“RECENT DEVELOPMENT IN IC ENGINE”

PREPARED BY

FENIL S JARIWALA (110450721008)

NARENDRA S DALIA (110450721013)

ME-II MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

(THERMAL ENGG.)

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

SHREE S’AD VIDHYA MANDAL OF INSTITUTE OF TECHANOLOGY AND

ENGINEERING

BHARUCH-393002

2012-2013
 CHAPTER 5 RECENT DEVELOPMENT IN IC ENGINE
 INTRODUCTION

Fuel injection is a system for admitting fuel into an internal combustion engine. It has
become the primary fuel delivery system used in automotive engines, having replaced
carburetors during the 1980s and 1990s. A variety of injection systems have existed since the
earliest usage of the internal combustion engine.

The primary difference between carburetors and fuel injection is that fuel injection
atomizes the fuel by forcibly pumping it through a small nozzle under high pressure, while a
carburetor relies on suction created by intake air rushing through a venturi to draw the fuel
into the airstream.

Modern fuel injection systems are designed specifically for the type of fuel being
used. Some systems are designed for multiple grades of fuel (using sensors to adapt the
tuning for the fuel currently used). Most fuel injection systems are for gasoline or diesel
applications

 MPFI

M.P.F.I. means Multi Point Fuel Injection system. In this system each
cylinder has number of injectors to supply/spray fuel in the cylinders as compared to one
injector located centrally to supply/spray fuel in case of single point injection system.

Stage(1) Stage(2)
Stage(3) Stage(4)

ADVANTAGES OF MPFI

(1) More uniform A/F mixture will be supplied to each cylinder, hence the difference in
power developed in each cylinder is minimum. Vibration from the engine equipped
with this system is less, due to this the life of engine components is improved.
(2) No need to crank the engine twice or thrice in case of cold starting as happens in the
carburetor system.
(3) Immediate response, in case of sudden acceleration / deceleration.
(4) Since the engine is controlled by ECM* (Engine Control Module), more accurate
amount of A/F mixture will be supplied and as a result complete combustion will take
place. This leads to effective utilization of fuel supplied and hence low emission level.
(5) The mileage of the vehicle will be improved.

 CIRCUIT DISCUSSION PIV IN TURBULANCE MEASUREMENT

Particle image velocimetry (PIV) is a well-known and widely-used technique
for measuring planar velocity distributions in a range of fluid-dynamic systems. Typically,
particles suspended in the moving fluid are tracked using a series of digital image pairs to
determine local flow velocities.1 Situations arise, however, where the use of tracer particles is
impractical or impossible, thus traditional PIV cannot be used. This has given rise to current
interest in “seedless velocimetry”, in which something other than solid particles is tracked. One
experimental method that can be used in some of these situations is schlieren “PIV”.

Schlieren “PIV” is the technique of combining PIV equipment and software

with schlieren optics for the purpose of seedless velocimetry measurements in refractive
turbulent flows.2 Turbulent flows are naturally “seeded” by eddies of various scales that travel at
the local convective speed of the flow. Velocimetry can thus be performed, without the need for
particulate seeding, by correlating eddy motion between two consecutive schlieren or
shadowgraph images. However, this approach relies upon both turbulence and refractive-index
gradients in the flow, thus limiting its range of applicability. Nonetheless it naturally lends itself
to high- Reynolds number compressible flows, where both these conditions are met. Low-speed
turbulent flows can also be measured this way if a refractive thermal or species difference is
imposed.

Schlieren velocimetry was first proposed by Townend,3 but it proved

impractical in the pre-computer age. Papamoschou4, 5 revisited the technique, using a pattern-
matching algorithm to track eddy motion in supersonic shear layers. Fu and Wu6 used schlieren
images and image-analysis software to measure velocity distributions in gas fires and explosions.
The schlieren “PIV” technique was substantially improved by Jonassen et al.2 by the use of a
commercially-available PIV system to measure velocity profiles in a helium jet in air and a
supersonic turbulent boundary layer.

One observed disadvantage in prior schlieren “PIV” studies is the integrating

property of traditional schlieren optics along the optical path.7 The eddy motion recorded in the
two consecutive “PIV” images includes all motion across the entire flowfield, thus yielding a
path-averaged measurement of the convective eddy speed. Thus, near-planar velocimetry is not
possible using traditional schlieren optics, as it is in traditional particle PIV with laser-sheet
illumination. This limits the utility of schlieren “PIV” in threedimensional flows.

In order to perform near-planar measurements, “focusing schlieren” optics are

required. The lens-andgrid schlieren method, originally proposed by Schardin8 in order to
achieve a large field-of-view inexpensively, naturally also has a limited depth-of-focus for
refractive disturbances. This technique, recently perfected by Weinstein,9 images refractive
disturbances within a limited depth-of-focus while disturbances outside this region are too
blurred to register in the image.7 Alvi et al.10 combined this focusing schlieren approach with an
optical deflectometer to perform pointwise measurements of turbulence within a low-speed
axisymmetric jet. Garg and Settles11 extended this point-wise approach to measurements of a
supersonic turbulent
boundary layer.
The present work develops a focusing-schlieren “PIV” instrument and tests it by
measuring the velocity profile in a two-dimensional turbulent boundary layer at Mach 3 in the
Penn State Gas Dynamics Laboratory’s supersonic wind tunnel. The thick wind-tunnel-tunnel
floor boundary layer provides a wellcharacterized flow which is used as a benchmark for present
purposes. Turbulent eddy motion is captured by a PIV camera and quantified with PIV software,
whereby boundary-layer velocity data are extracted.
 Part Material
Cylinder Hard grade cast iron
Cylinder head Cast iron or Aluminium
Piston Cast iron or Aluminium alloy
Piston ring Cast iron or Fine grain
Gudgon pin Hardened steel
Connecting rod Nickel,Chrome,Chrome vanadium steel
Crankshaft Steel forging,Nickle alloy
Engine Bearing Steel,Bronze,Copper,lead,tin

NEW MATERIAL FOR ENGINE COMPONENTS

1. STEELS

In the article on Crankshafts, I briefly discussed the ultra-high-strength steel

known as 300-M (AMS 6419). This alloy has been used in a variety of high-strength applications
including crankshafts, con rods, torsion bars and gears (not to mention various critical aircraft
applications such as landing gear components). This alloy is interesting because, although it has a
remarkable combination of properties (strength, fatigue life, impact resistance and ductility), it
has somewhat fallen out of 5lumin, primarily because it has been misused.

Here is an example. Suppose a company has been making successful con rods
from 4340, and it decides to add a higher strength product. The engineers at the company have
heard that 300-M is a great material, so they decide to use it for the new con rod. At a hardness
of 44-46 HRc, their 4340 con rod has good strength (220 UTS / 200 YS) and impact resistance
(22 ft-lb CVN). However, although the strength of 4340 increases at hardness values above 46
HRc, the impact resistance becomes quite poor, so 44-46 HRc is the typical compromise
hardness for 4340 cranks and con rods.

Recently, I heard about a new high-strength steel product from Bohler-Edelstahl,

which offers potential for improvements in gearing and shafting applications. This steel, known
as W-360, is a high-strength chrome-moly-vanadium alloy, having somewhat different chemistry
than the exotic chrome-moly-vanadium crankshaft alloy (32-CrMoV-13) discussed in my
Crankshaft Design article. W-360 achieves post-heat-treat UTS/YS values of 290 / 270 ksi, with
a through-hardness of 56HRc, by austenitizing at 1925°F (1050°C), oil-quenching and triple
tempering at 1075°F (580°C). The alloy exhibits extremely low distortion after heat treating.

Although W-360 already has 50 points of carbon, it can be successfully

carburized, but a non-standard carbon potential is required. The high tempering temperature
allows post-heat-treat nitriding and the application of PVD coatings while retaining the high core
strength. With this steel, it is possible to produce a component having carburized gear teeth on
one end and 6lumini splines on the other.

Gears made from W-360 alloy have been successfully application-tested in an

extremely-brutal form of high-end motorsport. In these applications, the best 300-M and
carburized 9310 gears were failing in root fatigue from impact loading, while similar gears from
W-360 survived a much longer exposure to that environment. Limited axial fatigue testing of
AirMelt-PESR samples shows an endurance limit of 10^7 cycles at 138 ksi (951 mpa). One
cannot help but wonder how a VIM-VAR version of this steel would perform in fatigue
testing.....

2. SUPERALLOYS

There are some unique material selection challenges in the design of very-
high-strength threaded fasteners. High-grade fasteners are exposed to high stress concentration in
the thread roots caused by the tensile stresses produced from extremely high clamping loads, on
top of which are superimposed any fatigue loads (as in the case of a con rod bolt).

A thread with a sharp-cornered root would be doomed to a quick failure.

High-grade fasteners typically use the large full-radius fillet ‘UNJ’ thread form to minimize the
stress concentrations there. Nevertheless, those radii are very small in relationship to the other
dimensions of the fastener (minimum radius = 0.155 / threads-per-inch, so a 20-thread-per-inch
fastener has a 0.0077” minimum radius in the root).

In order for a highly-loaded fastener to survive, the thread must be rolled

with a die, producing the full-fillet thread root with a high residual compressive stress, which
counteracts applied tensile stresses and adds dramatically to the fatigue life of the part.

There has been lots of research and experimentation with making ultra-high-
strength threaded fasteners out of 280+ ksi quenched / tempered and maraging steels, but there
have been problems with notch sensitivity, stress corrosion, fatigue, and other issues.

Because of the large amount of cobalt in AMS-5844, the material cost is quite high
(currently around $80 per pound). To find a more economical solution that provides the same
performance, a leading US fastener manufacturer (ARP) worked with Carpenter Technology to
develop Custom-Age-625-PLUS (a modification of Carpenter’s CA-625 chemistry).

3. ALUMINUM ALLOYS

There is a new family of high-strength extruded 6luminium alloys currently under

development by a major US titanium valve manufacturer (Del West). The members of this
family are derived from existing 2000 and 7000 series wrought alloys, by a proprietary process in
which existing chemistries are modified by the addition of spheroidized 6luminium oxide, with
the volume percentage varying between 5 and 20% depending on the targeted properties of the
new material.

When compared to the base alloy, this process yields substantial improvements in
the yield and ultimate stress values (10-15%) and in the fatigue performance across the usable
temperature range of the base alloy, plus a significant reduction in the thermal expansion rate,
and a dramatic increase in stiffness, with the elastic modulus increased as much as 40% (to
nearly the value of titanium).

For example, comparing the new 2000-based alloy (‘DW 2-15’) to 2618 at
400°F, the yield strength of 2618 is 26.8 ksi, while the yield strength of the 2-15 is 32.6 ksi, an
improvement of more than 21%. But that’s not all. The coefficient of thermal expansion of the 2-
15 alloy is 24% lower than 2618, and is even 8% lower than the “low expansion” 4032 alloy.

Fatigue testing on the 7000-based alloy (‘DW 7-15’) showed a tremendous

improvement in fatigue performance compared to the very-high-strength 7075-T6. As an aside:
contains some interesting information on several often-used alloys, both wrought and cast.

The fatigue testing of the 2000-based alloys has yet to be completed. However,
preliminary indications are that the results will show strength and fatigue improvements similar
to the improvements realized in the 7000-series. If the expected results are verified, that will
present the opportunity for yet another improvement in piston technology: strength and fatigue
properties exceeding 2618 with expansion less than 4032. The materials will be available in
extruded bar and plate form, with planned release in late 2008

4. MAGNESIUM ALLOYS

Magnesium is the eighth-most abundant element in the earth’s crust (2.7%).

Although sometimes perceived as exotic, magnesium alloys have been used for decades in both
motorsport and production vehicles. For example, VW began using cast magnesium crankcases
for its 1961-model, 40 horsepower flat four, air-cooled engine.

It is generally accepted that it is more difficult to successfully cast magnesium alloys

than 7luminium alloys, for reasons which include (a) the melt must be covered with either an
inert atmosphere or with a special flux to keep oxygen away from the molten metal and (b)
magnesium has a relatively low heat of fusion, which can distinctly increase the problems
encountered with gating and feeding.

Certain contemporary sand-casting magnesium alloys are ideal for high-strength cast housings
which are exposed to operating temperatures up to 400°F (204°C). High-strength magnesium
alloys are currently used in aircraft gearboxes, WRC transmission components, and (allegedly) in
Formula One engine ancillaries. A low-creep die-casting magnesium alloy is used in a new
BMW production engine block.Magnesium alloys are approximately 35% lighter than
7luminium alloys, and certain alloys can be heat-treated to UTS values approaching 43 ksi,
making them attractive because of their high strength / weight ratio. The stiffness of magnesium
is generally only about 63% of 7luminium alloys, so components being switched from
7luminium to magnesium will require larger cross-sections and section moduli to achieve the
same stiffness as the 7luminium part, and can result in a weight saving of 20-25% depending
upon the design.

Typically, it takes high-volume production operations to cost-justify the investment in die-

casting tooling. Motorsports, on the other hand, often need relatively small numbers of castings,
and therefore, rely on the lower tooling costs of sand-casting methods.

It was the need for good sand-casting magnesium alloys which provided part of the motivation
for the development of the second major alloying system. That system consists of magnesium
alloyed with various combinations of other elements (rare earths, zinc, thorium, silver, but NOT
8luminium) to achieve a set of desired properties. This system includes a small, but essential
quantity of the grain-refiner zirconium, which produces a very tiny grain size in the metal, thus
giving the alloys very consistent, homogeneous properties, without the need to rely on a fast
cooling rate.

An interesting new wrought mag-nesium alloy is currently under development. This alloy
(Elektron-675) represents a step-change upward in mechanical properties. The tensile / yield
values are listed as 62 / 47 ksi respectively, with initial tests showing excellent fatigue properties.
The chemistry, thus the alloying system, is presently undisclosed while the patent is being
sought. The strength versus tem-perature properties are shown in, constructed from data provided
by the manufacturer. This material, being in the early stages of life, is not yet available in
production volumes.

Figure
BMW Magnesium Block

Using this alloy, BMW developed a composite inline-6 engine block (Figure ) which uses AJ-62
for the external block, and an 8luminium alloy for the liners, coolant passages and main bearing
bulkheads. This block is reported to be 24% lighter than a conventional aluminum block and
contributes to BMW's claim that the R6 engine, at 161 kg, is the lightest 3.0 litre inline-six in the
world.

5. TITANIUM

Titanium based alloys have been commercially available for just a little over 50
years. However, they have achieved widespread use in aerospace and various forms of
motorsport. The valves and con rods in Formula One engines and the valves in NASCAR Cup
engines are made from titanium alloys. It is used in various other applications including springs,
torsion bars, fasteners, flywheels and clutch components.

Titanium is alloyed with combinations of other elements (mainly aluminum,

vanadium, molybdenum, silicon, chromium, iron, zirconium and niobium) to produce titanium-
based alloys metals with various physical properties. These alloys have densities which range
between 0.158 - 0.175 lb/in³ (4.37 - 4.84 gm/cc), making them 56% to 62% of the weight of
steel, and stiffnesses which vary between 53% to 61% of steel (15.5 to 17.7x10^6 psi). Certain
alloys can be heat-treated to strengths exceeding 215 ksi (1480 mpa) UTS. Regardless of the
strength levels, applications which have stiffness requirements would require a redesign to take
best advantage of titanium. Unlike steel alloys, where the basic melt is an air-melt process, all
titanium melting must be done in a vacuum, so the basic grades are VIM; high purity grades are
VIM-VAR, and in extreme aerospace cases, there are triple-melt versions.

There are several manufacturers producing aftermarket titanium conrods. I was told
by one major titanium supplier that the most frequently used alloy for conrods is the old standby
Ti-6Al-4V (6% aluminum, 4% vanadium), also known as Grade 5 titanium. This alloy can be
solution heat-treated and aged up to tensile strengths of 181 ksi (1250 mpa). It is interesting to
note that the nomenclature "6Al-4V" has become nearly a generic, because there are more than
20 different variations available, all having the same basic chemistry but with differing melt
practices, impurity tolerances, inspection requirements, etc.

I was told (by Allegheny Technologies Ltd.) about a new alloy under development
that achieves a step-change in titanium material properties. This alloy was developed from the
old existing alloy known as Beta-C (grade 19: Ti-3Al-8V-6Cr-4Mo-4Zr).

Whereas the commercial manufacture of Beta-C required a lengthy solution

treatment and ageing cycle to achieve a tensile strength of 181 ksi (1250 mpa), this new material,
using a patented process, can be cold-worked then direct-aged to a UTS over 220 ksi (1517 mpa).
Even more interesting is the fatigue performance of this alloy. While the S-N (fatigue) curve for
6Al-4V continues downward as cycles increase, the curve for this material in fully-reversing
fatigue (R = -1) appears to go flat at a stress level of about 93 ksi (640 mpa) at 1x10^6 cycles.
This new Beta-C alloy was initially developed as a cold-winding spring alloy, but has evolved
into favored usage for shafts, torsion bars and high-strength fasteners (where titanium is
allowed).

Yet another interesting titanium based material is the alloy known as 15V-3Al. This
is a cold-formable beta alloy produced in sheet form (1.0 - 1.5 mm thickness). Unlike many
titanium alloys, this one is easily bendable to form complex fabricated sheet metal parts. When
fabrication is complete, the part can be solution treated and aged, and the net result is a very
high-strength, lightweight fabricated part. Imagine the possibilities for a fully-titanium
monocoque chassis……

Making titanium valves survive in the harsh operating environment of a

Formula One or Cup engine was a substantial challenge, especially in the case of exhaust valves,
which are exposed to extremes of temperature and corrosive gasses along with high levels of
fatigue loading (zero-max-zero plus bending), with quasi-impact compressive loads on the tip
and seat.The exhaust valves are heat-treated above the beta transus to produce an acicular,
Widmanstätten structure (a ‘basket weave’ microstructure), which substantially improves the
fatigue properties at elevated temperatures.

It has been discovered through experience that this microstructure also has
crack-arresting properties. Sample exhaust valves which had been subjected to extreme
mechanical and thermal loads have been found during teardown to have hundreds of tiny cracks
in the stem-to-head transition area, but they had not failed in service.

These titanium valves are PVD-coated with chromium-nitride to provide

the wear-resistant surfaces. Other hardcoating processes have been tried, such as controlled
oxidization of the outer surface to form a hard layer of titanium-oxide. However, contrary to
what was predicted by papers on that process, users of valves with that coating reported a huge
loss of fatigue life, which would be expected since the TiO layer is an extremely brittle
case.More materials technology is presented in the article on turbochargers, including the use of
titanium in high-temperature compressor wheels.

 IMPROVED TWO STROKE ENGINE

In developed and developing countries considerable emphasis is being laid on
the minimization of pollutants from internal combustion engines. A two-stroke cycle engine
produces a considerable amount of pollutants when gasoline is used as a fuel due to short-
circuiting. These pollutants, which include unburnt hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide, which
are harmful to beings. There is a strong need to develop a kind of new technology which could
minimize pollution from these engines. Direct fuel injection has been demonstrated to
significantly reduce unburned hydrocarbon emissions by timing the injection of fuel in such way
as to prevent the escape of unburned fuel from the exhaust port during the scavenging process.
The increased use of petroleum fuels by automobiles has not only caused fuel
scarcities, price hikes, higher import bills, and economic imbalance but also causes health
hazards due to its toxic emissions. Conventional fuels used in automobiles emit toxic pollutants,
which cause asthma, chronic cough, skin degradation, breathlessness, eye and throat problems,
and even cancer.
In recent years, environmental improvement (CO2, NOx and Ozone reduction)
and energy issues have become more and more important in worldwide concerns. Natural gas is a
good alternative fuel to improve these problems because of its abundant availability and clean
burning characteristics. The objectives of present study are:
To compare the performance of a carbureted and injected engine at constant
speed. Direct injection system was developed which eliminates short circuiting losses completely
and injection timing was optimized for the best engine performance and lower emissions.
In a lean burn engine, air fuel ratio is extremely critical. Operation near the lean
mixture limit is necessary to obtain the lowest possible emission and the best fuel economy.
However, near the lean limit, a slight error in air-fuel ratio can drive the engine to misfire. This
condition causes drastic increase in hydrocarbon emission; engine roughness and poor throttle
response [2-4]. A reliable electronic gaseous fuel injection system was designed and built in
order to control the engine and also for the evaluation of control strategies. The electronic control
unit is used to estimate the pulse width of the signal that would actuate the fuel injector and the
start of fuel injection. The experiments were carried out on the engine using state-of-art
instrumentation.

 HYBRID PROPULSION SYSTEM

There have been vessels that traditionally are not considered to fit into the
description of a vessel suited for electric propulsion. Typically this have been Anchor Handling
Vessels, Tugs, High speed PSV's, some type of Fishing Vessels and similar types of vessels
designed for very high power output either for transit, towing, anchor handling or similar
operations.
Reason for this has been cost related to the huge amount of electrical power needed to be
produced, distributed and converted onboard these vessels making them full diesel electric
vessels. This has also made the vessels vulnerable to power losses. However these vessels require
an optimised propulsion system due to varying load demands. The need for improved
redundancy has also become an issue on conventional vessel.

The Hybrid Propulsion system is developed to take advantage of

the best from both worlds of propulsion, conventional and diesel electric to make a system better
suited also for these types of vessels. This is done by connecting an electrical motor and a diesel
engine to the same gearbox giving the system a high degree of redundancy and flexibility.
Optimised fuel economy in all operational modes and reduced investment cost compared to a full
diesel electrical system is also achieved.

The electrical motor and the direct connected diesel engine can run the propeller
separately or in parallel. Typical operation for pure diesel mechanical setup is steaming. Typical
operation for electrical set-up is transit at lower speed and DP operation. Parallel boosting
operation between mechanical and electrical is typically heavy towing, fast steaming and anchor
handling operations.

A hybrid propulsion system can be realized with both azimuths and conventional
propellers, but for many reasons the best layout is with conventional propellers and controllable
pitch control. By the use of the conventional and well proven conventional propeller system, it is
possible to combine electrical and mechanical operation of the propeller. And, full advantage of
both variable speed control and variable pitch can be taken.Summarized the Hybrid propulsion
system's properties compared to conventional systems can be described as follows;

ADVANTAGES:

 Improved redundancy; engines / gensets can be out of operation without major

consequences to the operation of the vessel.
  Shaft generator/main engine can be operated independent of main gear.
 Partly improved utilization of cargo space and more flexible overall ship design
compared to conventional design. Shaft line is still there but main engine physical size
will be reduced and auxiliary engine room can be located freely.
 Optimised fuel economy in all modes of operation, also transit, especially for vessels with
fluctuating load demands and a mixture of transit and DP operation. This due to
optimised utilization of the diesel engines and elimination of
zero-pitch losses of propellers.
 Reduction in emission due to reduced fuel consumption
 Investment cost normally not so different from a conventional system, but of course
depending on layout and ratings.

 FUEL EFFICIENT INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE

Internal combustion engines (ICEs) power our cars, trucks, big rigs, trains,
generator sets, ships, and a host of other applications worldwide. Unfortunately, conventional
ICEs boast low efficiency – most convert only 30% of fuel into usable work, and that is under
optimal conditions. When accounting for idling and sub-optimal speeds, efficiency drops to 15 to
20%. That means, for every gallon of fuel placed into the engine, only 15 to 20% of the energy in
that fuel is ever transferred into usable mechanical energy under typical conditions. The
remaining 80 to 85% of energy contained in the fuel is wasted – wasted on friction, losses to
heat, incomplete burning, and other inefficiencies characteristic of conventional ICEs.

Spurred by the current global focus on reducing carbon emissions, promoting

sustainability, and enhancing energy use efficiency, global governments and industry leaders are
driving strong interest, research, and investment in improving ICE efficiency. Companies as
diverse as automaking giants Ford Motor Company and Toyota, to engine manufacturers in the
U.S. and Europe, to a handful of tiny Silicon Valley and MIT associated startups, are pushing the
efficiency envelope of ICEs.

Generally speaking, ICE efficiency measures come in two forms: (1) specialized
components, add-ons, and auxiliary systems that are worked into the basic framework design of a
conventional reciprocating internal combustion engine; and (2) highly modified or novel engine
designs, which seek to re-engineer the internal combustion engine from the ground up, using
alternative and novel designs and processes. Measures in the former group are being more widely
pursued by the existing automotive and ICE production industries, where manufacturers are
focusing on incremental design updates to conventional engines. These technologies include
engine deactivation, cylinder deactivation, variable valve timing and lift, turbochargers and
superchargers, direct fuel injection, smaller displacement motors, hybrid and partial hybrid
systems, and homogeneous charge compression ignition. These measures apply to conventional
designs with relatively little modification.

The second category of ICE energy efficiency measures provides a more radical
break from convention, and is being forwarded primarily by various small and mid-sized start-
ups and venture capital firms, alongside breakthrough-oriented government grants and other
funding mechanisms. These endeavors significantly redesign internal combustion engines, and
include redesigned combustion chambers, opposing piston designs, split cycle engine designs,
opposed piston/opposed cyclinder engines, and updated rotary engine designs. Proponents and
investors in these technologies are focusing on the larger industry’s current lack of interest in
breakthrough-oriented ICE technologies, and generating a race toward commercialization for
potential new technologies.

Now is therefore an exciting time in the ICE engineering and technology industry.
Mainstream industry investment in design upgrades will drive typical operating engine efficiency
up from 15-20% to upwards of 30%. Some of the potential breakthrough/redesigned systems
claim efficiencies upwards of 40 and 50%, although commercialization of these technologies has
not yet been achieved. Accordingly, many industry insiders and durable goods manufacturers are
banking on sharp increases in demand for energy efficient ICEs in the transportation and
distributed generation industries worldwide. Expectations are driven by a lack of foreseeable
near term technological maturity and competition from fuel cells, electric motors and batteries
for transportation, and other envisioned high efficiency transport and distributed generation
solutions. Thus, while the gap between demand for higher efficiency engines and available high
efficiency technologies continues to widen, the ICE industry is betting on itself to fill that gap
more quickly than fuel cells or other technologically immature solutions.

Demand for energy efficient ICEs has strengthened notably with the ongoing
economic recovery. Following stagnation during the 2008 and 2009, efficient ICE demand
rebounded strongly in 2010 and 2011, increasing from a total global value of $80 billion in 2009
to $121 billion in 2011. From 2006 through 2011, the market showed an overall increase of $70
billion, equivalent to a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of nearly 19%. Through 2021, the
efficient ICE market is expected to expand significantly, in spite of near term softening in
emerging markets. Specifically, the global market is expected to reach $401 billion by 2021,
equivalent to a 10-year CAGR of nearly 13%.

The market expansion projected for efficient ICEs maintains strong roots in the
automotive and light truck industries. Other key markets include ground transport, distributed
power generation, marine transport, and industrial/mechanical uses, including mineral extraction,
petroleum extraction, wastewater treatment, and many other industries where mechanical energy
is not typically provided by electric motors. A significant advantage of these multiple drivers is
that demand for efficient ICE technologies is resilient in comparison to goods that serve more
limited markets. While the automotive and transport markets are highly competitive, other non-
transport markets provide diverse niche opportunities that may be available to well-positioned
start-ups.

Fuel Efficient Internal Combustion Engine Global Markets contains comprehensive

data on the worldwide market for efficient ICE technologies (engine deactivation, cylinder
deactivation, variable valve timing and lift, turbochargers and superchargers, direct fuel
injection, homogeneous charge compression ignition, reduced displacement engines, hybrids and
partial hybrids, split cycle engines, and opposed piston/opposed cylinder engine designs).
Historic (2006 to 2011 Q3) and forecasted (2011 Q4 to 2021) market size data are provided in
terms of the dollar value of product shipments. The report identifies key trends affecting the
marketplace, along with trends driving growth, and central challenges to further market
development. The report also profiles leading startups and established manufacturers of fuel
efficient ICEs that are most relevant to the fuel efficient ICE industry.
 Property Methanol Ethanol Gasoline Diesel
Chemical CH3OH C2H5OH C8H18 -
formula
Molecular 32 46 114 -
weight
Density 0.795gm/cc 0.79 gm/cc 0.69gm/cc
0.82gm/cc
Latent heat of 1104 kj/kg 853 kj/kg 292.7 kj/kg
evaporation 600kj/kg
Lower heating 19.64 MJ/kg 26.76 MJ/kg 43.91 MJ/kg -
value
Mixture 3.07 2.97 2.93 -
heating value
Stoichiometric 6.4 8.96 15.3 -
A/F
Ignition limits 3.15 to 12.8 3.5 to 17 7.0 to 22.0 -
Self ignition 574 c 537 c 335 c 280 c
temperature
Octane no. 92 89 80 111

 EMISSION CONTROL
Diesel engines provide important fuel economy and durability advantages for large
heavy-duty trucks, buses, nonroad equipment and passenger cars. They are often the power plant of
choice for heavy-duty applications. While they have many advantages, they also have the
disadvantage of emitting significant amounts of particulate matter (PM) and oxides of nitrogen
(NOx) and, to a lesser amount, hydrocarbon (HC), carbon monoxide (CO), and toxic air pollutants.
Particles emitted from diesel engines are small – in most cases less than 2.5 microns
in diameter. The particles are complex, consisting of a carbon core, adsorbed hydrocarbons from
engine oil and diesel fuel, adsorbed sulfates, water, and inorganic materials such as those produced
by engine wear. Because of their extremely small size and composition, the particles emitted by
diesel engines have raised many health concerns. Health experts have expressed concern that diesel
PM may contribute to or aggravate chronic lung diseases such as asthma, bronchitis, and emphysema.
There is growing evidence that exposure to diesel PM may increase the risk of cancer
in humans. As early as 1988, the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) concluded
that diesel particulate is probably carcinogenic to humans. The term “carcinogen” is used by the
IARC to denote an agent that is capable of increasing the incidence of malignant tumors. In August
1998, California Air Resources Board identified PM emissions from diesel-fueled engines as a toxic
air contaminant and adopted its ground breaking Diesel Risk Reduction Plan in September of 2000
with the goal of reducing diesel PM levels by 85 percent in 2020. In 2000, the U.S. EPA declared
diesel PM to be a “likely human carcinogen.” A recent report, “Diesel and Health in America: The
Lingering Threat,” issued in February 2005 by the Clean Air Task Force (CATF), reviews the health
impacts of diesel particulate emissions in the U.S. This report states that fine particulate pollution
from diesel engines shortens the lives of nearly 21,000 people in the U.S. every year, with health-
related damage from diesel PM estimated to total $139 billion in 2010.
 NOx emissions from diesel engines also pose a number of health concerns. Once in
the atmosphere, oxides of nitrogen react with volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in the presence of
sunlight to form ozone. Ozone is a reactive and corrosive gas that contributes to many respiratory
problems. Ozone is particularly harmful to children and the elderly. The CATF published a report in
1999 on ozone related respiratory incidents in 37 Eastern states and the district of Columbia for the
ozone period of April to October in 1997. The report estimated that there were over 50,000 hospital
admissions and approximately 160,000 emergency room visits related to high ozone levels. NOx
emissions themselves can damage respiratory systems and lower resistance to respiratory infection.
As with ozone, children and the elderly are particularly susceptible to NOx emissions. The American
Lung Association estimates that 55 percent of the U.S. population lives in counties which have
unhealthy levels of either ozone or particulate pollution.

 ECONOMICS AND PERFORMANCE FOR ALTERNATIVE FUELS

FOR IC ENGINES
In advance of the conference, the organisers are looking for speakers on the following
topics:

 Compression and spark ignition engines for light and heavy duty applications, automotive
and other markets
 Internal combustion engines for hybrid power trains
 Air-path and other technology to achieve improved performance and fuel economy
benefits through downsizing
 Challenges, needs and responses to the introduction of low-carbon alternative fuels
 Combustion systems, fuel delivery and mixture preparation: advances in low-temperature
combustion systems, expanded range of operation, improvements in conventional
combustion
 Strategies to reduce pollutant formation and advances in after treatment
 Instrumentation, sensors and diagnostic techniques for development and/or engine
electronic control
 Unconventional designs or operating strategies: performance analysis or data
comparisons

 ALTERNATE POWER PLANTS OF I.C. ENGINE

1. STEAM TURBINE PANT

Reciprocating steam engines have been used for mechanical power sources since
the 18th Century, with notable improvements being made by James Watt. The very first
commercial central electrical generating stations in the Pearl Street Station, New York and the
Holborn Viaduct power station, London, in 1882, also used reciprocating steam engines. The
development of the steam turbine allowed larger and more efficient central generating stations to
be built. By 1892 it was considered as an alternative to reciprocating engines [2] Turbines offered
higher speeds, more compact machinery, and stable speed regulation allowing for parallel
synchronous operation of generators on a common bus. Turbines entirely replaced reciprocating
engines in large central stations after about 1905. The largest reciprocating engine-generator sets
ever built were completed in 1901 for the Manhattan Elevated Railway. Each of seventeen units
weighed about 500 tons and was rated 6000 kilowatts; a contemporary turbine-set of similar
rating would have weighed about 20% as much.

1. Cooling tower. 2. Cooling water pump. 3. Transmission line (3-phase). 4. Unit transformer (3-
phase). 5. Electric generator (3-phase). 6. Low pressure turbine. 7. Condensate extraction pump.
8. Condensor. 9. Intermediate pressure turbine. 10. Steam governor valve. 11. High pressure
turbine. 12. Deaerator. 13. Feed heater. 14. Coal conveyor. 15. Coal hopper. 16. Pulverised fuel
mill. 17. Boiler drum. 18. Ash hopper. 19. Superheater. 20. Forced draught fan. 21. Reheater. 22.
Air intake. 23. Economiser. 24. Air preheater. 25. Precipitator. 26. Induced draught fan. 27.
Chimney Stack.

Coal is conveyed (14) from an external stack and ground to a very fine
powder by large metal spheres in the pulverised fuel mill (16). There it is mixed with preheated
air (24) driven by the forced draught fan (20). The hot air-fuel mixture is forced at high pressure
into the boiler where it rapidly ignites. Water of a high purity flows vertically up the tube-lined
walls of the boiler, where it turns into steam, and is passed to the boiler drum, where steam is
separated from any remaining water. The steam passes through a manifold in the roof of the
drum into the pendant superheater (19) where its temperature and pressure increase rapidly to
around 200 bar and 570°C, sufficient to make the tube walls glow a dull red. The steam is piped
to the high pressure turbine (11), the first of a three-stage turbine process. A steam governor
valve (10) allows for both manual control of the turbine and automatic set-point following. The
steam is exhausted from the high pressure turbine, and reduced in both pressure and temperature,
is returned to the boiler reheater (21). The reheated steam is then passed to the intermediate
pressure turbine (9), and from there passed directly to the low pressure turbine set (6). The
exiting steam, now a little above its boiling point, is brought into thermal contact with cold water
(pumped in from the cooling tower) in the condensor (8), where it condenses rapidly back into
water, creating near vacuum-like conditions inside the condensor chest. The condensed water is
then passed by a feed pump (7) through a deaerator (12), and pre-warmed, first in a feed heater
(13) powered by steam drawn from the high pressure set, and then in the economiser (23), before
being returned to the boiler drum. The cooling water from the condensor is sprayed inside a
cooling tower (1), creating a highly visible plume of water vapor, before being pumped back to
the condensor (8) in cooling water cycle.

2. GAS TURBINE

Gases passing through an ideal gas turbine undergo three thermodynamic

processes. These are isentropic compression, isobaric (constant pressure) combustion and
isentropic expansion. Together these make up the Brayton cycle.

In a practical gas turbine, gases are first accelerated in either a centrifugal or

axial compressor. These gases are then slowed using a diverging nozzle known as a diffuser;
these processes increase the pressure and temperature of the flow. In an ideal system this is
isentropic. However, in practice energy is lost to heat, due to friction and turbulence. Gases then
pass from the diffuser to a combustion chamber, or similar device, where heat is added. In an
ideal system this occurs at constant pressure (isobaric heat addition). As there is no change in
pressure the specific volume of the gases increases. In practical situations this process is usually
accompanied by a slight loss in pressure, due to friction. Finally, this larger volume of gases is
expanded and accelerated by nozzle guide vanes before energy is extracted by a turbine. In an
ideal system these are gases expanded isentropically and leave the turbine at their original
pressure. In practice this process is not isentropic as energy is once again lost to friction and
turbulence.

If the device has been designed to power a shaft as with an industrial generator
or a turboprop, the exit pressure will be as close to the entry pressure as possible. In practice it is
necessary that some pressure remains at the outlet in order to fully expel the exhaust gases. In the
case of a jet engine only enough pressure and energy is extracted from the flow to drive the
compressor and other components. The remaining high pressure gases are accelerated to provide
a jet that can, for example, be used to propel an aircraft.

Brayton cycle
 As with all cyclic heat engines, higher combustion temperatures can allow for
greater efficiencies. However, temperatures are limited by ability of the steel, nickel, ceramic, or
other materials that make up the engine to withstand high temperatures and stresses. To combat
this many turbines feature complex blade cooling systems.

As a general rule, the smaller the engine the higher the rotation rate of the shaft(s)
must be to maintain tip speed. Blade tip speed determines the maximum pressure ratios that can
be obtained by the turbine and the compressor. This in turn limits the maximum power and
efficiency that can be obtained by the engine. In order for tip speed to remain constant, if the
diameter of a rotor is reduced by half, the rotational speed must double. For example large Jet
engines operate around 10,000 rpm, while micro turbines spin as fast as 500,000 rpm.

Mechanically, gas turbines can be considerably less complex than internal

combustion piston engines. Simple turbines might have one moving part: the
shaft/compressor/turbine/alternative-rotor assembly (see image above), not counting the fuel
system. However, the required precision manufacturing for components and temperature resistant
alloys necessary for high efficiency often make the construction of a simple turbine more
complicated than piston engines.

More sophisticated turbines (such as those found in modern jet engines) may
have multiple shafts (spools), hundreds of turbine blades, movable stator blades, and a vast
system of complex piping, combustors and heat exchangers.

Thrust bearings and journal bearings are a critical part of design.

Traditionally, they have been hydrodynamic oil bearings, or oil-cooled ball bearings. These
bearings are being surpassed by foil bearings, which have been successfully used in micro
turbines and auxiliary power units.

3. HYDROELECTRIC POWER PLANTS Hydroelectric power plants convert the hydraulic

potential energy from water into electrical energy. Such plants are suitable were water with
suitable head are available. The layout covered in this article is just a simple one and only cover
the important parts of hydroelectric plant.The different parts of a hydroelectric power plant are

(1)Dam
Dams are structures built over rivers to stop the water flow and
form a reservoir.The reservoir stores the water flowing down the river. This water is diverted to
turbines in power stations. The dams collect water during the rainy season and stores it, thus
allowing for a steady flow through the turbines throughout the year. Dams are also used for
controlling floods and irrigation. The
dams should be water-tight and should be
able to withstand the pressure exerted by
the water on it. There are different types
of dams such as arch dams, gravity dams
and buttress dams. The height of water in
the dam is called head race.

(2)Spillway
A spillway as the name suggests could be
called as a way for spilling of water from
dams. It is used to provide for the release of flood water from a dam. It is used to prevent over
toping of the dams which could result in damage or failure of dams. Spillways could be
controlled type or uncontrolled type. The uncontrolled types start releasing water upon water
rising above a particular level. But in case of the controlled type, regulation of flow is possible.

(3) Penstock and Tunnel

Penstocks are pipes which carry water from the reservoir to the turbines inside power station.
They are usually made of steel and are equipped with gate systems.Water under high pressure
flows through the penstock. A tunnel serves the same purpose as a penstock. It is used when an
obstruction is present between the dam and power station such as a mountain.

(4)Surge Tank
Surge tanks are tanks connected to the water conductor system. It serves the purpose of reducing
water hammering in pipes which can cause damage to pipes. The sudden surges of water in
penstock is taken by the surge tank, and when the water requirements increase, it supplies the
collected water thereby regulating water flow and pressure inside the penstock.

(5) Power Station

Power station contains a turbine coupled to a generator. The water brought to the power station
rotates the vanes of the turbine producing torque and rotation of turbine shaft. This rotational
torque is transfered to the generator and is converted into electricity. The used water is released
through the tail race. The difference between head race and tail race is called gross head and by
subtracting the frictional losses we get the net head available to the turbine for generation of
electricity.
Hydropower is considered to be a renewable energy source because it uses the con-
tinuous flow of water without using up the water resource. It is also nonpolluting, since it does
not rely on burning fossil fuels. Hydropower is currently the lead-ing renewable energy source in
the United States. In 2009, it accounted for about 63 percent of all other renewable energy
sources, such as wind, solar, and biomass.
Reclamation is the nation’s second largest producer of hydroelectric power, with 58
hydroelectric power plants and 194 generating units in operation and an installedcapacity of
14,693 MW. Almost all suitable sites for dams have already been de-veloped, so there is not
much scope for further growth in water power. However,there are numerous areas where
research can lead to increases in the efficiency and reliability of hydroelectric plants and
decreases in maintenance costs. Presently,wind and solar energy are growing at a rapid rate, and
in a near future they will be the major sources of renewable energy for production of electric
power.
The hydroelectric power plants usually require a dam to store water, a pen-stock for
delivering the falling water, electric generators, a valve house whichcontains the main sluice
valves, automatic isolating valves, and related control equipments. Also, a surge tank is located
just before the valve house to protect the penstock from a pressure surge, called water hammer,
in case the turbine gates are suddenly closed. In addition to electric energy production, most
dams in the
United States are built for other uses, including recreation, irrigation, flood con-
trol, and public water supply. A schematic diagram of a hydroelectric power plantis shown in
Figure 1.6.
The water from the dam is led to the water turbine through the penstock, andthe
potential energy of the elevated water is transformed into kinetic energy. Thewater turbine
converts hydraulic energy into mechanical energy, and the generator
REFERENCES:

An Internal Combustion Engine by R K RAJPUT

An Internal Combustion Engine by V M DOMKUNDWAR

An Internal Combustion Engine by V N GANESHAN