METROLOGIA-2003 – Metrologia para a Vida

Sociedade Brasileira de Metrologia (SBM)

Setembro 01−05, 2003, Recife, Pernambuco – BRASIL

PRODUCTION METROLOGY FOR MEASUREMENT OF GEOMETRICAL

QUANTITIES -
THE QUALITY CONTROL CENTURY FROM ABBE AND TAYLOR TO
NANOMETROLOGY

P. H. Osanna 1, M.N. Durakbasa 1, A. Afjehi-Sadat 1

1
Department for Interchangeable Manufacturing and Industrial Metrology, Wien, Austria

Abstract: This contribution describes the importance of
production metrology for industrial manufacturing and
scientific research. Particularly demonstrated is the
influence on quality assurance and quality management. For
measurement technique can and must be given a key role
especially in modern industrial environment. Essential
contributions to increase the quality of products and the
productive power of plants can be reached furthermore
through the aimed application of measurement methods.
Modern production metrology and its industrial application
started on the basis of the scientific, technical and
organisational work of E. Abbe, W. Taylor and F.W. Taylor
and at the end of the twentieth century - the “Quality
Control Century”- the development has reached
Nanometrology and will proceed to Femtometrology. The
basis and development of most advanced metrological
achievements are described shortly and the state of the art is
presented illustrated by examples from practical application
in various areas.
Keywords: measurement technique, measurement
uncertainty, quality management.
1. THE 20 TH CENTURY - THE CENTURY OF
QUALITY CONTROL
At the turn from the nineteenth to the twentieth century
there have been various basic inventions in the field of
metrology especially as far as geometrical measurements are
concerned but also in the field of quality control. To remind
the probably most famous high lights of basics and
achievements in production metrology and names of their
inventors it can be pointed out:
- E. Abbe 1890: Comparator Principle (Abbe’s Principle)
to avoid first order measurement errors
- A. A. Michelson 1893: Michelson Interferometer
- E. Johansson 1896: parallel gauges
- W. Taylor 1905: Taylor’s Principle for design of “go”
and “not go” gauges
It was the field of production metrology where F. W. Taylor
realized approximately at the same time the first steps to
quality control and therefore also to what hundred years
later has developed to modern quality management [1, 2].
This of course is explained in a very simplified way but
nonetheless is in basic industrial reality.
Prior to the industrial revolution, craftspeople served as
fabricators and inspectors and were entirely responsible for
the quality of their products. Inspection was not a separate
function in production. Mass production and the
interchangeability of parts demanded a new organisation and
management in the industrial domain.
The modern philosophy of production - and at the same time
the philosophy of production metrology and inspection -
was created by the work of F. W. Taylor, the Father of
Scientific Management of manufacturing industry. By
decomposing a job into individual work tasks, inspection
tasks were separated from production tasks, which led to the
creation of a separate quality department in production
organisations and to the tasks of inspection and quality
control [3].
Separate job classifications for inspectors became common
in industry. The task of the inspection department was to
seek out defective items in production and remove them
prior to shipment. Everyone knew that inspection was used
simply to ensure that only good products would be shipped,
because the pressure from management was for output, not
quality. Inspectors became "Policemen" who were to catch
"Lawbreakers" - the operators and others who contributed to
poor quality products.
Tens of billions of EURO, pounds or dollars of sales depend
worldwide each year directly on metrology and
measurement instruments. The appropriate laboratory
research provides the measurement bedrock upon which
modern society stands. Mobile phones, air bags, fax
machines, video cassette recorders - these products require
precision measurements of voltage, frequency, velocity,
pressure, radiation, and temperature and especially length
measurements and production metrology with measuring
resolutions and accuracies in the micrometer and
submicrometer range.
2. QUALITY IN PRODUCTION AND QUALITY The past thirty years have seen a continued increase in
CONTROL importance of computer aided measurement techniques as a
means to control industrial production [8]. At the same time
Quality affects every aspect of organisations in general and
the basic definitions governing design, production and
especially of manufacturing organisations and producing
quality control of workpieces have undergone considerable
factories [1, 2]. Thus, for a product to be successful, the
advance with the goal of international harmonization and
assurance of quality requires a comprehensive systems
standardization. Focal points of interest included the
approach [4, 5, 6].
definitions of nominal, real and substitute geometrical
In modern factories and industrial companies quality is the features [9, 10].
responsibility of everyone, from the chief executive officer
to the operators on the production floor. People such as
4. OPTOELECTRONIC WORKPIECE
machine operators, assembly workers, ticket agents, nurses,
MEASUREMENT
and waitresses are the craftspeople who build quality into
products and services. First-line supervisors must provide There exists a variety of optoelectronic methods for
the motivating climate for employees, direct them in proper dimensional and geometrical measurements (see Figure 1).
procedures, work together with them to locate problems, and Light barriers and reflex sensors are in practical use since
assist in eliminating sources of error. Middle management more than thirtyfive years. These inexpensive devices are
must plan, co-ordinate, execute, and monitor quality policy. very robust, fast and efficient in use. The further on
Finally top management must commit the resources and developed measuring devices led to one and more
provide the leadership necessary to set the tone and carry out dimensional systems. But with increasing complexity the
the requirements of an ongoing, dynamic quality policy. price of the device increases superproportional. So we still
find three dimensional optoelectronic methods only rather
Production is the process of converting the resources
seldom in industrial applications whereas interferometers,
available to the producing organisation into products. The
laser scanners, triangulation and auto focus systems are
collection of all interrelated activities and operations
more or less standard devices in production metrology.
involved in producing goods is called a production system.
Three major areas of quality are critical to any production
system: the product development, the production process,
and product use.
Product development and product use are customer-oriented
activities. The quality effort in these activities should focus
on determining customer needs and on translating these
needs and requirements into product designs that meet
fitness-for-use criteria. The production process includes the
physical facilities and information and control systems that
are required to convert resources into products. The
production process is largely under the control of the
business organisation. Quality efforts here are oriented
toward ensuring that the product conforms to specifications.

Fig. 1. Optoelectronic measuring methods, overview

3. MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUE IN MODERN
PRODUCTION
Depending on whether the macrogeometry or the
microgeometry is the focus of the analysis of workpiece
surfaces, a distinction is made between form errors of
different order, both in the technical literature and in the
relevant standards. It is common practice to collectively
consider the more or less short wave geometric deviations of
a third or higher order as surface roughness on the basis of
worldwide understood and internationally established
parameters. As far as geometrical deviations of form and
positions are concerned the increased use of co-ordinate
metrology has improved common knowledge.
The application of artificial intelligence and CA
technologies in the production field also puts new
metrological demands [7]. A sophisticated measurement
technique, among other things, must be considered as a most
crucial requirement for the production of industrial goods of
a controlled and optimised quality.
Precise knowledge of the boundary conditions must be
presupposed for efficient optoelectronic measurements.
Variations in colour, surface finish and cleanliness of the
object to be tested show considerable influence on the
measurement uncertainty. For calibration and reference
measurements contacting methods are still in use.
If according to the state of the art a general comparision is
carried out between optoelectronic measuring systems and
co-ordinate metrology as described in the following
paragraph the result will be that in general optoelectronic
devices are more expensive whereas the needed measuring
time is smaller by the factor 100 or even shorter. On the
other side the measuring resolution and measuring
uncertainty of co-ordinate metrology is better by the factor
10 to 100.
The last few years have shown considerable advance in the
practical application of optoelectronic metrology. Especially
because of the very short measuring times and the probable
increase of the measuring accuracy further developments are
expected for the near future.

5. CO-ORDINATE METROLOGY

5.1. General Remarks

Co-ordinate metrology can be defined as follows:

- The geometrical features of the workpiece to be measured
are touched in various measuring points using a co-ordinate
measuring device.
- The co-ordinates of the measuring points are used to Fig. 2. Conventional Metrology and Co-ordinate Metrology
compute the mathematical geometry of the workpiece with
help of the computer of the co-ordinate measuring machine. In this context it is distinguished between nominal, real and
If it is necessary to choose a measuring device it is also substitute geometry. This follows the way of workpieces
necessary to know the reasons of possible deviations in so from design to manufacturing and quality control.
far dimensional as well as form measurements should be If we take into consideration cylindrical features another
done. Only with three co- ordinate measuring machines distinction can be made. On the one hand it is distinguished
(CMM) it is possible to measure deviations of dimensions, between Gauss and Chebyshev regression element as far as
form and position very accurate with only one measuring best fit elements are concerned, on the other hand we are
device. Furthermore it has been shown that accurate co- interested in the minimum circumscribed and the maximum
ordinate measuring machines can be used to evaluate inscribed element if the feature must fit to a counterpart.
workpiece microgeometry instead of special devices [20].
Besides measuring accuracy the number of workpieces to be
measured is important when choosing the measuring device.
Especially when workpiece tolerances are more accurate
than tolerance grade IT5 (e.g. 11 µm for 50 mm) it is
necessary to make use of co-ordinate metrology. This is also
possible for large series of workpieces.

5.2. Application of Co-ordinate Metrology

At the time being co-ordinate metrology is the most

important tool to solve nearly all possible different problems
of production metrology especially when high flexibility and
high accuracy are demanded.
When we consider as example a bore hole we see the
difference between conventional measurements and the
application of co-ordinate metrology (see Figure 2). A two- Fig. 3. Measurement of an Artificial Tooth for Implantation
point-measurement has to be done by means of the strategy
trying to get the maximum value perpendicular to the axis The calibration of co-ordinate measuring machines can be
and then finding the minimum in the axial section. The bore executed with high accuracy on the basis of national or
diameter is given by the condition that these both diameter international standards [11]. For this purpose test artefacts
values are equal. and laser interferometers are in practical use [12, 13].

In contradiction to this method we get the diameter of a bore
hole when using co-ordinate metrology by contacting the
surface in several measuring points whereas at least five
points have to be measured because of mathematical
conditions. When we measure more than five points we
must use regression methods for the evaluation of the
measuring result. But in addition to the dimensional result
we also get information about the deviations from the ideal
cylindrical form and about the position of the feature
respectively in a workpiece co-ordinate system dependent of
the overall shape of the workpiece.
Co-ordinate metrology is the up-to-date measuring method
for complex dimensional and geometrical measuring
problems which can only be solved with sufficient but high
accuracy using this method.
An area with growing importance of geometrical metrology
in general is for biomedical application. Figures 3 and 4
show as example the carried out measurement of an artificial
tooth for implantation in a human jawbone and the
measuring data respectively.

Fig. 4. Evaluation of Measuring Data of an Artificial Tooth
6. NANOTECHNOLOGY AND NANOMETROLOGY
6.1. Recent Developments
Since approximately 1975 we speak about
“Nanotechnology”, a term introduced by N. Taniguchi [14]
to describe manufacture to finishes and tolerances in the
nanometer region (see Figure 5).
Extrapolating the specifications from existing and past
machine tools, such as precision lathes and grinders, to the
new generation of machine tools it was concluded quite
correct that before 2000 an accuracy of between 0,1 µm and
1 nm will be needed to cater for the needs of industry.
Taniguchi was too pessimistic for this has been already state
of the art before 1995 [15]. This goal can be reached only
through the development and application of high precision
manufacturing processes and by the application of high
precision measurement technique of apart conventional
methods.
This is an important characteristic trend in present
instrumentation and metrology. To achieve surface finishes
and part tolerances in the sub micrometer and nanometer
region it is necessary to incorporate very sophisticated
instrumentation and metrology into the design. In the
electronics industry the drive towards micro miniaturisation
for higher packing densities and faster switching is still
going on. In engineering we see the development trend
towards micro mechanical parts with dimensions of only
some tenth or hundreds of millimetres.
Fig. 5. Achievable Accuracy in Manufacturing, Development
In production engineering tolerances of workpieces decrease
continuously. On the one side this can be seen in close
connection to increasing demands of customers and
consumers in reference to the quality of products and to
quality management of processes. On the other side this
development can be traced to the beginning of the twentieth
century [16] and it lies in one line with the perspective of
nanotechnology. The accuracy improvement of one ISO
tolerance grade every decade still continues [17] and also
recent reports give evidence on the effect of constantly
tightening workpiece tolerances [18]. As the tolerances of
workpieces and their features decrease the interaction and
correlation between dimensional tolerances and surface
finish becomes more important [19].
Extremely high accuracy demands deposit presently already
at highly developed instruments for everyday use as there
are video cassette recorders, CD-players, mobile telephones,
air bags, fax and copying machines, further on the sensor
technique in automotive engineering and even in the home
appliance if we think on one-hand mixing taps which
demand ultra precision form tolerances.
6.2. New Methods and Materials
The meaning of nanotechnology shows itself first of all
together with production and measurement technique, but it
encompasses far more than engineering and it finds
application in very different sciences and disciplines, as
there are biology, physics, medicine and electronics.
Just in electronics nanotechnology stands in close
connection with the tendency to micro miniaturisation
started by the growing needs at electronic circuits especially
in aviation, space and military technique. The goal is to
design smallest electronic instruments with highest possible
reliability and service life which contain nevertheless a
multitude of electronic circuits and elements and which can
be manufactured in large numbers very economically.
Thereby very extensively automated processes stand in the
foreground.
The importance of nanotechnology in the engineering
domain shows itself in the need to raise the precision of
manufacturing processes considerably [20]. For the
production of high technology goods it was necessary to
develop new manufacturing processes under application of
novel raw materials. Such new techniques are for instance
ion beam machining and thin film production. Innovative
materials are silicon and glass ceramics. That joined with
the interest in miniature sensors and actuators and accurate
slideways to make possible the control and supervision of
processes with highest possible accuracy and moderate
expense.
6.3. Methods in Nanometrology
Nanotechnology is not restricted only to the production in
the nanometric range. It is evident that one will be
endeavoured in future to utilise multipurpose instruments
with high flexibility, which should operate fast and
insensitively as much as possible against environmental
influences like thermal drift and vibrations.
In persecution of this aim since about 1982 new high
resolution and high precision measuring devices have been
developed, especially Scanning Tunnelling Microscopy
(STM) [21] and Atomic Force or Scanning Probe
Microscopy (AFM, SPM). For highest demands these
methods make it possible to explore atomic structures and in
general very accurate and small industrially produced parts
and structures [22].
Figure 6 shows a 3-D image topography of a sample silicon
surface obtained by Scanning Probe Microscopy where the
single atoms can be clearly recognised as atomic structure.
Fig. 6. Atomic Structure Topography Obtained by Scanning Probe
Microscopy
More and more we see the growing importance of those
developments. The resolution of the measurement
instruments has been improved to an atomic level. This will
be pursued in future still increasingly, further on however
also to reduce measurement time as well as uncertainty and
to increase precision will be of important interest.
6.4. Metrological Characteristics
The search for the spatial correlation of features as well as
the appropriate identification are very important in general
in dimensional metrology. Atomic structures or the order of
molecules are typical points of interest in the field of
nanotechnology.
Figure 7 shows the values and ranges of the measuring
resolution and measuring range for the different methods
used in nanometrology.
AFM: Atomic Force Microscopy
STM: Scanning Tunnelling Microscopy
SEM: Scanning Electron Microscopy
OIM: Optical Interference Microscopy
SCM: Scanning Confocal Microscopy
SSM: Scanning Stylus Microscopy
Fig. 7. Measuring Resolution and Measuring Range for Different
Methods
For a measuring device the capability to make possible the
visualisation of the surface or workpiece feature to be
investigated and the quantification of this visual information
are essential characteristics. In this connection D.
Whitehouse [15] speaks about a "Metrology Gap". The
reduction in the scale of features or details to be investigated
has not necessarily been accompanied by an increase in the
ability to quantify. Due to the inability to calibrate at the
atomic level of nanotechnology there are difficulties to
quantify with sufficient accuracy.
When we consider existing optical or stylus methods and
also scanning electron microscopy the typical value of the
ratio of vertical resolution to lateral resolution is about 0.01.
This depends typically from conventional machining with
typical cutting depth to width ratio.
In the field of nanotechnology at the atomic scale there are
similar demands for resolution both lateral and vertical to
the investigated surface because of the need for information
of the shape of small structures and the shape of for instance
cells, molecules or atoms. With scanning tunnelling and
atomic force microscopes lateral resolutions up to 1 nm and
in vertical direction of less than 0.1 nm are achieved. So
these measuring devices achieve a ratio of resolution of
nearly 1 showing an important advance over the above
mentioned conventional methods.
6.5. Application of Nanometrology
The search for the spatial correlation of features as well as
the appropriate identification are very important in general
in dimensional metrology. Atomic structures or the order of
molecules are typical points of interest in the field of
nanotechnology. The structure and surface topography of
precision machined parts can be investigated by that means.
Typical examples illustrate the practical application. Figure
8 shows the surface structure of a high precision machined
alloy specimen. Figure 9 shows a small part of the surface of
a compact disc.
Fig. 8. High Precision Machined Alloy Specimen
Fig. 9. Surface of a Compact Disc
7. INTELLIGENT MEASURING CELL
An intelligent measuring cell for the flexible automation of
production metrology, quality management, data collection
and data evaluation in small and medium sized enterprises
(SME) was drawn up at Vienna University of Technology.
Such an intelligent measuring cell can be defined as
follows: It is a compound of hardware and software with the
task to find solutions for all kinds of measurement problems
in an environment of intelligent manufacturing and quality
control. This should be achieved with a minimum of manual
operations. Figure 10 shows the principle of that measuring
cell.
Fig. 10. Scheme of Intelligent Measuring Cell
The system consists of various precision measuring devices,
especially CMM, roughness and form testers, robots for
workpiece and probe manipulation, a local area network of
various personal computers especially for CAD, CAE and
CAQ evaluation, data bank systems for construction,
technological and quality data, and numerical and graphical
data output. Such a measuring cell is an important part of a
modern system of quality management and assurance and
the above mentioned various tasks can be solved by the
application of this measuring and evaluating system.
Especially when working with huge amounts of measuring
data for instance in the case of exact form measurements or
3D surface evaluations it is essential for economic work to
transfer the measured data of workpiece features or whole
parts to an evaluation computer or to the CAD system.
Besides drastic reduction of overall measuring time the
shape and dimensions the of workpiece features can be
interpreted more clearly.
The presented ideas can be seen as further steps with the
goal to achieve economical manufacturing, inspection and
management of quality data in modern small and medium
sized plants especially for precision engineering and
nanotechnology. With great flexibility this results in
accurate and wastefree production.
8. CONCLUDING REMARKS
In modern manufacturing environment there exist close
interactions between quality management and production
metrology. It is correct that quality management is much
more than measurement technique but it is not possible to
achieve high quality of technical products without
appropriate and intelligent measurements.
The authors want to present ideas how to achieve accurate
and automated inspection and quality management in
modern manufacturing environment taking into
consideration the up-to-date economic situation in
manufacturing industry and especially of small and medium
sized enterprises. Besides linking of dimensional measuring [17] P.H. Osanna, “Dreidimensionales Messen. (Three
equipment and other measuring devices with various Dimensional Metrology.) Future 80”, Ingenieur-Digest-
computer systems it is very essential to provide for Verlag,Frankfurt, 1980, pp. 216/218.
communication with databanks for expert knowledge and [18] D. Swyt, “Challenges to NIST in Dimensional Metrology:
manufacturing data. With great flexibility this will result in The Impact of Tightening Tolerances in the U.S. Discrete-
precise, economic, sustainable and wastefree production. Part Manufacturing Industry”, NIST report IR4757,
Gaithersburg: National Institute for Standards and
Technology, Precision Engineering Division, 1992.
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