An Introduction By Sandeep Nambiar, 1st Physics(H)
For everyone, new and old to the world of Astronomy, this is a small guide for the basic stuff
required to be an amateur astronomer, or at least get the “Newbie” tag. If the document doesnt help,
then help is always at hand. :)
Telescopes
Telescopes come in different sizes, designs and styles. The usefulness of the power of the instrument
is limited by the size of the lens or primary mirror. The table below summarizes the three main
types of optical telescopes. Radio telescopes use the reflecting design, however, they focus radio
waves instead of light.
Galileo used the refracting type of telescope to discover the moons of Jupiter. Most large
observatories use the reflectors. These are sometimes known as "Newtonian" telescopes named after
the inventor Isaac Newton.
Telescope Types
Refracting
The incoming light is focused by the objective lens and directed down the tube to the eyepiece.
The focused image is then magnified by the eyepiece.
Reflecting
The incoming light is focused by the primary mirror and directed up the tube to the secondary
mirror. The light travels to the eyepiece. The focused image is then magnified by the eyepiece.
Combination
The incoming light is adjusted by the corrector plate before it travels down the tube. Then the light is
focused by the primary mirror and directed back up the tube to the secondary mirror. Finally, the
light travels back down the tube through a hole in the primary mirror to the eyepiece. The focused
image is then magnified by the eyepiece.
Telescopes are attached to various types of mounts. Some are mounted on tripods like a camera and
some, called Dobsonian mounts, rest in boxes that move up and down and around like a lazy susan.
Equatorial mounts can be aligned with the axis of the Earth to help keep an object centered in the
eyepiece. Some newer mounts have builtin electronics and computers to point to any celestial
object in the night sky.
From left to right are the Dobsonian, Equatorial and Fork mounts.
The diameter of the telescope primary lense or mirror determines how much light is focused in the
eyepiece and how much detail you can see. Telescopes as small as 60 mm in diameter with the right
lenses can view the craters of the moon, the rings of Saturn, cloud bands on Jupiter, and split binary
stars. Most observers, however, prefer 4 inch or more in size.
Basic Mount Types...
Telescopes used for astronomy have two basic types of mounts. The simplest one is called an
altazimuth mount, and the more complex one is called the equatorial mount. Each of these come
with variations to allow for telescope size and weight, and slow motion or motor control.
It is common today for modern telescopes to include not only clock drive mounts, but computerized
clock drives that allow the user to simply select objects via computer or handheld controller. The
telescope computer and drive then do the work and locate objects for you.
The Altazimuth Mount
Pictured here is a simple configuration of the classic
altazimuth mount. This mount has a vertical axis (Labeled
Az) that is perpendicular to the ground, and a horizontal
axis (Labeled Elev) that is parallel to the ground.
Movement of the telescope in the elevation axis points the
telescope up or down, with a zero angle being level with
the ground. Rotation in the azimuth direction moves the
telescope around between the cardinal directions.
As shown with the small refractor in this picture (a 50mm telescope), such a mount often doesn't
even need a counter weight. If you happen to be observing from the North or South Pole, the
vertical axis would be aligned with the Earth's spin axis. The nice thing about that would be that
when you found an object to observe, rotation in only the vertical axis would be needed to keep the
object in the field of view. Rotating at the Earth's spin rate in the opposite direction would keep and
object motionless in the eyepiece.
However, for any other place on the planet, you'll find that the vertical axis is not aligned with the
Earth's spin axis. This means that to keep an object in the field of view requires motion in both axes.
The motion rates will change over time as the elevation angle changes. Tracking objects near the
horizon requires mostly changes in elevation, and tracking objects more straight up requires mostly
changes in azimuth.
The Dobsonian Mount
As the pictures of the model Dobsonian illustrate, the Dobsonian mounted telescope rotates around
the base (azimuth axis), and up and down around the elevation axis. It looks different, but has
motions the same as the refractor pictured above.
The advantage of the Dobsonian is it's simplicity and ability to handle large telescopes. The model
pictured above has about the look as typical f/5.5 8 inch Dob would have. Note the diameter of the
azimuth axis base. Having Teflon pads near the periphery of the large base allows the Dobsonian
mount to handle large telescopes adequately.
The Equatorial Mount
Shown at the left is a Newtonian reflector telescope on an
equatorial mount specifically a German Equatorial
mount. You can see that it looks more complicated than
the altazimuth mount. What makes it more complicated is
that it has an adjustable axis called the polar axis. For any
given location on the Earth, the polar axis is adjusted to
compensate for the observer's Latitude. With this
adjustment, the polar axis can be aligned with the Earth's
spin axis, regardless of observer location (unlike the
altazimuth mount). Tipping this axis to the proper angle
necessitates the use of counter weights to keep the
telescope in position.
Why tip one axis, you might ask? I could go into all the geometry, but it stands to reason that if the
Earth's rotation is what makes stars move across the night sky, something aligned with the Earth's
spin axis would provide a means of compensating for the motion. A mount with one axis aligned
with the Earth's spin axis is much easier to motorize. One simply puts a single motor on the polar
axis to rotate in the opposite direction of the Earth's spin at the Earth rate rotation .
The R A in the diagram near the Polar Axis label stands for right ascension. If you look at a star
chart, you will see a grid of lines that look much like the latitude and longitude lines on Earth maps.
Star coordinates are mapped onto a two dimensional grid much like the grid used to signify Earth
object coordinates. The star coordinates have different names, those being right ascension (similar
to longitude) and declination (similar to latitude).
The Fork Mount Altazimuth
Mode
This image illustrates the popular mount.
The Cassegrain telescopes often use this
type of mount. It is particularly well suited
for the shorter telescope designs.
With these instruments, the altazimuth mode is a fully functional star tracking configuration, with
the computer adjusting the speed of the two motors to keep the telescope pointed at a particular
object.
The Fork Mount Equatorial
Mode
This fork mounted telescope is in an
equatorial configuration. Note that what
was the vertical axis is now tipped to the
observer's latitude angle. With the tipped
(Polar) axis aligned with Polaris and thus
the Earth's spin axis, the single motor drive
of the telescope is sufficient for tracking
targets.
The small black box with the red button is a
modification I added to the telescope to
give a fast/slow motion slewing control.
The equatorial mode was common for the
older Cassegrains. It is still a good mode
for even the newer ones for long exposure
astrophotography.
How to Align an Equatorial Telescope Mount
• Balancing the Declination Axis
• Balancing the Right Ascension Axis
• Aligning to the North Star
• Using the Mount to Locate Objects
•
Balancing the Declination Axis
The first thing we need to do is set the
scope on the mount, and balance it. Put
your weight on the mount, then the
scope. As you look at the mount, you
will see the two setting circles on it.
One right under the scope tube is the
Declination Setting Circle.
There are also screws to hold the two
major axis' tight. Make sure the screw
that holds the axis with the weight is
tight, and then loosen the screw that
will allow the scope to turn. Next, move
the scope back and forth in it's
mounting rings until you can move it to
any position, and it stays where you
leave it. Try to do this part with an
eyepiece and any other accessories you
may be using attached to the scope, so
as to get an accurate balance. The next
picture shows Balancing the
Declination Axis
Balancing the Right Ascension Axis
Next, we want to tighten the Declination
Axis screw, and loosen the other one, for
balancing the Right Ascension Axis. The
Right Ascension, or R/A axis, is the one
that your weight is screwed into. The other
setting cirle here is for this axis. R/A
Setting Circle
Once we have loosened the screw holding this axis, we want to get the weight adjusted so that the
scope can swing from side to side, again, staying in place wherever you place it. Balancing the
scope saves wear and tear on your mount's gears, and allows for easy movement when looking for
objects. You never really loosen the d screws all the way up, but just enough so that the scope moves
with just a slight resistance on either axis. Usually, once you have balanced the R/A axis, the weight
need not be moved again, so when you take the scope down, just unscrew the weight, shaft and all,
and store it this way. This is a picture ofbalancing the Right Ascension Axis
Aligning to the North Star
Ok..Now that we have the scope balanced so that it will move in either direction freely, and stay put
wherever we let go of it, it's time to "Polar Align" it. First, we will need to set the "Latitude
Adjustment" to our particular Latitude. The object of adjustment to the latitude, is to have the scope
point right at the North Star when the Declination axis is set to 90 degrees, and the R/A axis is set to
your latitude.
The Latitude adjustment, and polar (R/A) axis pointing to the North Star
While aligning the scope to the North Star, have the weight pointing straight down also. Now... all
scope's latitude adjustment scales are not accurate, and there are always "differences" in actual
latitude and the setting scale.. SO... with the declination setting circle set exactly to 90 degrees, and
the weight pointing straight down, BOTH axis' LOCKED at this point, simply move the Latitude
adjustment until the North Star is centered in the scope. You may have to move the base of the
mount, or the whole tripod to one side or the other now to center the North Star..The closer you can
get the North Star to the center of the eyepiece, the better the mount will track, and the more
accurate the setting circles will be for finding objects by their "Celestial Coordinates". Also
important, is to have the base of the mount level. This can be accomplished by using a small level,
and adjusting leg heights until the base is level. Most mounts have a screw stop for the Latitude
adjustment on them. Once you have set the Latitude, it's a good idea to set this stop screw so that the
scope doesn't "creep down" during your observing session. Now that you have completed this
process, (and just so that you know, when you actually do this setup a few times, it will take mere
minutes to complete), we are ready to track objects that we find by simply turning only the gear on
the R/A Axis. As the object moves across the sky, simply turn the R/A axis, and follow it. This is
also the axis a motorized mount would move. VERY IMPORTANT!! As you use the scope to find
objects, NEVER move the base of the mount once it is aligned, and NEVER allow the weight to be
in a position higher than the scope tube, as it may slide down and damage the scope or mount. If the
weight seems to want to become higher then the scope, you have to turn the scope around on the
mount, and then rotate the tube. REMEMBER.. the Polar Axis MUST remain pointing at the North
Star. Also be careful that the eyepiece does not fall out of the scope as you turn it.
Using the Mount to Locate Objects
Now that we are all set up, balanced and Polar Aligned, we can use the mount to find objects by
their "Celestial Coordinates". First, you will notice that the Declination Setting Circle does NOT
rotate. It is set at the factory, and needs to remain where it is. The Right Ascension Setting Circle
DOES rotate, and is changed when we use it to find objects. To begin, we must first set the scope to
a star with a known address. We will use a "circumpolar star", or one that is visible all year long
from a Latitude of 40 degrees North... Beta Ursa Major, or Merak. This star is the bottom right star
of the bowl of the Big Dipper. Its Celestial Coordinates are..11 hours, 1 Minute of R/A.. so.. we get
this star in the center of our eyepiece, and quickly set the R/A setting circle to 11 Hours. The
numbers on this circle represent hours and minutes. on my mount, the divisions are in 10 minute
increments. The declination of this star is +56 degrees.. 23 minutes. This should already be where
the declination circle is, if you have set up the mount properly. Now, moving quickly, because as the
stars move across the sky, the R/A moves with them, find the coordinates of an object you wish to
find, and move the scope on its two loosened axis' until both the R/A setting circle, (without
touching the R/A circle) AND the Declination circle read the star's address. If you have done
everything correctly, the object should be in or near the center of the eyepiece in the scope. You
MAY need to move the scope around just a LITTLE to find the object, but it will be very near to
where you are pointing the scope.
Glossary Of Terms...
A
Amors
Marscrossing but not Earthcrossing asteroids;
with perihelion distance 1.017 < Q < 1.3 AU.
Anorthosite
Rock of aluminum and silicates found on the moon.
Aphelion
The farthest point from the Sun of any object orbiting the Sun.
Apogee
The farthest point from Earth of any object orbiting Earth. The word apoapsis is used for
objects orbiting other planets.
Apollos
Includes most Earthcrossing asteroids (except for the Atens);
with semimajor axis > 1.0 AU, and perihelion distance Q < 1.107 AU.
Asterism
A named group of stars that is part of a constellation, the Big Dipper is one.
Asteroid
Small, rocky world. Most asteroids are between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter.
Astronomical Unit
The average distance between Earth and the Sun, 1.5 x 108 km.
Atens
Asteroids with orbits largely inside the orbit of the Earth;
with semimajor axis < 1.0 AU and aphelion distance Q > 0.983 AU.
Aurora
The glowing light from solar particles interact with Earth's magnetic field.
B
Breccia
Rock made from pieces of rocks formed earlier
C
Carbonaceous Chondrite
Stony meteorite containing chondrules and volatiles.
Celestial Equator
The imaginary line around the sky directly above the Earth's equator.
Celestial Pole
Points above the Earth's north and south poles.
Celestial Sphere
An imaginary sphere surrounding the Earth where the sun, planets and stars are, a 3
dimensional map of the universe.
Chondrite
A stony meteorite containing chondrules.
Chondrule
Round, glassy part of meteorite made from silicates.
Comet
One of the small, icy bodies that orbit the sun that make tails of gas and dust when they get
close to the sun.
Conjunction
The position of two celestial objects when they are 0° apart as viewed from east to west on
Earth. When the Sun is one of the objects the other is between it and Earth so is usually not
visible.
Constellation
A pattern of stars usually named after animals or people in stories. Now used to designate an
area in the celestial sphere.
E
Ecliptic
The path the Sun seems to follow in the sky. Also, Plane of the Ecliptic
Ejecta
Pulverized rock scattered by impacts on an object's surface.
Emission Nebula
A cloud of glowing gas.
G
Globular Star Cluster
A group of stars that look like a shape of a ball.
L
Light Pollution
Wasted light from city and outdoor lights that makes it hard to see the stars at night.
Lightyear
The distance light travels in a year.
Lunar Eclipse
The name of the event when the Earth comes exactly between the Sun and the moon.
M
Mare
Lava flows on the surface of the moon. Plural, maria.
Meteor
Small rocks or sand making a bright trail through the sky as it burns in the atmosphere.
Meteorite
A meteor that has landed on the Earth.
N
Nebulae
A glowing clouds of gas or dust reflecting the light of nearby stars.
O
Occultation
A partial or complete temporary hiding of one celestial object by another such as a planet
moving in front of a star as seen from Earth.
Open Star Cluster
A group of stars that look close together in the sky.
Opposition
The position of two celestial objects when they are 180° apart as viewed from east to west on
Earth. When the Sun is one of the objects the other is directly opposite it in the sky and can be
seen all night.
Orbit
The path an object takes as it moves around another object.
P
Perigee
The closest point to Earth of any object orbiting Earth. The word periapsis is used for objects
orbiting other planets.
Perihelion
The closest point to the Sun of any object orbiting the Sun.
Planetary Nebula
An expanding ring of gas around a star.
R
Rays
Ejecta from impacts that spreads out away from a crater.
Reflecting Telescope
A telescope that uses a mirror to focus light.
Reflection Nebula
Dust and gas reflecting light from stars close by.
Refracting Telescope
A telescope that uses a lens to focus light by bending it.
Rilles
Channels in the lunar surface.
Rotation
An object spinning about its center.
S
SETI
The Search for ExtraTerrestrial Intelligence.
Solar Eclipse
The name of the event when the moon comes exactly between the Sun and Earth.
V
Volatiles
Carbon compounds, frozen gases and other materials that when heated vaporize.
Z
Zenith
The point in the sky directly overhead.