect the linearity. Our future work is to develop tag geometry
which has a more linear response.
Figures 7 and 8 show the threshold power and
backscattered signal power of the tag on fabric substrate.
In case of fabric, the backscattered signal power first increases
but the ohmic losses increase dramatically after 10-20 percent
strain (Table V) and the required threshold power starts to
increase and the backscattered signal power to decrease.
The backscattered signal power (Figure 9) decreases fairly
linearly after 20 percent strain. A tag on fabric could be used
to sense, for example, “small” (,20 percent), “medium”
(, 30 percent), and “large” (.50 percent) strains. In addition,
the threshold power could be used for measuring these strains.
In future studies, the recovery of the tags from stretching will
be investigated. The anelastic behavior of the PVC substrate
found in Merilampi et al. (2009) may cause problems if there is a
need for measuring small levels of strain immediately after a
large strain has been applied. In Hay et al. (2007) the strain
sensitive structures suffered from hysteresis during the first
cycle of straining, after which, hysteresis reduced dramatically.
Our future studies include investigation of the stretchable tag
sensor after multiple stretching cycles.
In Bhattacharyya et al. (2009) after the tag measurements
were performed with Voyantic lite, the measurements were
repeated with a commercial reader, which is much simpler
and more inaccurate than the Voyantic system. Even so the
displacements could still be measured. Furthermore, the reader
location did not have to be very exact. The effect of multipath
propagation was also discussed since in a real environment it is
always present. A calibration method was suggested for solving
this problem (Bhattacharyya et al., 2009). These results also
strengthen belief in the usability of the sensor presented in our
study. Future studies will include testing of the sensor in
different practical applications which were discussed in the
Linear approximation
–32.5
–35
–37.5
Backscattered signal power (dBm)
at the transmitted threshold power
–40
–42.5
–45
–47.5
–50
–52.5
–55
866 MHz
–57.5 915 MHz
955 MHz
–60
60 0 20 40 60
Strain %
38
 Embedded wireless strain sensors Sensor Review
Sari Merilampi et al. Volume 31 · Number 1 · 2011 · 32 –40

Figure 7 The transmitted threshold power of a tag on fabric section “background and motivation”. The materials used in
this study are selected so that they can be directly integrated
30 into, for example, clothes. This enables the development of
28 intelligent clothes. More research must also be done to
investigate the shielding of such structures.
26 If more sensitive sensors are required, the characteristics of
the ink can be modified. The sensitivity can be improved by
Transmitted threshold

24 decreasing the particle volume fraction to the percolation

power (dBm)

22 threshold. In that case, it is impossible to measure large strains,

because the conductivity disappears at large strain levels.
20 Another choice is to design tag geometry, which is sensitive to
small strains. This kind of geometry will be developed in our
18 0% future studies.
6%
16 10%
14
18% Conclusions
27%
59% The goal of this paper was to develop a wireless strain sensor for
Downloaded by TAMPERE UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY At 08:25 23 June 2016 (PT)

12
0.8 0.82 0.84 0.86 0.88 0.9 0.92 0.94 0.96 0.98 1 large strains based on the behavior of a strain-sensitive passive
Frequency (GHz) UHF RFID tag antenna. Tag antenna patterns were printed by
the screen printing method on stretchable PVC and fabric
substrates. Performance of the tags and the effect of mechanical
straining on tag functioning was examined by threshold power
Figure 8 The backscattered signal power of a tag on fabric
and backscattered signal power measurements under strain and
–40 in unloaded conditions. Fabricated tags could be used in
wireless strain sensing. The strain sensitivity of the stretchable
–42
tags introduced in this study is based on the fact that tag antenna
Backscattered signal power (dBm)
at the transmitted threshold power

–44 gain and impedance change when the tag is subjected to strain.
–46 It was possible to measure strain levels up to 50 percent. The
behavior and strain sensitivity of the tag can be modified by
–48
material selection. The sensor could be used in many
–50 application including body movement and structural health
–52 monitoring. The sensor can be embedded into other structures
where strain is applied, in clothes, for example. Our future work
–54
0% is to design a strain sensitive antenna structure with a linear
–56 6% response and increased sensitivity. The results of this paper will
10% be utilized in the design process. Future work relating the
–58 18%
27% investigation of practical applications and the system designing
–60
59% for the strain measurements by using the strain sensor is also
–62 required.
0.8 0.82 0.84 0.86 0.88 0.9 0.92 0.94 0.96 0.98 1
Frequency (GHz)
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