The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) is an international

environmental treaty adopted on 9 May 1992 and opened for signature at the Earth Summit in Rio de
Janeiro from 3 to 14 June 1992. It then entered into force on 21 March 1994, after a sufficient number
of countries had ratified it. The UNFCCC objective is to "stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the
atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate
system".[3] The framework sets non binding limits on greenhouse gas emissions for individual
countries and contains no enforcement mechanisms. Instead, the framework outlines how specific
international treaties (called "protocols" or "Agreements") may be negotiated to specify further action
towards the objective of the UNFCCC.

Initially, an Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee (INC) produced the text of the Framework
Convention during its meeting in New York from 30 April to 9 May 1992. The UNFCCC was adopted
on 9 May 1992, and opened for signature on 4 June 1992.[4] The UNFCCC has 197 parties as of
December 2015. The convention enjoys broad legitimacy, largely due to its nearly universal
membership.[5]

The parties to the convention have met annually from 1995 in Conferences of the Parties (COP) to
assess progress in dealing with climate change. In 1997, the Kyoto Protocol was concluded and
established legally binding obligations for developed countries to reduce their greenhouse gas
emissions in the period 2008-2012.[6] The 2010 Cancún agreements state that future global warming
should be limited to below 2.0 °C (3.6 °F) relative to the pre-industrial level.[7] The Protocol was
amended in 2012 to encompass the period 2013-2020 in the Doha Amendment, which -as of December
2015- had not entered into force. In 2015 the Paris Agreement was adopted, governing emission
reductions from 2020 on through commitments of countries in ambitious Nationally Determined
Contributions. The Paris Agreement entered into force on November 4, 2016.

One of the first tasks set by the UNFCCC was for signatory nations to establish national greenhouse
gas inventories of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and removals, which were used to create the 1990
benchmark levels for accession of Annex I countries to the Kyoto Protocol and for the commitment of
those countries to GHG reductions. Updated inventories must be submitted annually by Annex I
countries.

"UNFCCC" is also the name of the United Nations Secretariat charged with supporting the operation of
the Convention, with offices in Haus Carstanjen, and the UN Campus (known as Langer Eugen) in
Bonn, Germany. From 2010 to 2016 the head of the secretariat was Christiana Figueres. In July 2016,
Patricia Espinosa from Mexico succeeded Figueres. The Secretariat, augmented through the parallel
efforts of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), aims to gain consensus through
meetings and the discussion of various strategies.

Treaty[edit]
The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) was opened for signature
at the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) in Rio de Janeiro
(known by its popular title, the Earth Summit). On 12 June 1992, 154 nations signed the UNFCCC, that
upon ratification committed signatories' governments to reduce atmospheric concentrations of
greenhouse gases with the goal of "preventing dangerous anthropogenic interference with Earth's
climate system". This commitment would require substantial reductions in greenhouse gas emissions
(see the later section, "Stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations")

Article 3(1) of the Convention[8] states that Parties should act to protect the climate system on the
basis of "common but differentiated responsibilities", and that developed country Parties should "take
the lead" in addressing climate change. Under Article 4, all Parties make general commitments to
address climate change through, for example, climate change mitigation and adapting to the eventual
impacts of climate change.[9] Article 4(7) states:[10]

The extent to which developing country Parties will effectively implement their commitments under
the Convention will depend on the effective implementation by developed country Parties of their
commitments under the Convention related to financial resources and transfer of technology and will
take fully into account that economic and social development and poverty eradication are the first and
overriding priorities of the developing country Parties.

The Framework Convention specifies the aim of developed (Annex I) Parties stabilizing their
greenhouse gas emissions (carbon dioxide and other anthropogenic greenhouse gases not regulated
under the Montreal Protocol) at 1990 levels, by the year 2000.[11]

Paris Agreement[edit]
Main article: Paris Agreement
In 2011, parties adopted the "Durban Platform for Enhanced Action".[16] As part of the Durban
Platform, parties have agreed to "develop a protocol, another legal instrument or an agreed outcome
with legal force under the Convention applicable to all Parties".[16] At Durban[17] and Doha,[18]
parties noted "with grave concern" that current efforts to hold global warming to below 2 or 1.5 °C
relative to the pre-industrial level appear inadequate.

In 2015, all (then) 196 then parties to the convention came together for the UN Climate Change
Conference in Paris 30 November - 12 December and adopted by consensus the Paris Agreement,
aimed at limiting global warming to less than two degrees Celsius, and pursue efforts to limit the rise to
1.5 degrees Celsius.[19] The Paris Agreement entered into force on November 4, 2016.

The Paris Agreement (French: Accord de Paris), Paris climate accord or Paris climate agreement is an
agreement within the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) dealing
with greenhouse gas emissions mitigation, adaptation and finance starting in the year 2020. The
language of the agreement was negotiated by representatives of 196 parties at the 21st Conference of
the Parties of the UNFCCC in Paris and adopted by consensus on 12 December 2015.[3][4] As of
November 2017, 195 UNFCCC members have signed the agreement, and 170 have become party to it.
[1] The Agreement aims to respond to the global climate change threat by keeping a global temperature
rise this century well below 2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels and to pursue efforts to limit
the temperature increase even further to 1.5 degrees Celsius.[5]

In the Paris Agreement, each country determines, plans and regularly reports its own contribution it
should make in order to mitigate global warming.[6] There is no mechanism to force[7] a country to set
a specific target by a specific date,[8] but each target should go beyond previously set targets.

In June 2017, U.S. President Donald Trump announced his intention to withdraw the United States
from the agreement, causing widespread condemnation both internationally and domestically. Under
the agreement, the earliest effective date of withdrawal for the U.S. is November 2020.

In July 2017, France’s environment minister Nicolas Hulot announced France’s five-year plan to ban
all petrol and diesel vehicles by 2040 as part of the Paris Agreement. Hulot also stated that France
would no longer use coal to produce electricity after 2022 and that up to €4 billion will be invested in
boosting energy efficiency.[9]

At the Paris climate conference (COP21) in December 2015, 195 countries adopted the first-ever
universal, legally binding global climate deal.

United Nations flag © Comstock

The agreement sets out a global action plan to put the world on track to avoid dangerous climate
change by limiting global warming to well below 2°C.

Key elements

The Paris Agreement is a bridge between today's policies and climate-neutrality before the end of the
century.

Mitigation: reducing emissions

Governments agreed

a long-term goal of keeping the increase in global average temperature to well below 2°C above pre-
industrial levels;
to aim to limit the increase to 1.5°C, since this would significantly reduce risks and the impacts of
climate change;
on the need for global emissions to peak as soon as possible, recognising that this will take longer for
developing countries;
to undertake rapid reductions thereafter in accordance with the best available science.
Before and during the Paris conference, countries submitted comprehensive national climate action
plans (INDCs). These are not yet enough to keep global warming below 2°C, but the agreement traces
the way to achieving this target.

Transparency and global stocktake

Governments agreed to

come together every 5 years to set more ambitious targets as required by science;
report to each other and the public on how well they are doing to implement their targets;
track progress towards the long-term goal through a robust transparency and accountability system.
Adaptation
Governments agreed to

strengthen societies' ability to deal with the impacts of climate change;

provide continued and enhanced international support for adaptation to developing countries.
Loss and damage
The agreement also

recognises the importance of averting, minimising and addressing loss and damage associated with the
adverse effects of climate change;
acknowledges the need to cooperate and enhance the understanding, action and support in different
areas such as early warning systems, emergency preparedness and risk insurance.
Role of cities, regions and local authorities
The agreement recognises the role of non-Party stakeholders in addressing climate change, including
cities, other subnational authorities, civil society, the private sector and others.

They are invited to

scale up their efforts and support actions to reduce emissions;

build resilience and decrease vulnerability to the adverse effects of climate change;
uphold and promote regional and international cooperation.
Support
The EU and other developed countries will continue to support climate action to reduce emissions and
build resilience to climate change impacts in developing countries.
Other countries are encouraged to provide or continue to provide such support voluntarily.
Developed countries intend to continue their existing collective goal to mobilise USD 100 billion per
year by 2020 and extend this until 2025. A new and higher goal will be set for after this period.
Questions and answers on the Paris AgreementSearch for available translations of the preceding link•••

Lima-Paris Action Agenda

This initiative of the Peruvian and French COP Presidencies brought countries, cities, businesses and
civil society members together to accelerate cooperative climate action in support of the new
agreement.

Examples of major announcements

Paris Pledge for Action

EU's role

The EU has been at the forefront of international efforts towards a global climate deal.

Following limited participation in the Kyoto Protocol and the lack of agreement in Copenhagen in
2009, the EU has been building a broad coalition of developed and developing countries in favour of
high ambition that shaped the successful outcome of the Paris conference.

The EU was the first major economy to submit its intended contribution to the new agreement in March
2015. It is already taking steps to implement its target to reduce emissions by at least 40% by 2030.

EU Climate Action at COP21 (Storify)

How the EU helped build the ambition coalition (Storify)
Action areas at EU & international level

Next steps

The agreement opened for signature for one year on 22 April 2016.
To enter into force, at least 55 countries representing at least 55% of global emissions had to deposit
their instruments of ratification.
On 5 October, the EU formally ratified the Paris Agreement, thus enabling its entry into force on 4
November 2016.
Kyoto Protocol[edit]
Main article: Kyoto Protocol
After the signing of the UNFCCC treaty, Parties to the UNFCCC have met at conferences
("Conferences of the Parties" – COPs) to discuss how to achieve the treaty's aims. At the 1st
Conference of the Parties (COP-1), Parties decided that the aim of Annex I Parties stabilizing their
emissions at 1990 levels by the year 2000 was "not adequate",[12] and further discussions at later
conferences led to the Kyoto Protocol. The Kyoto Protocol sets emissions targets for developed
countries which are binding under international law.

The Kyoto Protocol has had two commitment periods, the first of which lasted from 2008-2012. The
second one runs from 2013-2020 and is based on the Doha Amendment to the Protocol, which has not
entered into force.

The US has not ratified the Kyoto Protocol, while Canada denounced it in 2012. The Kyoto Protocol
has been ratified by all the other Annex I Parties.

All Annex I Parties, excluding the US, have participated in the 1st Kyoto commitment period. 37
Annex I countries and the EU have agreed to second-round Kyoto targets. These countries are
Australia, all members of the European Union, Belarus, Croatia, Iceland, Kazakhstan, Norway,
Switzerland, and Ukraine.[13] Belarus, Kazakhstan and Ukraine have stated that they may withdraw
from the Protocol or not put into legal force the Amendment with second round targets.[14] Japan, New
Zealand, and Russia have participated in Kyoto's first-round but have not taken on new targets in the
second commitment period. Other developed countries without second-round targets are Canada
(which withdrew from the Kyoto Protocol in 2012)[15] and the United States.

The Kyoto Protocol is an international treaty which extends the 1992 United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) that commits State Parties to reduce greenhouse gas
emissions, based on the scientific consensus that (a) global warming is occurring and (b) it is extremely
likely that human-made CO2 emissions have predominantly caused it. The Kyoto Protocol was adopted
in Kyoto, Japan, on December 11, 1997 and entered into force on February 16, 2005. There are
currently 192 parties (Canada withdrew effective December 2012)[4] to the Protocol.

The Kyoto Protocol implemented the objective of the UNFCCC to fight global warming by reducing
greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere to "a level that would prevent dangerous
anthropogenic interference with the climate system" (Art. 2). The Protocol is based on the principle of
common but differentiated responsibilities: it puts the obligation to reduce current emissions on
developed countries on the basis that they are historically responsible for the current levels of
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.

The Protocol's first commitment period started in 2008 and ended in 2012. A second commitment
period was agreed on in 2012, known as the Doha Amendment to the protocol, in which 37 countries
have binding targets: Australia, the European Union (and its 28 member states), Belarus, Iceland,
Kazakhstan, Liechtenstein, Norway, Switzerland, and Ukraine. Belarus, Kazakhstan and Ukraine have
stated that they may withdraw from the Protocol or not put into legal force the Amendment with second
round targets.[8] Japan, New Zealand and Russia have participated in Kyoto's first-round but have not
taken on new targets in the second commitment period. Other developed countries without second-
round targets are Canada (which withdrew from the Kyoto Protocol in 2012) and the United States
(which has not ratified the Protocol). As of July 2016, 66[9] states have accepted the Doha
Amendment, while entry into force requires the acceptances of 144 states. Of the 37 countries with
binding commitments, 7 have ratified.

Negotiations were held in the framework of the yearly UNFCCC Climate Change Conferences on
measures to be taken after the second commitment period ends in 2020. This resulted in the 2015
adoption of the Paris Agreement, which is a separate instrument under the UNFCCC rather than an
amendment of the Kyoto protocol.

* It took all of one year for the member countries of the Framework Convention on Climate Change to
decide that the Convention had to be augmented by an agreement with stricter demands for reducing
greenhouse-gas emissions. The Convention took effect in 1994, and by 1995 governments had begun
negotiations on a protocol -- an international agreement linked to the existing treaty, but standing on its
own. The text of the Kyoto Protocol was adopted unanimously in 1997; it entered into force on 16
February 2005.

* The Protocol's major feature is that it has mandatory targets on greenhouse-gas emissions for the
world's leading economies which have accepted it. These targets range from -8 per cent to +10 per cent
of the countries' individual 1990 emissions levels "with a view to reducing their overall emissions of
such gases by at least 5 per cent below existing 1990 levels in the commitment period 2008 to 2012."
In almost all cases -- even those set at +10 per cent of 1990 levels -- the limits call for significant
reductions in currently projected emissions. Future mandatory targets are expected to be established for
"commitment periods" after 2012. These are to be negotiated well in advance of the periods concerned.

* Commitments under the Protocol vary from nation to nation. The overall 5 per cent target for
developed countries is to be met through cuts (from 1990 levels) of 8 per cent in the European Union
(EU[15]), Switzerland, and most Central and East European states; 6 per cent in Canada; 7 per cent in
the United States (although the US has since withdrawn its support for the Protocol); and 6 per cent in
Hungary, Japan, and Poland. New Zealand, Russia, and Ukraine are to stabilize their emissions, while
Norway may increase emissions by up to 1 per cent, Australia by up to 8 per cent (subsequently
withdrew its support for the Protocol), and Iceland by 10 per cent. The EU has made its own internal
agrement to meet its 8 per cent target by distributing different rates to its member states. These targets
range from a 28 per cent reduction by Luxembourg and 21 per cent cuts by Denmark and Germany to a
25 per cent increase by Greece and a 27 per cent increase by Portugal.

* To compensate for the sting of "binding targets," as they are called, the agreement offers flexibility in
how countries may meet their targets. For example, they may partially compensate for their emissions
by increasing "sinks" -- forests, which remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. That may be
accomplished either on their own territories or in other countries. Or they may pay for foreign projects
that result in greenhouse-gas cuts. Several mechanisms have been set up for this purpose. (See the sub-
chapters on "emissions trading," the "clean development mechanism," and "joint implementation.")

* The Kyoto Protocol is a complicated agreement that has been slow in coming--there are reasons for
this. The Protocol not only has to be an effective against a complicated worldwide problem -- it also
has to be politically acceptable. As a result, panels and committees have multiplied to monitor and
referee its various programmes, and even after the agreement was approved in 1997, further
negotiations were deemed necessary to hammer out instructions on how to "operate" it. These rules,
adopted in 2001, are called the "Marrakesh Accords."

* There is a delicate balance to international treaties. Those appealing enough to gain widespread
support often aren't strong enough to solve the problems they focus on. (Because the Framework
Convention was judged to have this weakness, despite its many valuable provisions, the Protocol was
created to supplement it.) Yet treaties with real "teeth" may have difficulty attracting enough
widespread support to be effective.

• Some mechanisms of the Protocol had enough support that they were set up in advance of the
Protocol's entry into force. The Clean Development Mechanism, for example -- through which
industrialized countries can partly meet their binding emissions targets through "credits" earned
by sponsoring greenhouse-gas-reducing projects in developing countries -- already had an
executive board before the Kyoto Protocol entered into force on 16 February 2005.

Hyogo Framework for Action (HFA)

In January 2005, 168 Governments adopted a 10-year plan to make the world safer from natural
hazards at the World Conference on Disaster Reduction, held in Kobe, Hyogo, Japan.

The Hyogo Framework was the global blueprint for disaster risk reduction efforts between 2005 and
2015. Its goal was to substantially reduce disaster losses by 2015 - in lives, and in the social, economic,
and environmental assets of communities and countries.

On 18 March 2015, UN Member States adopted the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction
2015-2030, the successor instrument to the Hyogo Framework for Action.

About theAbout the Hyogo Framework for Action (2005-2015)

In 2005, Governments around the world committed to take action to reduce disaster risk, and adopted a
guideline to reduce vulnerabilities to natural hazards, called the Hyogo Framework for Action (HFA).
The HFA assisted the efforts of nations and communities to become more resilient to, and cope better
with the hazards that threaten their development gains.
Hyogo Framework for Action[edit]
The Hyogo Framework for Action (2005–2015): Building the Resilience of Nations and Communities
to Disasters was an outcome of the 2005 conference. The Hyogo Framework (HFA) was the first plan
to explain, describe and detail the work required from all different sectors and actors to reduce disaster
losses. It was developed and agreed on with the many partners needed to reduce disaster risk –
governments, international agencies, disaster experts and many others – bringing them into a common
system of coordination. The HFA, which ran from 2005 to 2015, set five specific priorities for action:
[15]

Making disaster risk reduction a priority;

Improving risk information and early warning;
Building a culture of safety and resilience;
Reducing the risks in key sectors;
Strengthening preparedness for response.