A.

GOLD ORE
I. Material Introduction
Gold has been known as the most beautiful and precious element. Its magnificence has
made it alluring for use in gems, coins, and work of art for a large number of years.
Throughout the history of our planet almost every established culture has used gold to
symbolize power, beauty, purity and accomplishment.

Gold is one of only one of the couple of elements that can influence legislative issues
and financial matters. Wars have been battled about access to gold. Urban areas and towns
have sprung up and ceased to exist as gold was found and afterward mined out. Numerous
countries still base their riches as indicated by the measure of gold they keep as treasure.

Gold lies amidst the intermittent table. The periodic table is a diagram that shows how
components are identified with each other. Gold is a substantial metal in a gathering known
as the move metals. (Hoffman, n.d)

I. Application
Today, most of the gold that is newly mined or recycled is used in the manufacture of
jewelry. About 78% of the gold consumed each year is used in the manufacture of jewelry.

II. Structure

It is given in the atomic structure that there are 6 energy levels. The first energy level
contains two electrons. The second energy level has eight electrons. The third energy level
consists of 28 electrons. The fourth energy level has 32 electrons. The fifth energy level is
composed of 18 electrons. Lastly, the sixth energy contains only a single electron.

III. Properties
Special properties of gold make it perfect for manufacturing jewelry. These include: very
high luster; desirable yellow color; tarnish resistance; ability to be drawn into wires,
hammered into sheets or cast into shapes. These are all properties of an attractive metal that
is easily worked into beautiful objects. Another extremely important factor that demands the
use of gold as a jewelry metal is tradition. Important objects are expected to be made from
gold.

IV. Processing
Jewelery is made utilizing numerous techniques however the most widely recognized
technique is by the 'lost wax' casting method. It was produced in old times and it is still used
right up 'til today, albeit present day instruments are currently utilized. The reason that is
called lost wax is, on the grounds that the article that is to be made is initially etched out of
wax to the accurate determinations that the completed item is going to resemble. After the
wax figure is finished it is then encased in a silica encasement or in the case of jewelery it is
then encased in a plaster. At that point after the mortar encasement has solidified and dried it
is put into a broiler or furnace. This will bring about the wax to soften and wear out leaving
its empty image within the plaster encasement. At that point the mortar encasement with the
hollow shape of the jewelry is set into a casting centrifuge which is an equipment that will
utilize outward constrain to drive liquid gold down through an opening in the piece of mortar
where it will fill the empty spot left by the wax softening out. After it has cooled the mortar
is torn open to uncover the jewelry where the wax design once was.
B. CRUDE OIL
I. Material Introduction

Crude oil or unrefined petroleum, is a naturally occurring liquid found within the Earth
comprised of hydrocarbons deposits, organic compounds and small amounts of metal. It is
a nonrenewable resource, created through the heating and compression of organic materials
over a long period of time. Most of the oil presently extracted comes from the remains of
prehistoric algae and zooplankton whose remains settled on the bottom of an Ocean or Lake.
Otherwise known as fossil fuel, crude oil has been known to be utilized for centuries. In
325BC, Alexander the Great used flaming torches of petroleum products to scare his
enemies. In 347AD, Chinese reported to have drilled holes in ground using bamboo to
extract oil. In 1273, Marco Polo recorded visiting the Persian city of Baku, and saw oil being
collected from seeps for use in medicine and lighting. But it was during the Industrial
Revolution that crude oil was first developed, and it's industrial uses were intensified in the
19th century. Currently referred as the "black gold", it became the dominant fuel of the 20th
century and an integral part of the world economy.

II. Application

The petroleum crude oil is refined in petroleum refineries to produce various fuels as well as
a number of other products.

Fuels
Liquefied petroleum gas, commonly referred to as LPG
Gasoline, also called petrol, in various grades
Jet fuel in various grades
Kerosene
Diesel oil
Fuel oil
Other products
Solvents for various industrial and other uses
Lubricants such as motor oils and greases
Petroleum wax
Sulfur, a byproduct of sulfur removal from fuels.
Asphalt
Petroleum coke, used in specialty carbon products or as a solid fuel.
 Petrochemical feed stocks:
Benzene, toluene and xylenes
Petroleum naphtha and fuel oils as feedstocks for steam-assisted thermal
cracking plants referred to as steam crackers that produce intermediate petrochemical
feedstocks

It is common knowledge that oil provides power, light and heat. It’s primary use is as a
raw material to be processed by refineries into gasoline, and diesel fuel. But its uses go far
beyond that, affecting many aspects of a person’s life. Everything from a dvd, to a scented
candle, to a bottle container, to a furniture or even a detergent or shaving cream comes from
crude oil. It is a fact that the world's economy is largely dependent on fossil fuels.

III. Structure
Crude oil consists mostly of hydrocarbons with small amounts of other organic chemical
compounds that may contain nitrogen, oxygen or sulfur. It may also contain trace amounts of
metals such as iron, nickel, copper and vanadium. The most common hydrocarbons found in
petroleum crude oil are linear or branched alkanes(also called paraffins), cycloalkanes (also
called cyclic paraffins or naphthenes),aromatic hydrocarbons, or much more complicated
chemicals like asphaltenes.
IV. Properties

Crude oil is widely used because of its combustibility, density, and efficiency.

The petroleum industry generally classifies crude oil by the geographic location of the
reservoir from which it is produced , and by its sulfur content. Crude oil may be
considered light if it has a low density or heavy if it has a high density and it may be referred
to as sweet if it contains relatively little sulfur or sour if it contains substantial amounts of
sulfur.

Light crude oil is more desirable than heavy oil since it provides a higher yield of
gasoline and sweet oil is more desirable than sour oil because it has fewer environmental
problems and requires less refining to meet sulfur content standards of refined fuels. Each
crude oil has a unique composition and set of physical properties which are delineated
by crude oil assays performed in petroleum laboratories.

V. Processing

Crude oil is typically obtained through oil drilling. It is pumped ashore by the export oil
pumps via undersea pipelines or via oil tankers to a crude oil refinery. It passes thru a
 desalter in order to remove the salts ( such as sodium, calcium and magnesium) which are
proven harmful to the equipments thru corrosion.
The crude oil now requires to be heated and this is done in two stages. The first stage
heater is known as the bottoms feed heater and from here the crude is passed to the furnace
feed heater and piped to the atmospheric distillation unit.
The Atmospheric Distillation Unit (ADU) is a vertical vessel with horizontal perforated
stainless steel trays spaced at specific intervals. The partially vaporised crude oil enters the
vessel, the liquids falling to the base as bottoms and the vapours rising up the column,
condensing on the trays into its different fractions at the pertinent temperatures and pressures.
These fractions are then piped from their relevant stainless steel trays through condensers and
on into holding tanks or passed on to the next process. Some of the residue at the bottom of
the ADU goes to storage as heavy fuel oil the remainder being reheated and passing into the
Vacuum Distillation Unit (VDU).
The fuels will undergo different processes such as hydrocracking, isomerization,
Catalytic Reforming, coking depending on the end product as shown on the diagram.

C. WOOD
I. Material Introduction

Wood is a complex biological structure, a composite of many chemistries and cell types
acting together to serve the needs of a living plant.Wood is the hard, fibrous substance found
beneath bark in the stems and branches of trees and shrubs. Since a new tree can be grown
where one has been cut, wood has been called the world's only renewable natural resource.
Many ancient Egyptian drawings going back to 2000 B.C. depict wood furniture, such as
beds, chairs, stools, tables, beds, and chests. There’s also physical evidence of these wooden
objects, as many were found well-preserved in tombs due to the country’s dry climate. Even
some sarcophagi (coffins) found in the tombs were crafted from wood.
Early Chinese civilizations also promoted the art of woodworking. It’s believed that
woodworking mushroomed in that country starting around 720 B.C. When that happened, the
Chinese developed many sophisticated applications of woodworking, including precise
measurements used for making pots, tables, and other pieces of furniture.
Japan is where this style of woodworking primarily originated. Their use of high-quality
blades and the engineering of the lathe made ancient Japanese woodworkers leaders in
crafting round and curved objects.
The Roman Empire also had its share of skilled woodworkers. Wielding adzes, lathes,
files, planes, saws and drills, including the bow drill, they constructed aqueducts and
waterworks using wooden scaffolding, built impressive warships and barges, and erected
strong and lethal battering rams and catapults for attacking enemy cities.
Throughout the history of mankind, great forests blanketed many parts of the world. They
provided civilization with a valuable and plentiful resource: wood.

II. Application

Wood is a highly versatile material and has a long history of use. Despite the availability
of alternative materials, wood remains preferred choice when it comes to variety of things
and applications.(Faye, 2013)
Here are only a few of many uses of wood:
Furniture and flooring. Wood’s unique aesthetic appeal and character make it an absolute
favourite for furniture making and flooring. Both wooden furniture and flooring give the
home a unique sense of warmth and a touch of sophistication. Wood is also the most popular
choice for garden furniture but only a few types of wood successfully withstand harsh
outdoor conditions such as rapid temperature changes, moisture, insects, wind, UV light, etc.
without any kind of protection. One of the best examples is teak, a tropical hardwood which
originates from south and south-east Asia.
Construction and shipbuilding. Wood is one of the most important construction materials
from the time humans started constructing buildings and ships. In the construction industry, it
is valued for its outstanding insulation properties as well as durability if cared for properly.
Wooden ships and boats (with exception of smaller ones) are becoming a less common
choice but just about all ships and boats were built from wood until the 19th century.
Art. Wood is a popular material for artworks, most notably statues, sculptures, relief
carvings and a wide range of decorative objects. It can also be used as a medium for other art
forms such as paintings for instance.
 Music instruments. Piano, violin, cello, drums, flute, guitar, double bass and a number of
other music instruments are made from wood.
Dishes and utensils. Before the instruction of plastic, most people used wooden dishes
and utensils. However, their popularity tends to be on the rise again also due to the fact that
plastic has been linked to a number of health hazards.
Tools. There are not many tools that are made from wood but wood remains a popular
material for handles and various parts of tools due to its strength, and exceptional shock and
vibration absorption ability.
Sports equipment and toys. A number of sports rely heavily on wooden sports equipment.
Examples include cricket, hockey, billiard, table tennis, baseball, etc. Wooden toys went out
of fashion in the second half of the 20th century but in the recent years, more and more
people choose wooden toys over plastic ones because they are safe, durable and exciting to
play with.
Fuel. Wood has been used as fuel from the time humans learned to control fire. Despite a
number of other options, wood remains the most common source of heat worldwide.
Although wood burning releases carbon dioxide as well, it is typically considered carbon-
neutral because the amount of carbon dioxide that is released during combustion was
absorbed by the tree while it was growing. However, wood burning can be classified as a
green source of energy only under condition that firewood comes from sustainably managed
forests and that the wood-burning stove is energy efficient.

III. Structure

The microscopic cellular structure of wood, including annual rings and rays, produces the
characteristic grain patterns in different species of trees. The grain pattern is also determined
by the plane in which the logs are cut at the saw mill. In transverse or cross sections, the
annual rings appear like concentric bands, with rays extending outward like the spokes of a
wheel.
Wood is mainly composed of cellulose, Hemicellulose, lignin and extractives. Cellulose
is a high molecular weight, stereoregular, and linear polymer of repeating beta-D-
glucopyranose units. Simply speaking it is the chief structural element and major constituents
of the cell wall of trees and plants.

Hemicellulose is a polysaccharide, but less complex and easily hydrolysable. It has a

lower degree of polymerization with side groups on the chain molecule and are essentially
amorphous.

Lignin is complex constituent of the wood that cement the cellulose fibers together. It is
brown in color and is largely responsible for the strength and rigidity of plants.

Soluble materials or extractives in wood consist of those components that are soluble in
neutral organic solvents. The di-chloromethane extractable content of wood is a measure of
such substances such as waxes, fats, resins, photosterols and non-volatile hydrocarbons. The
amount of extractives is highly dependent on seasoning or drying of wood.

IV. Properties

Physically, wood is strong and stiff but, compared to a material like steel, it's also light
and flexible. It has another interesting property too. Metals, plastics, and ceramics tend to
have a fairly uniform inner structure and that makes them isotropic: they behave exactly the
same way in all directions. Wood is different due to its annual-ring-and-grain structure. You
can usually bend and snap a small, dead, tree branch with your bare hands, but you'll find it
almost impossible to stretch or compress the same branch if you try pulling or pushing it in
the opposite direction. (Douglas, 2004)

Another one of the best things about wood is how long it lasts. Archaelogists have
already found sevral wooden artifacts and are said to be in fine condition. Providing a
wooden object is properly preserved, it will easily outlast the person who made it.

It is also a relatively good heat insulator, but dry wood does burn quite easily and
produces a great deal of heat energy if you heat it up beyond its ignition temperature.
Although wood can absorb sound very effectively, wooden objects can also be designed to
transmit and amplify sounds which explains how musical instruments work. Wood is
generally a poor conductor of electricity but, interestingly, it's piezoelectric.
V. Processing
Paper is simple material. It is essentially a mat held together by the fiber’s roughness, and
can be made from almost any fibrous material like wood or recycled paper.The process for
making paper was invented in China in the second century A.D., and all paper was made one
sheet at a time until 1798. Wood from trees is used for papermaking.

Debarking, Chipping and Recycling. Logs are passed through a debarker, where the bark
is removed, and through chippers, where spinning blades cut the wood into 1" pieces. Those
wood chips are then pressure-cooked with a mixture of water and chemicals in a digester.
Used paper is another important source of paper fiber. It is shredded and mixed with
water.

Pulp Preparation. The pulp is washed, refined, cleaned and sometimes bleached, then
turned to slush in the beater. Color dyes, coatings and other additives are mixed in, and the
pulp slush is pumped onto a moving wire screen.

Paper Formation. As the pulp travels down the screen, water is drained away and
recycled. The resulting crude paper sheet, or web, is squeezed between large rollers to
remove most of the remaining water and ensure smoothness and uniform thickness. The
semidry web is then run through heated dryer rollers to remove the remaining water.

Waste water is carefully cleaned and purified before its release or reuse. Fiber particles
and chemicals are filtered out and burned to provide additional power for the mill.
Papermakers carefully test for such things as uniformity of color and surface, water
resistance, and ink holding ability.

Paper Finishing. The finished paper is then wound into large rolls, which can be 30 feet
wide and weigh close to 25 tons. A slitter cuts the paper into smaller, more manageable rolls,
and the paper is ready for use.
D. COTTON FIBER
I. Material Description
Cotton is a characteristic fiber reaped from the cotton plant. It is one of the most
seasoned filaments under human existence, with traces more than 7,000 years of age
recuperated from archeological destinations. Cotton is likewise a standout amongst the most
utilized regular filaments as a part of presence today, with buyers from all classes and
countries wearing and utilizing it as a part of an assortment of utilizations. A large number of
sections of land all around are committed to its production, whether it be new world cotton,
with longer, smoother filaments, or the shorter and coarser old world assortments.

This plant is in the mallow family and produces sensitive, dazzling blooms. The
cotton fiber conforms to the seeds of the plant and is intended to convey the seeds long
separations on the twist so that the plant can appropriate itself. Early people understood that
the delicate, feathery filaments may be reasonable for material utilize and started to breed the
plant, selecting for soft, effectively spun assortments.

II. Application
Cotton is known for its versatility, performance and natural comfort. It’s used to
make all kinds of clothes and homewares as well as for industrial purposes like tarpaulins,
tents, hotel sheets and army uniforms.

Cotton fibre can be woven or knitted into fabrics such as velvet, corduroy, chambray,
velour, jersey and flannel. In addition to textile products like underwear, socks and t-shirts,
cotton is also used in fishnets, coffee filters, book binding and archival paper.

Cotton is a food AND a fibre crop. Cotton seed is fed to cattle and crushed to make
oil. This cottonseed oil is used for cooking and in products like soap, margarine, emulsifiers,
cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, rubber and plastics.
III. Structure

The Cotton fiber is made up of a cuticle, primary cell wall, secondary cell wall and
lumen. (Kumar, n.d)
Cuticle is the very outside of a cotton fiber. In one word it is called the skin of the
fiber. The cuticle is a wax like film covering the outer wall of the cotton fiber. Its main
objective is to prevent the wall from any destruction.

The primary cell wall which is immediately underneath the cuticle is about 200 nm
thick. It is composed of very fine threads of cellulose, called fibrils.

Above the primary cell wall, there is the secondary cell wall, which forms the bulk of
the fiber. Its fibrils are about 10 nm thick but of undefined length.

The hollow canal running the length of the fiber is called the lumen.
 The cellulose chains within cotton fibers tend to be held in place by hydrogen
bonding. These hydrogen bonds occur between the hydroxyl groups of adjacent molecules
and are most prevalent between the parallel, closely packed molecules in the crystalline areas
of the fiber.

IV. Properties
Physically the individual cotton fibres consist of a single long tubular cell. Its length
is about 1200-1500 times than its breadth. Length of cotton fibre varies from 16mm to 52
mm depending upon the type of cotton.

In terms of fineness, Longer the fibre, finer the fibre in case of cotton fibre. It is
expressed in term of decitex and it varies from 1.1 to2.3 decitex. Cotton fibre is fairly among
natural fibres in relation to tenacity which is 3-3.5g/dtex. Its tensile strength is between wool
and silk fibre but disadvantage is low extension at break which is 5-7%.

When elasticity is considered, recovery from deformation of cotton fibre from applied
load is very low. By applying heat it can’t be achieved. This property can be achieved by -
1.Chemical treatment to improve crease recovery, but the problem is the materials become
harsher due to chemical treatment.
V. Processing
The manufacture of cotton cloth is a complex process, involving many highly skilled
workers, each performing a particular critical step in the overall process. The many complex
steps can be divided into three general categories - Preparation, Spinning, and Weaving. In
addition to this, there is the process of preparing the design that will be applied to the woven
cloth. Cotton cloth manufacturing was indeed a "high-tech" venture in the 1880s.

References
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properties”

http://www.waldwissen.net/waldwirtschaft/holz/verarbeitung/fva_douglasienholz/ind
ex_EN

Faye, R. (2013). Retrieved from Technology Scenarios in the Asia-Pacific Forestry Sector... :
http://www.fao.org/docrep/w7715e/w7715e08.htm

Hoffman, James. (n.d). Retrieved from "Gold Ore Processing: Project Development
and Operations".

http://www.britannica.com/technology/gold-processing

Joseph,M. (n.d). Retrieved from Cotton Morphology and Chemistry

http://pioneerthinking.com/beauty/yucca-root

Kumar, S. (n.d). Retrieved from “Physical-Chemical Structure of Cotton”.

http://style2designer.com/apparel/fibre-yarn/physical-chemical-structure-cotton/

Peter, W. (2016). Retrieved from The Financial Times

www.lubrizol.com/Home-care