M

Measurements and
d Data
D Analysis
A l i

PC1141/2/3/4 PHYSICS I/II/III/IV

PC1221/2 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICS I/II

ACADEMIC YEAR 2010/11

Physics
Ph i L Levell 1 Laboratory
L b
Department of Physics
National Universityy of Singapore
g p
 O li
Outline
2

 Uncertainties in Measurements
 Systematic
Sy t ti and
dRRandom
d U
Uncertainties
t i ti
 Accuracy and Precision
 Significant Figures
 Estimating Random Uncertainties
 Mean
M
 Standard Deviation

 Standard
St d d Error
E
 Combining Uncertainties
 Linear Least Squares Fits
 What
h iis measurement??
3

Measurement is the process of quantifying

experience
p i off the
h externall world.
ld
when you can measure what you are
“when
speaking
ki about
b t and d express it iin numbers,
b
yyou know something g about it; but, when yyou
cannot measure it, when you cannot express
it in numbers
numbers, your knowledge is of a meager
and unsatisfactory kind; it may be the
b i i off knowledge,
beginning k l d but
b you h have
scarcelyy in yyour thoughts
g to the stageg of
science.”
science. Lord Kelvin
Pioneer of thermodynamics
y
& statistical mechanics
 Uncertainties
i i and/or
d/ Errors
4

 All
ll measurements h
have some d
degree
g off
uncertainties/errors
uncertainties/errors.
 Uncertainty is the difference between the result of
th measurementt and
the d th
the true
t value.
l
 The complete statement of a measured value
SHOULD include an estimate of its uncertainty.
 The
Th study
dy andd evaluation
l i off uncertaintyi y iin
measurements is often called data analysis.
analysis
 Expressing
i uncertainties
i i
5

 Result
l off a measurement is p
presented
d as

 We are quite confident that it lies within

 Example:
Absolute
b l and
d Fractional
i l Uncertainty
i
6

Ab l
Absolute Uncertainty
i
• It represents
p the actual amount byy which
the best estimated value is uncertain.

i l uncertainty
Fractional i
• It g
gives us the significance
g of the uncertaintyy
with respect to the best estimated value.
 Accuracy and
d Precision
i i
7

 Accuracy y
 is a measure of how close an experimental result is to the true
value
l (published/accepted
( bli h d/ d value).
l )

 Precision
 is
i a measure off the
h ddegree off closeness
l off repeated
d
measurements.
 8

Accuracy
versus Poor accuracyy
P
P
Precision
i i Good precision

Poor accuracy
Poor precision

Good accuracy
Good precision
 Types off uncertainties
i i
9

 Randomd uncertainties
 It results from unknown and unpredictable variations
that
h arise
i iin all ll experimental
i l situations.
i i
 Repeated measurements will give slightly different values each
time.
time
 Magnitude
g ((size)) or sign
g of random uncertaintyy cannot be
determined from a single measurement.
 Random
R d uncertainties
t i ti can b be estimated
ti t d byb taking
t ki severall
measurements.
 Types off uncertainties
i i
10

 Systematic
y uncertainties
 It is usually associated with particular measurement
i
instruments or techniques.
h i
 The same sign and nearly the same magnitude of the
uncertainty is obtained on repeated measurements.
measurements
 It is commonly y caused byy improperly
p p y “calibrated” or “zeroed”
instrument or by experimenter bias.
 It CANNOT be b eliminated
li i t d b by averaging
i or ttreated
t d statistically.
t ti ti ll
 Random
d versus S
Systematic
i Uncertainties
i i
11

Systematic:
S t ti SMALL Systematic:
S t ti SMALL
R d
Random: SMALL R d
Random: LARGE

Systematic: LARGE Systematic: LARGE

Random: SMALL Random: LARGE
 True value
l isi generally
ll not k
known…
12

… we can still
till assess tto random
d
uncertainties easily but cannot tell
anything about systematic uncertainties.
uncertainties
 Si ifi
Significant figures
fi
13

 All
ll d
digits
g are significant
g f except
p anyy zeros whose
h sole
l
purpose is to show the location of the decimal place.
place
Scientific Notation
123 g 1 23 × 102 g
1.23
123.0 g 1.230 × 102 g
0 0012 m
0.0012 1 2 × 10−3 m
1.2
0.0001203 cm 1.203 × 10−44 cm
0.001230 s 1.230 × 10−3 s
1000 cm 1 × 103 cm
1000. cm 1.000 × 103 cm
150
5 1.50
5 × 102
 Expressing
i uncertainty
i
14

 When
h expressing
p g a measurement and
d its associated
d
uncertainty as
(
(measured l  uncertainty)
d value t i ty) units
it
 STEP 1: round the uncertaintyy to one significant
g figure,
g , then
 STEP 2: round the measurement to the same precision as the
uncertainty.
t i t

 For example, 9 802562  0.007916

example round 9.802562 0 007916 m/s2 to
g  g
 = (9.803
(9 803  0.008)
0 008) m/s
/ 2
 Si ifi
Significant fi
figures iin calculations
l l i
15

 Addition
ddi i and
d Subtraction
b i
When adding or subtracting physical quantities
quantities, the
precision off the
p h ffinall result
l is the
h same as the
h
precision of the least precise term.
term
132 45 cm
132.45
0 823
0.823cm
+ 5.6
56 cm
138 873
138.873cm --> 138.9
138 9 cm
 Si ifi
Significant fi
figures iin calculations
l l i
16

 Multiplication
l ipli i and
d Division
i i i
When multiplying or dividing physical quantities,
quantities
the
h number
b off significant
g f d
digits
g in the
h ffinall result
l is
the same as the factor (or divisor…)
divisor ) with the fewest
number
b off significant
g f d
digits.
g
6.273 N 0.0204 mm
× 55.55 m  21 C
C°
34.5015 N·m 0.00097142857 mm/C°
/
35 N·m 0.00097 mm/C°
/
 Comparing experimental and accepted values
17

E ± E = An experimental
p i l value
l and d iits uncertainty.
i y
A = An accepted (published) value.
value Th range for
The f which
hi h
A iis equall tto E
within
ithi uncertainty.
t i t

 If A lies within the range of E ± E,

E the experimental
value
l isi equal
q l tto th
the accepted
t d value
l within
ithi uncertainty.
t i t
 Percentage discrepancy quantifies the accuracy of a
measurement.t
 C
Comparing
i two experimental
i l values
l
18

E1 ± E1 = First experimental value and its uncertainty.

uncertainty
E2 ± E2 = Second
S d experimental
i l value
l and d iits uncertainty.
i
The range for
Th f
hi h E1 is
which i
equall to E2
within
i hi
uncertainties.
i i

 These
Th two
t experimental
i t l values
l are equall within
ithi uncertainties
t i ti if
h range E1 ± E1 has
the h any overlap
l with h range E2 ± E2.
i h the
 Percentage difference quantifies the precision of these
measurements.
measurements
 Mean (Average)
( ) value
l
19

 Let x1, x2,,… xN represent

p a set off N measurements off
a physical quantity x.x
 The average or mean value of this set of
measurements t iis given
gi b
byy

 The
h mean is almost
l entirely
ly ffree ffrom random
d
uncertainties and gives the best estimate for the true
value
l off the
h qquantityy measured.
d
 S d d deviation
Standard d i i
20

 Standard
d dd deviation
i i quantifies
q ifi
the spread of the data about
the mean.
th
 Statistical interpretation:
 68.3% of data lies within 1 about the mean
 95 5% of data lies within 2 about the mean
95.5%
 99.73% off d
data li i hi 3 about
lies within b the
h mean
3 range
2 range
g
1 range
 S d d deviation
Standard d i i as uncertainty
i
21

 Suppose
pp the
h mean and
d standard
d dd deviation
i i off a set off N
measurements of a physical quantity x have been
d t
determined.
i d
 If one more EXTRA measurement is to be made (under
th same conditions),
the diti ) th
then th
the reading
di xN+1 wouldld have
h a
probability of 68.3% lying within Th
There is
i a probability
b bilit
off 68
68.3%% th
thatt xN+1
li within
lies i hi this
hi range.

 The
Th standard
d d deviation
d i i is i then
h treated
d as the
h uncertainty
i
for the measurement of a single reading.
 S d d deviation
Standard d i i off the
h mean
22
 Standard deviation of the
mean measures ththe
x1 x1 x1 x1
x2 x2 x2 x2
spread of all means
x3 x3 x3 …. x3 about the overall mean.
mean
x4 x4 x4 x4
…. …. …. …. an
xN xN xN xN approximated
i d
f
formula
l

 It is also called the

The overall mean for all standard error and is the
means can th
then b
be error usuallyy q
quoted for a
determined. measurement in the
lit t
literature.
 Expressing
i uncertainty
i
23

 Best estimate:
 Uncertainty of the mean:
 Statistically,
lly, the
h true value
l would
ld have
h a probability
p b bl y
of 68.3%
68 3% lying within There is a probability
of 68.3% that xtrue
lies within this range.
 S d d error as uncertainty
Standard i
24

N Mean
ea S. .
S.D. S. .
S.E. Result
esu t
10 19.6
6 2.71 0.857
8 19.6±0.9
6
100 19 89
19.89 2 26
2.26 0 226
0.226 19 9±0 2
19.9±0.2
1000 19 884
19.884 2 48
2.48 0 0784
0.0784 19 88±0 08
19.88±0.08
10000 19.9879
9 9 79 2.52
5 0.0252
5 19.99±0.03
9 99 3
Use standard error if you compare True
mean value w.r.t.
w r t true value.
value value

Use standard deviation if Mean value

you
ou compare indi
individual
idual
d t w.r.t.
data t mean value.
l Individual data
 Example
l 1: Thickness
hi k off a metall plate
l
25

A student
d measures theh thickness
h k off a metall p
plate
l and
d
obtains the results as follow:
d ± 0.001
0 001 (mm)
( )
3 087
3.087 3 156
3.156 3 095
3.095 3 209
3.209 3 131
3.131
3.052
3 5 3.034
3 34 3.115
3 5 3.044
3 44 3.080
3 8

State the final result of the thickness of the metal plate

with
i h the
h appropriate
pp p i number
b off significant
ig ifi fi
figures.
g
 Example
l 1: S
Solution
l i
26

 Mean:

 Standard deviation:

 Standard
St d d error:

 Final result:
 Example
l 1: S
Solution
l i
27

 1 about the mean:

 SIX of them lie within this range:

 Second trial:

 Extra trial:
 Uncertainties
i i propagation
i
28

 Suppose
pp the
h value
l off a q
quantityy R ((x,, y, z,, …)) is
determined from the measured values of a number of
independent
d p d q
quantities x,, y, z,, … which
h h are ddirectly
ly
measured.
measured
 Question: How to determine the uncertainty in R
f
from the
th uncertainties
t i ti associated
i t d with
ith th
the
measurements of x,
x y,
y z,
z … respectively?
 C bi i uncertainties
Combining i i
29

 Addition
ddi i and
d Subtraction
b i
Let A ± A and B ± B represent two measured
q
quantities.
 The uncertainty in the sum S
S=A+B
A+B is

 The uncertaintyy in the difference D=A−B is

 C bi i uncertainties
Combining i i
30

 Multiplication
l ipli i and
d Division
i i i
Let A ± A and B ± B represent two measured
q
quantities.
 The uncertainty in the product P
P=A×B
A×B is

 The uncertainty in the quotient Q=A÷B is

 Example
l 2: Area off a rectangular
l plate
l
31

Suppose
pp the
h area A off a rectangular
g l pplate
l is to b
be
determined Several independent measurements of the
determined.
l g h L and
length d width
d h W off the
h plate
pl were obtained:
b d
0 01 (cm)
L ± 0.01
24 26 24.23
24.26 24 23 24.22
24 22 24.25
24 25 24.28
24 28 24.26
24 26 24.24
24 24 24.23
24 23
W ± 0.01
0 01 (cm)
50 36 50.35
50.36 50 35 50.38
50 38 50.41
50 41 50.36
50 36 50.39
50 39 50.37
50 37 50.32
50 32

Estimate the area of the p

plate and its uncertainty.
y
 Example
l 2: S
Solution
l i
32

 Mean:

 Standard deviation:

 Standard error:
 Example
l 2: S
Solution
l i
33

 Best estimated
d ffor the
h llength
g h and
d width:
dh

 Best estimated for the area:

 Uncertainty
y off the
h area:

 Final result:
Which is the BEST line?

34
 Linear
i lleast squares fi
fits
35

 The
h bbest straight
gh lline to ffit a set off measured
dddata
points (x1, y1),
) (x2, y2),
) …, (xN, yN) is
x: independent variable
y: dependent variable
m: gradient/slope
c: y-intercept
i t t

A
Assumptions:
ti
 The uncertainty in our measurements of x is negligible but not
in y
 The uncertainty
y in our measurements of y is the same
 Linear
i lleast squares fi
fits: Formula
l
36

 Gradient:
G di t

 y-intercept:
y intercept:

 Uncertainty for measured y:

 C
Correlation
l i coefficient
ffi i
37

 It is a measure of how well the data follow the straight

li obtained.
line b i d
 r = 0: no correlation
 r = 1: perfect
f t correlation
l ti
 There is a 0.1%
0 1% probability for no correlation even if
 r ≥ 0.992 ffor N = 5
 r ≥ 0.974
974 for N = 6
 r ≥ 0.951
0 951 for N = 7
 r ≥ 0.925 ffor N = 8
 Example
l 3: Acceleration
l i off gravity
i
38

A student
d wants to measure the
h acceleration
l off gravity
g y
g by measuring the period T and the length ℓ of a
simple
pl pendulum.
p d l
ℓ ± 0.1 ((cm))
57.3 6
61.1 73.2 8
83.7 95.0
T ± 0.001 (s)
( )
1.527 1.558
8 1.737 1.852
8 1.963
6
Estimate
E ti t the
th acceleration
l ti off gravity
it g and
d its
it
uncertainty with the appropriate number of significant
figures.
fi
 Example
l 3: S
Solution
l i
39

 Linearization:

 Independent variable x:

 Dependent variable y:

 Gradient
G di t m:

 y-intercept:
 Example
l 3: S
Solution
l i
40

 Gradient:
d

 y-intercept:
i t t

 Uncertainty for measured y:

 Acceleration of gravity g:

 Finall result:
l