International Journal of Psychology

ISSN: 0020-7594 (Print) 1464-066X (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/pijp20

A Bio-Social Approach to Environmental

Psychology and Problems of Stress

John L.M. Binnie-dawson

To cite this article: John L.M. Binnie-dawson (1982) A Bio-Social Approach to Environmental
Psychology and Problems of Stress, International Journal of Psychology, 17:1-4, 397-435

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International Journal of Psychology 17 (1982) 397-435 397
North-Holland Publishing Company

A BIO-SOCIAL APPROACH TO ENVIRONMENTAL

PSYCHOLOGY AND PROBLEMS OF STRESS *

John L.M. BINNIE-DAWSON

University of Hong Kong Hong Kong

Revised version received October 1981

Wohlwill (1970) identified three main interactions between man and environment: (1) behaviour
necessarily occurs in some particular environmental context, which imposes major constraints on
the range of behaviours permissible in it: (2) certain qualities of the environment, such as under or
over stimulation. crowding, seventy of climate etc., may exert generalized effects on broader
systems of response within the individual; (3) behaviour is in a variety of ways, instigated by and
directed at particular attributes and characteristics of the physical environment. “Environmental
Psychology”, being concerned with environment-behaviour relationships neglects to study the
adaptive relationships which exist between the environment, the social system and behaviour. The
Bio-social approach by Dawson (1969. 1977a) better clarifies these issues, studying man as a
bio-social organism within a bio-social eco-system. “Bio-social Psychology” is defined as the way
in which adaptation to different biological environments results in the development of adaptive
socialization processes, which influence particular habits of perceptual inference, personality traits,
cognitive processes and psychological skills.’ The present paper describes the basic bio-social
concepts of this approach. An analysis is also made of applications of the Bio-social approach to
Environmental psychology. A review is also made of environmental stresses in modem life.

Introduction

The bio-social approach has been developed to facilitate the analysis of

biological and social environmental interactions, on adaptive behaviou-
ral responses to different ecologies. The term “Bio-social Psychology” is
preferred to ecological psychology, and is used in this context to
describe the study of the psychological effects of bio-social adaptation
to specific biological environments. Bio-social psychology is presented
as a psychological system. According to Marx and Hillix (1973: 66), a

Presented at the International Conference on Environmental Psychology, University of Surrey,

Guildford, England, 16-20 July, 1979.
Requests for reprints should be sent to John L.M. Binnie-Dawson, Dept. of Psychology,
University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong.

0020-7594/82/0000-0000/$02.75 0 1982 North-Holland

398 J.L.M. Binnre-Dawson /A bro-social approach

system “is inclusive and organizes theories which themselves possess

generality”. Thus the bio-social approach is presented as a psychologi-
cal system which can facilitate and direct the study of psychological
effects of bio-social adaptation to different environments. This system
does not generate specific experimental hypotheses, but these are de-
rived from other related psychological theories, applied in bio-social
research.
This paper is concerned with the application of the bio-social ap-
proach to “Environmental Psychology” and related problems of stress.
It is argued that it could make a real contribution to theory and
method, in terms of analyzing interactions between the biological
environment, social systems and behaviour.

Bio-social psychology and related theories

Dawson, in his inaugural lecture from the chair of psychology of the

University of Hong Kong, explained his conceptual system as follows:

Bio-Social Psychology is concerned with the way in which adaptation to‘ different biological
environments results in the development or particular habits of perceptual inference. cognitive
processes, and psychological skills, which are thought to be adaptive for these environments. In
addition it is considered that adaptation to different biological environments will result in the
formation of related adaptive social systems, which in turn will influence the development of
psychological skills needed for survival (1969: 1).

This statement .abridges a point of view which Brislin et al. (1973)

state has generated considerable research. It also summarizes a psycho-
social ecological perspective which seemingly has endless research
potential. Several psychologists have formulated human ecological hy-
potheses. For example, Barker’s work (Barker 1968, 1971) is concerned
with environment and behaviour, and a recent text is devoted to issues
in this area (Proshansky et al. 1970). Likewise, Murphy (1947) and
Wohlwill (1966, 1970) have made attempts to systematize the interac-
tions between ecology and. behaviour. Anthropologists such as Rappa-
port (1969) and Vayda (1969) have made similar attempts to develop
comprehensive holistic systems. These so-called organismic positions
are popular among nearly all behavioural scientists, as Hall and Lin-
dzey (1970) have reminded us.
Brislin et al. (1973) asks how does Dawson’s system differ from other
 J. L. M. Binnie-Dawson / A bio-social approach 399

holistic systems, and why is it of more value to cross-cultural psycholo-

gists? It is designed explicitly for cross-cultural research, while most of
the others are unspecified, general, and electric, but they, too, can
certainly fit a cross-cultural mold. Further, some of the others are
formal and integrated theories of personality while Dawson and his
colleagues seem to be more interested in the global aspects of biological
and social man-in-transition from subsistence to modern societies.
How a culture functions as biological adaptation is through socializa-
tion and norm enforcement and the transmission of necessary skills and
attitudes, which in turn insure the perpetuation of that culture. Barry et
al. (1 959) support bio-social theory studying 104 societies. They also
successfully predicted that in each type of subsistence society the
appropriate child-training and socialization practices insuring the
survival of the society were emphasized and maintained.
Using relevant data from Barry et al. and also data collected by
Dawson (1963, 1975) in West Africa, Berry (1966) performed the first
cross-culture and cross-ecology empirical support of Dawson’s bio-so-
cia1 system. Berry extended the subsistence/socialization network by
successfully predicting that different ecologies stimulate i n different
ways the development of visual inference habits.
At its current stage of development Brislin et al. (1973) stated,
Dawson’s system concerns the biological and social environments (so-
cialization processes) and how they interact to affect biological and
social change.

Theoretical aspects of bio-social psychology

Bio-social psychology as a psychological system therefore seeks to

understand the way in which adaptation to different biological environ-
ments results in the formation of adaptive social systems, which will in
turn influence the development of habits of perceptual inference, cogni-
tive processes, psychological skills, attitudes and value which are thought
to have survival value for specific ecologies. While bio-social psycho-
logical problems also arise in modem societies in terms of overcrowd-
ing, isolation, territoriality, poverty, and ecological factors, because of
control problems, the bio-social approach is most successfully applied
in more homogeneous subsistence environments.
The heterogeneous nature of advanced industrial societies makes i t
400 J.L.M. Binnie-Dawson / A bio-social approach

difficult to control relevant variables in such a way that bio-social

adaptive responses can be adequately studied. However it is possible to
carry out bio-social psychological studies in modern societies where the
eco-system can be effectively defined. For example, the study of the
isolated European forest-worker in South Africa (Mundy-Castle and
Nelson 1962). Again in terms of ecological type studies of psychiatric
disorders involving specific controlled environments (Hunt 1963). As
well, studies of overcrowding and territoriality, as in urban areas with
varying population densities. Thus Hamburg ( 1965) has observed that
among animals increased population density is associated with in-
creased adrenal function, aggressive behaviour and decrease in gonadal
function, although there is insufficient evidence to establish such causal
relationships among human populations.
Recent work concerning human evolution by Hamburg (1963),
Washburn (1963), Howell and Bouliere (1963) and Dobzhansky (1962)
has also provided a major link in the bio-social conceptual system as
social organization has been shown to have functioned in evolution as
biological adaptation.
Thus social organization has been demonstrated to have functioned
as biological adaptation which through socialization, has encouraged
the development of those behavioural characteristics which have survival
value. Those individuals involved in meeting these group needs such as
protection against “predators”, the provision of “housing”, “health”,
and “nutrition” are through training developing those behavioural skills
which are needed to ensure group survival for specific ecologies. Fur-
thermore, as these survival skills also have social value, they would
therefore tend to have selective advantages for individuals possessing
them, in the words of McLearn, such individuals would be adapted to
the social structure and would thus have, “an enhanced capacity to
survive and reproduce” (1968: 164), thus selectively ensuring the here-
ditary bases of these abilities.
This point has also been emphasized by Montagu (1968), who has
shown that culture affected not only man’s social evolution but also his
physical evolution in a process of reciprocating interactive feedback.
One of the best examples of this process are the Eskimo and Arunta
hunters who, through permissive socialization and genetic selection
processes (hunters who cannot locate themselves in featureless snow
and desert cannot survive), have developed the extremely high spatial
skills needed for survival in these harsh snow and desert ecologies. As
 J.L.M. Binnie-Dawson / A bio-social approach 40 1

they move to urban areas where these adaptive pressures are absent, so
do the spatial skills similarly decrease (Berry 1966; Witkin 1967; and
Dawson 1972a).
McLearn has also pointed out the need to study the effects of those
selective pressures which facilitate the development of psychological
skills in “industrialized and non-industrialized cultures, urban and rural
populations” (1968: 168). This, he states, is to better understand the
development of these specific behavioural characteristics such as indi-
vidual differences in intelligence, aggression, curiosity, and emotion,
developed in response to different environments, so that new insights
can be gained into the selection pressures which have influenced the
present stage of development, and which may also influence future
development. The bio-social approach which seeks to understand the
processes of adaptation to different ecologies and related social organi-
zation with the emergence of adaptive behavioural skills, appropriate to
each ecology, should be able to provide some of the answers to these
points raised by McLearn. This is because bio-social research is con-
cerned with the behavioural effects of adaptation to specific environ-
ments and thus it is possible to establish regularities between different
bio-social ecologies, e.g. hunting, pastoral-agricultural, urban-rural,
crowded, isolated, and the development of appropriate cognitive skills
which have survival value for these varying ecologies.
One of the key issues in bio-social psychological theory concerns the
way in w h c h culture has. functioned in evolution as biological adap-
tation thus permitting the transmission by socialization and cultural
norm enforcement, of the individual psychological skills and attitudes
needed for group survival. Thus Doby states that “culture is a form of
adaptation peculiar to man” (1966: 54), and that responses which
promote survival, health, reproduction are adaptive responses. Kessler
( 1968) has further observed that the main function of social organiza-
tion has been to extend the range of behavioural adaptabilities and thus
to maximize the type of relationships that species can make with
increasingly diverse types of environments.
Dobzhantsky, in a very important study, noted “that culture is
generally a much more rapid and effective method of adaptation to the
environment than genetic change” (1968: 130). The evidence cited by
Dobzhantsky and related studies by Vandenberg (1968) and the
Temne-Eskimo, Temne-Arunta studies by Dawson ( 1972a), support the
notion that biological adaptation through cultural changes results in
 Physique I n f l u e n c e d Bx: s o c i a l i z a t i o n I n f l u e n c e s :.*,'
\ 1. A t t i t u d e s
1. Climate a d a p t a t i o n 4
1. selective n u t r i t i o n 2. earsonality t r a i t s
\ 3. Cognltive s t y l e
W l n u t r i t i o n Causes: 4. Spatial-pzroeptua; s k i l l s
/*#
1. P h y s i c a l an>endocrine changes Ecological I n f l u n L e s :
1. P s y c h o l o g i c a l r e t a r d a t i o n
1. C u l t u r a l l y d t e d n e d t o l e r a n n fox
a n v i r o r u r n t a l stresaea
2. S p a t i a l a b i l i t y
' 1. P h y s i c a l and Psychological d i n t u r b a n c e s 3. H a b i t s of p e r n p t u a l i n f e r e n c e
4. vocabulary n m & d for s u r v i v a l Opn-clOsed
2 . S a l e c t i v e agent for r e s i s t a n c e
5. Latera1,ity I h f t Han&dMss)
Ecological E n v i r o n r n t
\
Inflwnces: A'
Overcrowding V . I s o l a t i a r :

1.
4,'
Psyc. responaesr a g g r e s s i v e behaviour
1 . C u l t u r a l l y determined t o l e r a n n for o w r c r r w d i n g
#, , / v. isolation
O r n r c r w d i n g V. I s o l a t i o n :
\
( D . p n & n t V a r i a b l e s ui n c l u c h In&pn&nt Variable shown ~.boven)

Fig. 1. The bio-social psychological system.

 J . L M . Binnie-Dowson /A bio-social approach 403

selective pressures which tend to select those individuals with behaviou-

ral skills needed for group survival in differing ecologies, further
ensuring the effectiveness of society as a continuing adaptive entity.
Vandenberg (1972) in a more recent study of “assortative mating or
who marries whom”, notes that the evidence relating to consanguinity
or inbreeding is generally unfavourable so that a high similarity be-
tween sexes is not favoured. However, in contrasting mate selection in
terms of psychological “similarity” or “complimentariness”, the evi-
dence showed that for social reasons similarity between spouses is
favoured.

The historical antecedents of the bio-social approach

Before presenting the bio-social psychological conceptual system in

more detail, it is now proposed to examine certain early theoretical
influences in the history of psychology which are thought to have
relevance to bio-social theory. The roots of bio-social psychology are
visible in the work of Darwin and functional psychology which was
concerned with the function of the organism’s behaviour and conscious-
ness in its adaptation to its environment. This theoretical system was
also concerned with adaptive acts and dependency relationships. Darwin
(1872)’ Galton (1883), and William James (1890)’ represented strong
early influences in functional psychology, whlst the formal definition
of the theory was due to John Dewey (1896) and James Angel1 (1904),
both of the University of Chicago.
Although Brunswik was classified by Marx and Hillix (1963) as a
field-theorist, there is a very strong element of functionalism in his
work. As well, Woodworth ( 1951)’ who was a more recent advocate of
functionalism, also noted that Weiss ( 1930) coined the term ‘bio-social’
to characterize human behaviour. Weiss who was an early behaviourist
was quoted by Woodworth as follows:

While recognizing the social character of human behaviour we must not forget that it is biological
at the same time. All his activities - talking for example - remain just as truly physiological
processes as they would be if he were a solitary animal. In order to do justice to both sides, Weiss
coined the term bio-social to characterize human behaviour. The field of psychology is that of
bio-social processes, and the appropriate standpoint for psychology is bio-social. Its main task is to
trace the development of the human infant into the social adult (Woodworth 195 1 : 96).
404 J .LM. Binnie-Dawson /A bio-social approach

Murphy (1966) used the term bio-social to indicate that what is

biological is at the same time social. Thus he states that:

periodic expressions of motivation, as in the hunger cycle, belong to biology; but they belong also
to sociology. The bio-social does not constitute a special class of biological events; practically any
biological event can be socially controlled to a visibly recognized degree. A cough is purely a
biological event if it is due to a cold and is unnoticed by the victim and his associates. It continues
to be a biological event that may be conveniently treated as a bic-social event if it spreads through
imitation. Turning red is a biological event which may be due to a circulatory disturbance, turning
red at an embarrassing remark is a bio-social event. The only thipg that can be socialized is a
biological process, and in man most biological processes are to same degree socialized” (1966:
138- 139).

Murphy also notes that his usage of the term bio-social differs
considerably from that of G.W. Allport ( 1961) who used

the term bic-social to indicate a mode of classifying responses in terms of their specific social
evaluations by another person; bio-social traits are conceived to have no organized structure within
the individual organism. But in our use of the term, no whit of the significance of the biological
structure of a trait is lost by its becoming a stimulus pattern for another person, and the other
person exhibits his own biological structure in responding as he does” (Murphy 1966: 139).

However, while agreeing with Weiss, Murphy, and the other writers
that man is a bio-social organism, the main theoretical difference in the
present paper, is that while man is considered functionally as both a
biological and social organism, his bio-social behaviour is also studied
within an adaptive bio-social psychological system, as presented in
Fig. 1. Thus an additional theoretical usage is made of the term “bio-so-
cial” in that man is considered as being both a bio-social organism as
well as denoting the functional bio-social relationship between man’s
adaptation to the biological environment and the evolutionary emer-
gence of adaptive socio-cultural organization needed for survival,
whether in an agricultural, pastoral, hunting, fishing or modem en-
vironments.
While the phrase bio-social psychological system is used as well as
human ecology and behaviour, it is argued that the former title is
operationally more definitive than the latter. Thus the phrase bio-social
psychology is better able to denote that man is a bio-social organism
functioning within a bio-social eco-system. Hence the bio-social refers
to both bio-social psychological processes and the adaptive bio-social
ecology, while human ecologv refers to the communities’ habits, modes
of life, in dynamic interaction with their habitat. The term is used in a
 J . L M . Binnie-Dawson / A bio-social approach 405

similar manner to Barker’s ( 1968) ecological psychology.

To conclude this section, while the early psychological research in
functionalism by James (1 890), Dewey, (1896) and Angel1 (1904) was
markedly influenced by the work of Darwin, the theory was in the main
displaced with the advent of the ‘behaviourism’ of John Watson (1919)
and other related theories. Thus psychological research in functiona-
lism, in terms of adaptive responses to the environment, was eventually
displaced by more complex psychological theoretical systems in learn-
ing, perception and cognition. Hence functionalism as a single ap-
proach was too limiting and could not develop the increasingly wider
range of theoretical concepts needed to provide a strong theoretical
base for psychology.

Recent developments in human ecology - environment and behaviour

More recently, there has been a revival of interest in understanding
functional relationships between man and his environment, which has
resulted in many human ecology (environment) and behaviour studies.
Thus this interest is reflected in Wohlwill’s (1970) paper on the emer-
gence of environmental psychology .in which we are witnessing a
concern for the quality of our physical environment and the effects of
expanding population and industrial civilization. While psychologists
have talked about environmental influences, they have rarely been
specific about the concept, except for the ecological psychologists such
as Barker ( 1968) and Wright (1961). He identified three main interrela-
tionships between man and environment: (a) First, behaviour neces-
sarily occurs in some particular environmental context which imposes
major restraints on the range of behaviours permissible in it. (b)
Second, certain qualitites of the environment, such as under or over
stimulation, crowding, severity of climate etc. may exert generalized
effects on broader systems of response within the individual. (c) Third,
behaviour is in a variety of ways instigated by and directed at particular
attributes and characteristics of the physical environment.
He also emphasizes the process of long-term affective and attitudinal
adaptation to differing enviroments. Thus research among Australian
migrants has shown significant affective and attitudinal adaptation to
differing environments. This research among Australian migrants has
shown significant affective and attitudinal changes which occur in
406 J.L.M. Binnie-Dawson / A bio-social approach

adapting to new environments, influenced by country of origm and the

host community (Tomlinson 1966). As well, Richardson (1971) was also
able to confirm seven significant predictor socio-economic variables for
British males migrating to Australia, six for women and three common
to both sexes.
Wohlwill ( 1970) concluded that it is important for “environmental
psychology” to pay adequate attention to those’ particular fields in
psychology, which can provide an adequate scientific foundation, while
it is also important to realize that much of the work is situated at the
boundary between basic and applied research. Finally, there must be a
receptiveness to interdisciplinary activity. The bio-social approach also
emphasizes the need for interdisciplinary research (Dawson 1969, 1975,
1977).
A collection of readings by Proshansky et al. (1970, 1976) is also
concerned with examining the present status of “Environmental Psy-
chology: People and Their Physical Settings”. Furthermore, they aim to
define and establish the substantive conceptual boundaries of the field
of environmental psychology. However, while environmental psychol-
ogy has considerable value, there is this problem that it does not
analyze the adaptive relationships which exist between the biological
environment, the social system, and behaviour.
Barker’s (1968) book “Ecological Psychology” stemmed from twenty
years of research at the Midwest Psychological Field Station, estab-
lished to study human behaviour and its environment. Barker also
emphasizes the need to study environment-behaviour relations at differ-
ent levels, arguing that, “the environment and the behaviour must be
measured independently; otherwise one becomes en tangled in a tau to-
logical circle from which there is no escape” (Barker 1968: 7). A similar
position is adopted with bio-social research, tahng independent mea-
surements, for example, of biological and socio-cultural (socialization)
variables.
Brislin et al. in their analysis of Barker’s “behaviour settings”, note
that

The behaviour of an individual is claimed by the nature of the setting; the behaviour of a Ford
Motor Company riviter is claimed by his job demands, and under times of austere employment the
demands on him are greater than in times of full employment. The behaviour of the Eskimo male,
who must do many and vaned jobs (apparently with pride) is a function of the demands made on
him by his behavioural setting (1973: 161).
 J . L M . Binnie-Dawson / A bio-social approach 407

While Barker’s concept of “behaviour settings” developed as an

ecological psychology theory, is useful, it does have problems. Thus
there is insufficient emphasis on the study of the adaptive relationships
which exist between behavioural settings (Eskimo versus U.S.), and
related social settings (Eskimo versus U.S.), and the subsequent analysis
of these effects on behaviour (Eskimo versus U.S.). Hence he only
emphasizes the separate study of the biological environment and be-
haviour, but not the true bio-social adaptive relationships which exists
between ecology and culture Eskimo versus U.S., for example, socializa-
tion, an analysis of which is crucial for the effective understanding of
behaviour in different ecologies.
These recent developments concerning culture as biological adapta-
tion (Hamburg 1963), with the new emphasis on Ecological Psychology,
(Barker 1968), makes it again possible to examine the role of biological
environment, in eliciting adaptive social organization and behaviour.
These new findings have contributed to the present “bio-social system”.
However, there are problems in applying these research strategies to
solve bio-social problems. Moreover, while the functionalists were
concerned with the study of adaptive acts in relation to the general
concept of environment, they were not so concerned with adaptation to
specific environments. Thus, bio-social psychology seeks to analyze
these complex bio-social variables’influencing the development of adap-
tive psychological skills, by contrasting bio-social adaptation to differ-
ent biological environments.
Thus these ideas for overcoming these problems, have resulted in this
new bio-social research orientation. This makes it methodologically
undesirable to limit research in subsistence or modem environments, to
the separate study of the biological or social effects on behaviour, when
the nature of social organization stems largely from adaptation to
specific biological ecologies. Hence it is important to analyze these
adaptive relationships between the biological and social environments,
e.g. whether hunting, pastoral, agricultural or mixed pastoral-agricult-
ural, snow, desert, jungle, rural-urban, mountain, using appropriate
research hypotheses.
It is also predicted that in more extreme biological environments
such as (Desert, Snow or Jungle) these adaptive social systems are more
closely related to the needs of the biological environment. Thus there
would be a closer predicted relationship between such extreme environ-
ments, adaptive social systems and behaviour. Conversely, it is also
408 J . L.M. Binnie-Dowson /A bio-social approach

postulated that the more hospitable environments would permit a wider

variety of social organization, in temperate environments, less closely
adapted to the needs of the biological environment.
The bio-social approach is not deterministic, achieving flexibility,
and also studies the effects of biological and social change (bio-social
change) and modernization (Dawson 1980). Thus this conceptual bio-
social system seeks to advance psychological theory and knowledge by
discovering regularities in the ways in which different bio-social ecolo-
gies influence the development of behaviour. This approach also brings
together a number of disciplines, to study the complex relationships
between the organism and the biological environment. Thus Glass
(1968: v) noted that “Contemporary social scientists no longer adhere
to a simplistic environmental determinism, just as contemporary biolo-
gists no longer embrace a generic determinism. i n both fields there is an
increasing recognition of the importance of an interaction between the
organism and the environment”.

The Bio-social Psychological System

The “Bio-social Psychological System” is set out diagramatically in

fig. 1. The postulated effect of the biological environment (top left)
influences the adaptive socio-cultural system (top right) required for
survival. The examples of bio-social variables shown below are meant
to be representative, and of course do not represent all possible
bio-social variables.
Bio-social psychology therefore analyzes the effects of the indepen-
dent variables, biological and socio-cultural (bio-social), stimuli, on the
dependent variables, physiological and psychological (bio-social)
processes. The initial black arrow at the top of fig. 1 going from the
biological environment to the socio-cultural environment, indicates that
the biological environment is held to influence the nature of the cultural
system evolved in response to the needs of the biological environment.
Thus for an individual to survive in a particular biological environment,
a specific type of adaptive social organization and cultural system must
be evolved for that ecology, which through socialization encourages the
development of the behavioural skills needed for survival.
For example, the Central Australian Arunta hunters living in a
semi-desert environment, have evolved an extremely permissive social
 J . L.M. Binnie-Dawson / A bio-social approach 409

organization and a non-strztified society, which encourages the devel-

opment of individual initiative, independence and high spatial ability
needed to locate food and water in the desert (Dawson 1969). Similarly,
Barry et al. (1959) have also confirmed similar relationships between
the type of biological environment, agricultural, pastoral, versus hunt-
ing and fishing ecology, and adaptive socialization processes and Val-
ues.
The broken arrow in fig. 1 going from the socio-cultural to the
biological environment, shows that as man gains increasing mastery
over his environment, he evolves more sophisticated cultural adapta-
tions and new modem technologies. They further develop more effi-
cient cultural systems, resulting in partial mastery over and further
changes in the biological environment such as irrigation, the building of
bridges, dams, canals, buildings, cities, planes and ships. Further changes
also result from moving from a non-carpentered world with round
village houses, to living in a more sophisticated carpentered world.
Thus by a series of cultural adaptations man obtains increasing
mastery over his biological environment, becoming at the same time
increasingly independent of it. However, even in the most advanced
societies, their cultural values generally still reflect those’ aspects of
culture developed in response to the initial processes of adaptation to
the biological environment. For example, in the US where those values
evolved by early settlers in adapting to their new North American
environment are still very evident, as, are also the effects of the early
“Protestent Ethic”.
There are also more direct effects of the biological environment on
the human organism shown on the left of fig. 1 . These include varia-
tions in the human physique, which apart from racial differences, are
also determined by interacting climatic adaptation, and nutrition. Thus
Harrison et al. (1964) report that climatic variations affect physique in
terms of Bergmann’s and Allen’s Ecological Rules. These state that with
increasing mean annual temperature, body size becomes shorter and
limb length longer with the development of thinner more linear
physiques. Thus the South China Cantonese people are more linear,
because they live in a hot semi-tropical climate with a low fat diet,
while the North Chinese who live in a colder climate, develop muscular-
fat physiques and have a high fat diet. The Eskimo also have fat-muscu-
lar bodies with short limbs, and considerable fat tissue which provides
protection against the extremely cold Arctic temperatures.
410 J.L.M. Binnre-Dawson / A bio-social approach

The effects of nutrition on physique can therefore only be adequately

studied by controlling for climate, and contrasting two human popula-
tions who live in similar temperature, humidity, altitude, rainfall, etc.,
but with differing diets. Thus two populations matched for sex, educa-
tion, age, which meet this requirement are the Temne agriculturalists of
West Africa who have a low protein rice diet, with an incidence of 45%
muscularity, while the Central Australian Arunta hunters with a meat
based high protein diet (Kangaroo), have an incidence of 72.2% muscu-
larity (Dawson 1975). Thus when matched for climate, varying levels of
protein in the diet results in considerable variations in physique in this
case, differences in muscularity which are adaptive for each ecology.
As well, Cravioto et al. (1965) have also demonstrated that the
protein deficiency disease Kwashiorkor, results in a retardation of
skeletal structure and musculature, abnormal E.E.G. patterns, and may
cause feminization of affected males due to an endocrine dysfunction,
causing lower spatial ability (Dawson 1966). This was also confirmed
by Mitchik (1972), in a study of protein deprived rats where feminiza-
tion of the males occurred, accompanied by decreased spatial learning.
Moreover, poorer nutrition can then affect both the physiological and
psychological development. Thus adequate nutrition and protein intake
is essential after weaning to the age of three years, to ensure satisfactory
development in both infancy and adulthood. Therefore, “nutrition” is a
crucial aspect for the different bio-social ecologies, more particularly in
subsistence societies. Moreover, the nature of the different ecologies
whether agricultural, hunting, pastoral, mountains, etc., also influences
the nature of socio-cultural systems evolved. Malnutrition and
Kwashiorkor can also result in increased infant mortality, physical and
psychological retardation.
The West African biological environment has a high incidence of
disease, which has a marked influence on other psychological processes.
Thus parasitic infection affects both psychological and physiological
processes (Gamble 1961; and Dawson 1963), while many other diseases
have severe physical and psychological effects. Weiner (1967) has also
commented that infectious diseases are the most effective agents, in the
natural selection of man, in favouring the survival and reproduction of
individuals possessing genes making for resistence. Thus individuals
living to adulthood have optimal physiological and behavioural char-
acteristics required for survival.
In more advanced societies, as man adapts to his biological environ-
 J . L.M. Binnie. Dirwson / A bid-social approach 41 1

ment, he tends to develop an increasingly more efficient socio-cultural

system involving improved education, so that some degree of control is
obtained over disease and malnutrition. In these societies, control is
also obtained over severe disease, malarial parasitic infection, while
improved nutritional level, also results in more adequate physical and
psychological development.
Furthermore, Segall et al. ( 1966) confirmed that individuals living in
villages with round houses, tend to be less susceptible to the Muller-Lyer
and Sander-Parallelogram Illusions, than individuals living in a more
sophisticated carpentered world. This is because individuals living in a
h g h l y carpentered world, generally develop habits of perceptual in-
ference which enable them to interpret the carpentered world in a
hghly functional and adaptive way. Moreover, individuals living in an
open desert/snow environment are generally more susceptible to the
Horizontal-Vertical Illusions interpreting short lines on the retina as
long lines extending into space.
There are then certain independent variables, which are the direct
effects of the biological environment on individual physical and psycho-
logical, bio-social psychological processes. However, these are often
mediated in more advanced societies, by treating disease, malnutrition
and thereby obtaining control over the biological environment.
The effects of adaptive socio-cultural systems are shown top right,
which are held to have evolved from adaptation to the specific bio-
logical environments e.g., agricultural, pastoral, hunting, mountains,
fishng and modem. These socio-cultural systems in turn through
appropriate socialization pressures, training in linguistic skills, and
other educational processes, develop those attitudes and behavioural
skills needed for survival in specific ecologies.
In the harsher environments such as the West African agricultura-
lists, the Eskimo snow ecology, Central Australian deserts, and moun-
tains, highly adaptive relationships are found between adaptation to
their biological environments, and the adaptive social systems and
psychological skills needed to ensure survival. Thus Dawson found
strong relationships between Witkin’s ( 1967) field-dependence tests,
with harsh socialization found in stratified agricultural societies, result-
ing in lower spatial-perceptual skills. In contrast, the permissive so-
cialization found in hunting and fishing ecologies, interacts with natural
selection processes to increase field-independence and spatial-percep-
tual skills (Dawson 1963, 1969; and Berry 1966).
412 J.L.M. Binnie-Dawson/ A bio-social approach

The effects of overcrowding and isolation shown in fig. 1 are also

very complex, and again may show interactions between direct physio-
logical influences and cultural adaptation. Thus among Hong Kong
Chinese they appear to lessen the effects. Calhoun ( 1962), showed that
changes in population density in mice, led to abnormal sexual be-
haviour and decreased reproduction while Christian (1961), and others
found marked enlargement of adrenals and male impotence, resulting
from overcrowding. These mechanims are held to maintain animal
populations within reasonable limits. However, Johnson points out
“that human societies differ from animal societies in that we have
acquired the technological capacity to nullify natural limitation on our
reproductive behaviour” (1972: 64).
Moreover, in the high density urban population of Hong Kong,
because of a very high degree of group conformity found among Hong
Kong Chinese (Meade and Barnard 1974), there is a tolerance among
Chinese for overcrowding, as contrasted with the Hong Kong European
population, who prefer to be independent and more isolated. Thus
over-crowding for Hong Kong Chinese, would be expected to have
fewer physiological (adrenal changes), and related psychological stress
effects, than among European residents.
Furthermore, Gunderson and Nelson (1963) studied the effect of the
interaction of sensory deprivation and isolation, on a group of European
scientists. Their observations of these groups of 15 to 40 isolated in
Antarctica for many months, showed an increase in the severity of
emotional and somatic symptoms, sleep disturbance, depression and
irritability. Mann (1969) has also reported studies of small groups in
extreme environments, showing that the effects of prolonged isolation
are modified by the nature of the groups interaction and personality
characteristics of the individual members.
In contrast, the isolation in traditional hunting and fishing societies
appears to be mediated by the permissive socialization, which encour-
ages the appropriate personality traits, attitudes and values needed for
survival. Thus the Eskimo and the Arunta through socialization and
genetic inheritance live happily in small family groups in extreme snow
and desert environments (Dawson 1969). This is in marked contrast to
the isolated Europeans in the Arctic and Antarctic, who show consider-
able physiological and psychological stress, although the effects can be
lessened by good selection and training.
Fig. 1 also shows a dotted line returning from the individual to the
 J.L.M. Binnie-Dawson / A bio-social approach 413

socio-cultural system indicating some degree of individual feedback.

Thus in an open society these effects would be expected to be much
greater. Even in a closed society with the traditional social mobility in
the Indian caste system, some two-way interaction can still occur
(Pocock 1959). Thus individuals would also be able, through interaction
with the sociocultural system, to influence and modify the biological
environment.
The bio-social system shown in fig. 1 is extremely complex. More
developed societies through cultural adaptations, become more ad-
vanced and technological, but even at that stage, some of the cultural
influences which were originally determined by the processes of adapta-
tion to the biological environment, are usually evident. For example,
the present-day Arunta have highly developed art forms, stemming
from the very same spatial skills, which enabled these traditional
Australian Aborigines to survive, b y applying their spatial skills in
locating food and water resources in sparse desert country

A Temne village agricultural ecosystem

The results of a biosocial research programme among t h l Temne are

shown in fig. 2, whch demonstrated the complex interactions involved
in this West African Temne agricultural village ecosystem (Dawson
1963, 1975).
The Temne, occupying I1,OOO square miles and 39% of the total land
area, are the second largest tribal group in Sierra Leone. They live in
the northern half of Sierra Leone, and have 29 Paramount Chiefdoms.
The Temne originally migrated to Sierra Leone in the fifteenth century
from Guinea. Kup (1961) has classified the Temne language with the
Northern Atlantic linguistic group, while there are two subdialects, the
“Sande” and “Yonni Temne”.
The Temne Ecosystem depicted in fig.2 is by no means complete.
However, it does give a very good indication of the extensive analysis
required before some understanding can be obtained of the complex
interacting variables that determine the biosocial psychological processes
of individual Temne. For example, the Temne socialization and author-
ity systems are controlled by a system of social sanctions, in which
“witchcraft accusations” and “swears” ensure the highly conforming
and compliant behaviour needed for the successful harvesting and
accumulation of the basic crop (rice) over the “hungry period”.
 f
a

\
Culins
I" C l M S

better
nutrition

\
L
1ncre ase s
con Lac t YI th
/
Slaves

4 1 Mother and
Rice Pap maternal
for w a n i n g indentification

c ow c00d intake
Kwashiorkor 'Or
p r m&cr m d wore
or fcn.les KwaShiorkor

Psycholoqlcal
( Processes )

Fig. 2. A West African Ternne agricultural village ecosystem. Dependent variables are listed below
 J.L.M. Binnie-Dawson / A bio-social approach 415

Furthermore, during weaning, Temne mothers also give their infants

“rice pap”, which is almost devoid of protein. This, plus the lack of
adequate supplementary foods, also contributes to the extensive
Kwashiorkor found in Sierra Leone, which in extreme cases results in
permanent physical and psychological damage (Scrimshaw et al. 1968).

The application of the bio-social approach to modern environments

It is also held possible to apply the bio-social approach to the analysis

of modem environments, in exactly the same way as it has been applied
to the study of traditional ecologies. Thus when contrasting English,
Welsh and Scottish Villages, one can apply exactly the same techniques
as I have applied with the Temne and the Mende. Thus one must first
analyze socio-cultural adaptations to the biological environments, and
their interacting effects, relating these to the different sociocultural
systems and values, in relation to each village. Furthermore these
appropriate socialization pressures must then be related to behaviour,
attitudes, values etc., which have survival value for these different
villages. The interactions are summarized in fig. 3.
As illustrated in fig. 4,one can aIso apply this Bio-social approach to
the study of ships, where the socio-cultural patterns evolved are closely
related to nature of the biological environment of the ship. As well,
behaviour is conditioned (socialization) appropriately and related to the
requirements of certain types of ships. Thus if one contrasts warshps
with passenger, cargo and container ships, one can find very close
relationship between the type of ship, and the socio-cultural educa-
tional training systems evolved, which have survival value. With sailing
ships there is indeed the closest of adaptive relationships between the
ecological environment of the ship, and the training/educational/so-
cialization systems which have been evolved. Thus, the type of be-
haviour, attitudes and values evolved are very closely related to the
nature of the harsh ecology of the sailing ship and gain survival value.
One can also apply the bio-social approach to the analysis of a wide
range of modern institutions including schools, hospitals, psychiatric
hospitals, industrial factories, department stores, banks etc. Typical
interactions are diagrammed in fig.5. Here one needs to analyze the
adaptive relationship which exist between the nature of ecology, and
English h Scottish En l i s h 1 Scottish

I
Highlands
Lowlands
I I- T
Interactior tween t h e n a t u r e of t h e
environment, h e i g h t above sea l e v e l , e t c .
Appropriate
I I
i a l i z a t i & stemming
\
from the v a r i o u s c u l t u r e s , influen'&
.i
II t h e n a t u r e of p r s o n a l i t y t r a i t s ,
a t t i t u d e s psychological s k i l l s and
C l i m a t i c a d a p t a t i o n and s e l e c t i v e n u t r i t i o n behaviour needed f o r s u r v i v a l i n the
i n f l w n c e n a t u r e of physique needed for d i f f e r e n t ecologies
survival
\
I n t ' e r a c t i o n s with d i s e a s e

Psychological
processes
Individual

Fig. 3. A bio-social model for the analysis of English, Scottish and Welsh villages.
J . L M. Binnre-Dawson / A bio-social approach 417

P r i v a t e School
1 I
I
Ecoloqy i n c l u d e s
g r o m d s . classrooms.
l a b o r a t o r i e s , houses,
d i n i n g and e x t e n s i v e
sporting facilities.
The s t a f f I n c l u d e s
a v e r y wide r a n g e
f r o m t h e Head,
teachers, technicians,
g r o w i d i n n , :.liltro#Is.
c d s . a n d other
s e r v a n t s nes&d.
..
Fig. 5 . A bio-social model for the analysis of modern organizations including private schools, psychiatric hospital and textile factory.
Psychiatric
!=Pi
Ecology includes
wards. grounds.
other relevant
psychiatric
f a c i I i t its.
S t a f f may i n c l u d e
Psychiatrists,
Medical O f f i c e r s ,
Psychiatric Staff
Nurses, Catering
Staff, Psychiatric
S o c i a l u or ke r s .
Textile Factory
I
The e c o l o g y w i l l
p a r t l y depends M
h e r e the factory
IS l o c a t e d .
I according t o t h e
I Important p a r t .
The s t a f f i n c l u d e
management, o f f i c e
staff. technicians,
t e x t i l e workers.
-.
Processes
f
03
Psvchiatric
P r i v a t e School Textile Factory
I
The t y p o f
I I-.
The types of a d a p t i v e
e d u c a t i o n a l and training. vary
* The t r a i n i n g e d u c a t i o n
t e l a t c s t o the different
r-
scciOrcultCra1 e x t e n s i v e l y among t h e t y p s of s t a f f . being %
v a l u e r v a r y from P s y c h l a t r l s t s Nurses a d a p t i v e f o r e a c h level. ti3
s c h o o l t o school. a n d other s t a f f . a'
2.
school t r a d i t i o n s , I
s p o r t mq-academic
and t h e r e l i g i o n !
also p l a y s an
I
Oeterniner the t y p r Ilsually the t y p of The v a l u e s and b e h a v i o u r k
of prscnality traits. adaptive values evolved e v o l v e d r e p r e s e n t s an
a b i l i t i e s , a t t ituck s d e p r n d on w h e t h e r a d a p t i v e prom.. o f %
and v a l u e 5 i m p o r t a n t t r a d i t i o n a l or modern cmtinually trying t o z
f o r e a c h school. o r i e n t a t i m , socio- ~ ~
O V ~ I C O special problems
involved mid, in t h ~ s
.-
, .. -
 J . L M . Binnie-Dawson / A bio-social approach 419

the important education/socialization/socio-cultural systems which

have been evolved. These are in turn very closely related to the adaptive
behaviour necessary for survival, in each of these organizations. These
are then further related to the different patterns of behaviour evolved,
which have survival value for each of these institutions.
When analyzing the type of relationships which exist between the
adaptation to different ecologies such as ships, institutions, schools,
villages, it may also be necessary to change one’s level of analysis, from
the broader adaptive relationships, to the individual type analyses,
where one is still looking for bio-social relationships, but the level of
analysis is now greatly reduced. This type of analysis is presented in the
following section, relating the effects of stress to the physical environ-
ment.

Stress and the physical environment

Russell ( 1977) in his analysis of behavioural adjustment to the physical

environment, focussed attention on the attributes of the external en-
vironment and the capacity of living organisms to adjust to them. He
argued that environmental management involves “trade-offs” between
the biological limits within which man can adjust to changes in his
ecosystem, and the cost-benefits which he perceives as contributing to
the quality of life. He further analyzes the psychobiological mechanisms
involved in the plasticity of behaviour, during acute and chronic
exposure to such changes, and the limits they set on adjustment.
He then provides examples of these, including an old man who died
painfully after chronic exposure to a mercury-polluted marine environ-
ment. As well, a child whose mother had been exposed in a similar
manner, resulting in congenital abnormalities. In addition, a man died
in a car accident because of exposure to a relatively high concentration
of nitrogenous wastes in the atmosphere, resulting from faulty judge-
ment.
His purpose is to bring into focus the fact that man’s technologically
sophisticated society is setting “ecological traps” for its members by
altering the physical environment to extents which challenge the limits
of his plasticity to adjust to the changes. He further defines “environ-
mental quality”, as a bio-social science and technology. It focuses on
attributes of the external environment, and man’s capacities to adjust to
420 J. L.M. Binnie-Uawson / A bio-social approach

them, and secondly turns its attention to man’s perceptions of the

ecosystem in which he lives, and how such perceptions affect his
behaviour.
As well, the urban-dweller may accept dangerous pollution in ex-
change for the way of life which the city provides. There is still
controversy about the noise pollution created by supersonic transport
and the advantages of more rapid modes of travel. The rules for
trade-offs are not laid down by ecologists, they ’ are determined by
societies.
Fortunately, he notes that societies are becoming more aware of their
needs for the assistance of experts in making such decisions (De Groot
1967). As well, new models of environmental management are also
being created (Swartz and Siege1 1970). Furthermore, while the major
social cost-benefits variables, provides more flexibility to decision-mak-
ing, psychobiology can make contributions, when standards are being
set for the biological limits of environmental quality.
It is only within the safety of such limits, that trade-offs with social
cost-benefits can be considered. The setting of limits must pay attention
to the effects of changes in the physical environment on the behaviour,
which plays so central a role in an organism’s overall adjustment to its
ecosystem (U.S. National Research .Council 1975).

The nature of environmental stress

In a more recent paper, Russell defined “environmental stress” as

“forces of the physical and psychosocial environments impinging upon
an organism are, within limits, balanced by adjustive changes in the
organism. It is this plasticity which is involved in the adjustment of
living organisms to the stream of environmental stresses to which they
are constantly exposed” (1978: 145).
Cannon’s ( 1939) experiments were directed toward coordinated phys-
iological processes, with special emphasis on the sympatho-adrenal
system as the chef agency in resisting alterations of our internal
environment. Environmental forces also set into motion homeostatic
changes of a behavioural nature (Russell 1953). Stimuli associated with
food deprivation give rise to food-seeking behaviour which continues
until the organism is satiated. Noxious stimuli produce avoidance
responses which cease only when the cause of stimulation is removed.
 J . L M . Binnie-Dawson / A bio-social approach 42 1

It is also important for the concept of environmental stress that the

processes of plasticity chatacterize the integrated organism. Thus where
the physical environment changes, pollution which directly affects the
biochemistry of the organism, may initiate the complex behaviours such
as political demonstrations, to alleviate the source of pollution. As well,
crowding, examinations, work pressures may result in changes in the
levels of adrenaline in the blood (Russell 1978).
In his definition of the quality of life, Russell (1978) includes three
basic categories. The first includes those features of the physical and
psychosocial environments that are essential to biological survival,
secondly, membership in a social group, and thirdly, motives and
expectations which are based on our individual learning experience.
However, dangers of the physical environment are not just a feature
of our times, as an Eskimo woman who died 1600 years ago was found
to have black lungs, while fumes from seal or whale blubber were
presumed to be the cause. Thus dangers from the physical environment
have existed since antiquity, and as societies, moved from hunter-
gatherer, through the agricultural to the industrial modes of life; this
has been accompanied by a growing recognition that there i s a need to
develop a technique for evaluating the quality of life. Thus a new field
of research, “behavioural toxicology” has emerged in which behavioural
reactions to stress become equal with bodily signs, in the determination
of safe levels of exposure for industry, and for the biosphere generally.
Moreover, from the early history of the earth, there occurred a
chemical evolution that preceded the biological evolution, which re-
sulted in the present form of plants and animals. Thus Russell (1978)
notes that the primitive atmosphere of the time was not permissive of
life as we know it today. The overall chemical change which made
organic evolution possible, was the substitution of the present oxidizing
atmosphere which then existed (Bernal 1962).
As well, “Minimata disease” also became familiar from 1956, when
signs of mercuric poisoning were recognized among villagers, who had
eaten marine products taken from waters, which contained the effluent
of a chemical factory. There were accompanying psychological symp-
toms, including disturbed speech, gait, hearing loss, narrowing of the
visual field, sensory disturbances and some hallucinations (Harvey
1975). Mancuso and Locke (1972) also report that workers in certain
departments of viscose-rayon factories are exposed to carbon-dis-
ulphide through inhaIation, often develop mental illness and as well
422 J . L.M. Binnie-Dawson / A bro-social approach

changes in social behaviour, with sometimes the ultimate action of

suicide.
As well, Weiss and Laties (1975) also argue that one should go
beyond the classical toxicological approach based on somatic pathology
and lethality, to include behavioural measures, if potentially adverse
effects are to be detected at the earliest possible time. The widespread
use of industrial solvents Russell (1978) points out, make them an
obvious target for investigation, including workers from the plastic boat
industry to nurses exposed to low concentrations of anaesthetic gases.
The information obtained is being used to set threshold limit values,
which prevent functional impairment. As well, exposure of urban
populations to carbon dioxide (CO) the invisible luller, colourless,
odourless and a non-irritating gas, has resulted in significant increases
of its content in body fluids. ‘The allowable concentration for industry
in a eight-hour working day is 50 parts per million in the respired air. A
concentration of 1000 ppm can produce unconsciousness in one hour
and death in four hours. CO produces impairment in conditions which
require a high level of attention, such as monotonous, routine tasks as
motor-way driving and heavy-machine operation.

Environmental psycho-social stresses

Frankenhaeuser ( 1 974) asks how much noise, stress and crowding the
human organism can stand without suffering palable harm? However,
this is a defensive line and it may be taken to signify tacit acceptance of
technological development, as a force that obeys its own laws. The only
justification for breaking the development would be to ward off the
disaster which threatens, if the human tolerance limits are exceeded.
She argued for an understanding of the psycho-social variables in the
quality of life. As well, the UNESCO (1 973) report emphasized that in
trying to understand man/biosphere interrelations, we deal not only
with a “real” world that is the same objective reality for all observers,
but also with a subjectively perceived environment. As well, Gallagher
pointed out that, “Development changes societies in ways so profound
that they cannot be anticipated by participants in the experience”
(1977: 3). Furthermore, “it uproots cultures and alters environments,
structurally and organically. It modifies the individuals in those socie-
ties, physically, emotionally, and psychologically” ( 1977: 3).
 J . L M . Binnie-Dawson / A bio-social approach 423

Furthermore, Bellah ( 1970) also points out that modernization theo-

rists have assumed that once a certain degree of industrial development
was achieved, the future of a society would be non-problematic. How-
ever, he did not know where in fact most advanced societies were now
going. Black (1975) also noted that three special patterns mark mod-
ernization, as he perceives it; they are recent, subversive of the past,
and bizarre. They have gained supremacy in our world and we tend to
take them for granted as none existed more than 150 years ago, and
some are only a few decades old.
A Japanese “progressive-intellectual” Takeuchi Yoshima also used
the phrase “overcoming the modern”, and argued that the modern
world remains a problem, an unsolved problem for Japan. However, for
him the solution is not a return to the past, but the creation of a new
kind of society in the future. These are simply indications of the
profound dissatisfaction with modem culture and society, that has
appeared in Japan. An Indonesian intellectual Soedjatomoke, speaks of
a “crisis of identity” in the modern world with the breakdown of
traditional customs and modem society becoming strange and unattrac-
tive. As well, Joseph Conrad also expressed the uneasiness with the
modern age, where we are camped like bewildered travellers in a garish
unrestful hotel.
These problems stemming from too rapid modernization and devel-
opment, are also found in Hong Kong, with accompanying physical,
social and psychological effects. Thus Lee Ka Man ( 1 978) wrote of the
important social issue of “values” in Hong Kong. She discussed the
value of maintaining a healthy family situation, against the value of
providing more women for Hong Kong industries, so as to aid greater
industrial expansion. That Hong Kong society promotes a value system,
grossly concerned with industrial and financial expansion, and often
expansion for expansion’s sake, seems clear to me. The standard
rationalization behind this value system, is that only through continued
industrial and financial expansion, can Hong Kong’s high standard of
material existence be maintained. The altruistic connotations of this
statement are suspect, in so far as Hong Kong is concerned. An analysis
of who benefits most through industrial expansion would prove that the
wealth accumulated by Hong Kong’s industry is far from fairly distrib-
uted. I would add also that it is fallacious to believe that material
progress equals human progress ... As a social worker involved in
facilitating human development among Hong Kong workers ... and
414 J. L.M. Binnre-Dawson / A bio-social approach

delinquints and disturbed youth, I feel that Hong Kong as a society

needs to revaluate its value system. I do not believe that man is
economically determined. However, it appears that most people of
influence in Hong Kong are of this opinion.
In addition, Russell (1978) also points out that for those who have
become addicted to thinking that a rising national income is the sole
basic indication of national well-being, it must come as a shock that, in
some nations, unrest and discontent is growing at a time when national
income is rising. The reasons given are that improvement in standards
have produced expectations that have risen faster than reality could
provide. Secondly, prosperity brought its own problems, as economic
growth produced congestion, noise, pollution, making the urban en-
vironment less livable, while in large workplaces, people feel small and
unimportant with rapid technological growth.
As a result of all this dissatisfaction there has been a need to devise
criteria or “social indicators”, with a demand for a more qualitative
level of living approach to the evaluation of society. Thus the organiza-
tion for Economic Cooperation and Development, has agreed on a set
of twenty-four “social concerns” to watch out for; health, individual
development through learning, employment and the quality of working
life, time and leisure, control over goods and services, the physical
environment, personal safety, the administration of justice and the
place of individuals in society.

Mental health

Lauterbach (1974) has observed that the study of relating ecology to

mental illness has made great progress, although it is not yet certain to
what extent increasing urbanization and modernization, is related to
changes in the patterns of mental illness and higher rates of mental
illness. An early U.S. study found that urban individuals have higher
rates of mental illness, while rural illness seems to be most commonly a
manifestation of guilt and disturbances in social feelings. In contrast,
mental illness in city populations seems to be related to competitive,
highly ambitious, and compulsive living patterns (Frumkin and Frum-
kin 1956).
As well, psychoses show a regular decrease from the centre to the
periphery of cities, and that each disorder has a characteristic distribu-
tion with paranoia in rooming-house areas and schizophrenia, highest
 J . L.M. Binnie-Dawson / A bio-social approach 425

in the slum areas (Fans and Dunham 1939). The incidence of neuroses
is also higher in industrial societies in the upper income groups, while
the figure for psychoses is the reverse. There is also a relationship
between social class and psychatric patients, with the lowest classes
having the greatest numbers of patients (Holingshead and Redlich
1958).

Work stresses

Research by Russell (1978) has demonstrated that “job satisfaction” at

work is important. Thus of more than twenty occupations recently
surveyed, family physicians ranked the highest in hours worked, yet
they reported the greatest amount of job satisfaction, low levels of
anxiety/depression and few somatic disorders. In contrast,
assembly-line workers with not long hours, reported the greatest bore-
dom/dissatisfaction, and the highest levels of anxiety, depression and
somatic disorders. As a result of this finding, attempts have been made
to humanize work environments. Thus in Sweden they have introduced
team participation/versus machine-paced approaches on the
assembly-line, while a worker participation policy is also practiced in
South Australia.
As well Russell (1978) notes psychological scaling techniques are also
being used for measuring the various life changes, and these have more
recently been improved. Thus Rahe (1976) found that the life histories
of coronary heart disease patients show that even as chddren, they
tended to fiercely compete with others, rush against time, and feel
strong dissatisfactions with life. They continued these behaviours in
their adult life and when confronted with life demands, these persons
work even longer hours, show even more persistence and intensity, tend
to further rush against time, and feel increasing dissatisfaction with life.
These behaviours and attitudes are poor coping mechanisms.

Migrant stress

Anderson (1977) noted that the ever increasing mobility of the world’s
population can impose very heavy stresses on migrants, both individual
and in the group. However, where for example, Chinese migrants
migrate to their own communities, as often happens, they are often able
to retain their own language and culture in their host country, and
426 J.L. M. Binnie-Dawson / A bio-social approach

therefore have a means by which they can adjust more easily to these
conflicts. In addition, there are also the problems of “climatic adapta-
tion” and “nutrition”, both short- and long-term; which are often
neglected by researchers when studying problems of migrant adapta-
tion. Thus if the climate of host country and that of the migrant are
similar, then there is not much of a problem, but where the climatic
differences are great, then the problem is real.

A bio-social model of stress

A “Bio-social Model of Stress” based on the evidence presented relating

to stress, and its varying interactions between the individual and the
environment, it presented in fig. 6.
This bio-social model of stress presents a whole range of different
ecologies, which stem from adaptation to the biological environment,
hunting versus agricultural with adaptive social-cultural systems evolv-
ing. However, the effects of stress in certain urban environments, is not
ideal, involving problems, such as noise pollution, coming from planes,
airports and excessive vehicle noise. In addition, chemical pollution also
involves a whole range of different, highly undesirable pollution prob-
lems in urban areas.
The social classes listed usually high class have better, less crowded
houses, in more desirable suburbs. The lower social class, usually have
overcrowded conditions. As well, socialization variations also occur
(harsh versus permissive) and related family problems. This can also
cause stresses. Moreover, in terms of rural/urban conditions, there are
similar desirable or adverse conditions, which also are related to dif-
ferences in stress. In beautiful rural environments, there are few prob-
lems of stress except for isolation; while in overcrowded urban areas,
the stresses are probably much greater.
The hunting peoples such as the Eskimo usually have permissive
socialization, which is thought to be related to fewer stress problems
and appear quite happy. However, of course they have to adapt to
rather extreme snow environments. They do this very successfully, .due
to their excellent adaptive socialization. However, when they move out
of their traditional Eskimo environment to modern cities such as Nome,
they do appear to have some problems, because their permissive inde-
pendent socialization is related to low motivation and achievement
 Rural
- Urbm
- Hating Agirc. Social Class Rural
-
Little High Less nore H g h e r -l o v e r Rural areas Cradcd mn
Pollution, pollution, crowded crowded are usually. UfbM P.IIi.siH
n o i s e or both noise. ecology ecology Better not crordcd axe .a discipline
chemical chemical type type and i n mst usually e.9. E J r i m
dvellings, dwellings,
with b e a u t i f u l and cowtries involve Ye. w e l l
with fewer with
ecology and ovlrcrording beaut i f ul , 10- ctret... adjusted.
people. considerable
IS01 It 1011. therefore e . 9 . noime theNfON
crowding.
involve mry and chemical .tr.s..
l i t t l e stress pol 1 U M t S . should
apart f r a be .uch
isolation. lOWCr.

Rsactims t o Stress: Large s e c r e t i o n s of a d r e n a l c o r t i c a l Reactions t o stress, noderate to hlqh & p n d i n q on n a t u r e of rol*

I~ormonesare necessary f o r t h e maintenance output required. \
of prolonged r e a c t i o n s t o stress (Sa y e r s L.
and Sayers, 1 9 4 8 ) .

Aggressive E x d m g e : m e brain signals the adrenal glands t o Aggresslve E K & M ~ ~ xwith a n o t h ~ rp r s m i n i n t e r a c t i o n .

I b e r a t e a d r e n a l i n i n t o the bloorlstrcam,
w i t h an i n c r e a s e In W y s i o l q i c a l a r o u s a l
and level of excitement (Johnson, 1 9 7 2 ) .

Overcrowding V. Isolation Overcrowding V. Isolatlm

%
1. Endocrine changes 1. Psycho responses; Aggresmin Behavlolu sf
2. Aggressive r e s p n w s 2. Culturally &temined tolerMW for overcradlnq V. IsOlathl

810-soc 1.1
Psycholoqical
Processes

Fig. 6 . A bio-social model of stress

R
4
428 J . L. M. Binnie-Dawson / A bio-social approach

drive, so their problems there, are very great, but now in a modern
urban context.
In contrast, the Temne agriculturalists with harsher socialization
have more stress problems, although the less severely socialized Mende
agriculturalists, appear much better adjusted, with fewer psychiatric
patients, than the Temne in the Kissy Mental Hospital. However, these
agriculturalists are also much more highly motivated, and in the move
to modern towns, they do very much better. For example, the Ibo of
Nigeria and the Kikuyu of Kenya have very high achievement motiva-
tion and potential for modernization, stemming from their firmer
conforming socialization, displaced in socially approved ways with high
achievement and motivation.

Psychoendocrinologicaleffects of stress

Russell reported that “Psychosocial stresses are reflected in properties

of living organisms other than behavioural” (1978: 153). Thus Cannon
(1939) formulated a model of adrenal medullary involvement. As well,
Selye (1958) implicated the pituitary-adrenocortical activity in adapta-
tion to stress. More advanced techniques have made it possible to
measure small amounts of hormones both as dependent variables;
reflecting the influence of the environment, and as independent varia-
bles, affecting the state of the organism (Frankenhaeuser 1975).
It appears that during stress some tissues, and especially muscle
require the adrenal hormone in increased amounts. Thus, Nash ( 1978)
stated it is not known just what change in these tissue cells which is by
stress that need these hormones, but it is probably one related to
increased metabolism. In other words, large secretions of adrenal
cortical hormones appear to be necessary for the maintenance of
prolonged states or prolonged reactions to stress (Sayers and Sayers
1948).
There is little evidence relating to the exact nature of adrenal cortical
secretions in childhood, although in the adult the adrenal cortex con-
tains twenty-five or more different steroids, including the most well
known, 17-oxosteroids [I]. The adrenal cortex is essential to life, but the
[ I ] A revised international system of chemical nomenclature now replaces the name “ketosteroids”
by “oxosteroids” though the former term still appears in many older publications (see Nash 1978:
290).
 J.L.M. Binnie-Dawson / A bro-social approach 429

essential functions are not dependent on all these steroids. Although the
exact functions must be present throughout childhood, the 17-
oxosteroids are not produczd in measurable amounts until the ninth or
tenth year of life. It is known that in mature individuals there is a direct
relationship between stress, and the output of 17-oxosteroids, the
output increasing under stress. It is probable Nash (1978) argues, that
the relative lack of 17-oxosteroids in earlier childhood is one of the
factors involved in the different emotional responses between the
immature and the more mature individual.
Funkenstein et al. (1957) found that the secretion of the medulla is
not solely epinephrine but contains norepinephrine. These two subs-
tances have different physiological effects, and their secretion is con-
trolled by different areas of the hypothalamus. They found that epi-
nephrine is related to passive reactions to stress, and that social and
unaggressive animals such as the rabbit have a balance in which
epinephrine tends to predominate over norepinephrine. In contrast, in
solitary aggressive animals such as the lion, norepinephrine pre-
dominates.
Furthermore, they found with human adult medical students there
are characteristic reactions to stress or frustration. Thus there are the
“anger-in’’ who tend to “bottle” emotions and be self-blamers, while
the “anger out”, were more prone to outward expressions of anger and
to blame others for frustrations. The “anger-inners” tended to have an
excess of epinephrine over norepinephrine, whereas the reverse was true
of the “anger outed’, who tended to be of lower intensity, physiologi-
cally speaking, and to be accompanied by less anxiety.
Hereditary factors, Nash (1978) notes, may also enter the picture
influencing the nature of the neural equipment, or both, in certain
strains or individuals. It is well known that in rats, strains can be bred
that are emotionally highly reactive or stolid and unreactive (Hall
1941), and it is probable that in humans also susceptibility to stress and
emotional responsiveness are influenced by genetic factors. Thus on the
basis of a resting heart beat, Doerr and Hokanson (1965) divided
children aged seven, nine and eleven into low, medium and high. When
exposed to a frustrating situation (incorrect mark of an arithmetic
exercise so that some right answers were not credited, and verbal
rebuke for poor performance), there was an increase in heart rate. As
well, on retest following frustration, the low-heart rate group improved
performance, whereas the high-rate group showed n o marked change.
430 J . L. M. Binnie-Dawson /A bio-social approach

“This was interpreted in the light of Malmo’s inverted-U hypothesis,

which claims that performance increases as general activation level rise
up to a moderate level but then decreases again” (1958: 291).
The effects of isolation are also important, Krech et al. (1966)
endeavoured to control for “social isolation’’ and “environmental im-
poverishment”, using Berkeley, S , strain rats asked three questions: (a)
What brain effects will be produced by more stringent impoverishment
than was employed in former experiments? (b) Will housing animals in
pairs in an impoverished environment protect them from the usual
consequences of isolation in an impoverished environment? (c) Is an
improverished environment, with or without isolation, a stressor? Four
experimental conditions were employed: I. Environmental complexity
and training, 11. Social Control, 111. Isolated in extreme impoverish-
ment, or IV. Paired in extreme impoverishment. The results showed
that (a) the more restricted the environment the greater the changes in
brain chemistry and anatomy, (b) Pairing animals did not protect them
from developing cerebral changes similar to those of animals isolated in
impoverishment, and (c) there were no indications that isolation or
impoverishment are stressors.
This section has dealt with the important analysis of the endocrinol-
ogy of stress. It has analysed the physiological and genetic bases,
relating these to the psychological effects involved in each case.

Conclusions

Brislin et al. ( 1973) conclude that Dawson’s developing bio-social

theory certainly merits close attention, since it is a frame of reference
for cross-cultural psychology - the only one of its kind to be concerned
exclusively and cross-culturally with both the biological and social
aspects of man as interdependent phenomenon.

It intentionally dovetails well-documented cultural anthropology findings and recent

crosscultural psychological investigations. Through a comprehensive network of interre-
lated variables the system enables the researchers to study small homogenous societies
in detail. A promising method to measure many of the theory’s major points has been
developed, while a second measuring device (to measure biological environments) is
under construction (1973: 190).

This paper has presented the bio-social approach in the introductory

 J.L.M . Binnie-Dawson /A bio-social approach 43 1

section, concentrating on those aspects relevant for environmental

psychology. The bio-social approach is also presented in Dawson (1969,
1975 and 1977). The second half concentrates on the relevance of the
bio-social approach to the modern environment.
This begins with examples in a broad perspective. These range from
the bio-social analysis of English/Welsh/Scottish villages, sailing,
merchant and warships, and modern institutions (private schools, psy-
chiatric Hospital, Textile factory). There is next a reduction in the
perspectives dealing with bio-social problems relating to adverse prob-
lems in the physical environment. These are in turn related to environ-
mental stress, relevant socio-psychologxal problems, and a “bio-social
model of stress”. This deals with the interacting effects of living in
different ecologies, agricultural, pastoral and hunting/fishing relating
to stress. As well, the effects of social class and living in urban versus
rural environments are also analyzed.
I t is argued that by applying this bio-social theoretical approach to
environmental psychology, that one can analyze these important bio-so-
cia1 interactions at different perspectives. Thus one can place equal
emphasis on these important biological and social (bio-social) indepen-
dent variables, rather than concentrating either wholly on the biological
environment and its measurement, or wholly on social factors and their
measurement, relating these in turn to the bio-social dependent varia-
bles of individual behaviour.

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D u systeme homme/environnement Wohlwill (1970) a degage trois interactions principales: ( I )

toute reaction comportementale se manifeste necessairement dans un cadre bien precis qui en
limite sensiblement les realisations; (2) certains facteurs, tels la sous- ou surstimulation. la forte
densite humaine, les rigueurs du climat, peuvent exercer une influence globale sur les systemes de
reponse generalises de I’individu; (3) tel ou tel facteur prbent dans I’environnement est a la fois
source et cible de la manifestation comportementale qu’il provoque de diverses faqons.
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social et le comportement individuel. Or, I’approche bio-sociale de Dawson (1969, 1977) qui prend
comme objet d’etude I‘homme en tant que organisme bio-social a l’inteneur de I’eco-systeme
bio-social, fait ressortir clairement ces rapports. La “psychologie bio-sociale” se definit comme la
rnaniere par Iaquelle l’adaptation a diffkrents environnements biologiques aboutit au developpe-
ment de processus adaptifs de socialisation qui influencent des habitudes particulieres d’inference
perceptuelle, des traits de personnalitk, des processus cognitifs et des aptitudes psychologiques.
La presente etude definit les concepts d e base d e I’approche bio-sociale. L‘auteur passe en
revue les applications d e cette approche a la psychologie de I’environnement et rappelle les sources
d e stress dans la societe contemporaine.