ScienceDirect
Article history: Although diesel engines will be used in future too, they are the indispensable part of our
Received 17 February 2015 daily lives. However, steadily decreasing emission regulations limit values and cost in-
Received in revised form creases due to corresponding need of hi-tech aftertreatment systems, and diesel fuels'
24 March 2015 increasing price in recent years force researchers to use alternative fuel types to use on
Accepted 28 March 2015 diesel engines. In this work, hydrogen which is in gas phase is sprayed with gas injector
Available online 15 April 2015 from intake port and ignition is provided by diesel fuel coming from diesel injector. Sent
hydrogen's energy content is stabilized at 30% in overall fuels and all tests committed are
Keywords: performed in 1100 rpm stable engine speed. Also, in different engine loads (40%, 60%, 75%
Hydrogen and 100%) intake air enrichment with hydrogen effect on diesel engine's engine perfor-
Diesel engine mance, emissions and effect on combustion have been examined. Obtained results show
Smoke that in part load conditions enriched with hydrogen, NOx emissions and soot emissions
NOx can be taken under control. However on, full load condition (100% engine load), with
Rate of heat release hydrogen addition, dramatical rise of NOx emissions is observed. Working conditions with
hydrogen þ diesel fuel, it is obtained that engine load affects NOx emissions significantly.
On full load conditions, enriched with hydrogen, even though there is some rise in THC
emissions, there are progresses in CO2 and CO emissions. Besides, peak in-cylinder gas
pressure and peak heat release rate have risen in hyrogen enriched condition.
Copyright © 2015, Hydrogen Energy Publications, LLC. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights
reserved.
* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ90 212 383 2821, þ90 555 709 70 90 (mobile).
** Corresponding author.
E-mail address: dalkilic@yildiz.edu.tr (A.S. Dalkılıç).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2015.03.141
0360-3199/Copyright © 2015, Hydrogen Energy Publications, LLC. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 0 ( 2 0 1 5 ) 6 7 0 2 e6 7 1 3 6703
2050 [1]. Even though between 2010 and 2011 renewable en- study of Hu et al. [30], they studied on combustion charac-
ergy consumption reached to 3.8% from 3.5% level, it is stated teristics of an SI engine fueled with natural gasehydrogen
that this rate should reach up to 4.1% in order to reach to aim blends combining with EGR. They found that flame develop-
[1]. With technological developments, emission limits on ment duration, rapid combustion duration and total com-
regulations are continuously decreased, however, NOx and bustion duration are increased with increasing rate of EGR,
particulate matter emissions have been rising [2e5]. Accord- and decreased with increasing rate of hydrogen. Huang et al.
ing to Air Quality Report in Europe based on assays on traffic [31] experimentaly investigated cycle by cycle variations in a
control spots in 2011, at 42% of measurements, NO2 emission spark ignition engine fueled with natural gasehydrogen
limit is passed [1]. In 2011 particulate matter (<¼10 mm) blends combined with EGR. According to their results, they
emissions passed the limits set as 43% in traffic spots, 38% obtained that cycle by cycle variations increase with
inner cities, 25% in industrial fields and 15% in rural areas [1]. increasing EGR ratio and decrease with increasing hydrogen
The main cause of NOx and particulate matter rise is amount.
increasing diesel engine vehicle usage. In parallel with those Despite its high thermal efficiency and low specificity on
developments, ecological fuel searches on automotive sector CO2 emission advantages, diesel engines have disadvantages
continue. Some researchers tended towards LPG, CNG, LNG, as high amount of NOx and smoke emissions [32,33]. In order
biogas, and ethanol etc. alternative fuel types [6e15]. to limit NOx and smoke emissions within regulation limits,
Hydrogen with its carbon atom free structure only reveals aftertreatment systems (catalyst, SCR, LNT, DPF etc.) are used,
water after burning period and this specialty puts hydrogen however those systems increase costs. Usage of hydrogen as
forward in alternative fuel types [16]. Usage of hydrogen in dual fuel in diesel engines could be an alternative to control
fuel-injection engines will act as a bridge between hydrocar- emissions [17]. Because of hydrogen's high inflammation
bon fuels typed vehicles to fuel cell vehicles [17]. Although temperature (576 C), it is not possible to use it as a fuel in
there have been a lot of researches regarding electrical vehi- diesel engines [19]. Therefore, they need an energy source to
cles, because of problems such as low energy intensity, create inflammation [34]. While Ikegami et al. [35] used special
insufficient substructure, those vehicles are not in common gas injectors with heater plugs to ignite hydrogen, Antunes
usage and in near future, commitment to fuel injection en- et al. [34] used intake air to provide ignition.
gines will remain [18]. Hydrogen could be produced by trans- Most frequently used methods about hydrogen þ diesel
formation from fossil fuel or biomass, by electrolysis or direct fueled internal combustion engines (ICEs) in the literature are
thermo chemical solar transformation [17]. Also, when hydrogen injection into intake manifold or intake port, direct
hydrogen is produced by renewable energy sources, it is hydrogen injection into cylinders and continuous introducing
ecological and clean, also can be used as energy carrier (sec- hydrogen into intake manifold such as carburation method
ondary energy) like hydrogen electrical energy [19e21]. [36e38]. Ignition is provided by pilot diesel injection during all
Although, some researchers used hydrogen in homoge- of these methods. Continuous introducing hydrogen into
nously filled compression ignition engines (HCCI), because of intake manifold causes some combustion problems such as
difficulties while controling ignition start and narrow working pre-ignition, backfiring, knock etc. Also, poor volumetric effi-
spaces, it doesn't seem possible to use it commercially in the ciency and low engine power output problems will occur
future [21,22]. Most of the researchers made their researches during both hydrogen injection into intake manifold or intake
on usage of hydrogen on Otto engines [23e27]. In those re- port and continuous introducing hydrogen into intake mani-
searches regarding usage of hydrogen on Otto engines showed fold (such as carburation) since hydrogen occupies a large
that there is 30% power loss, early ignition, flame impingment amount place on volume basis instead of air [2]. On the other
and knocking problems [16]. hand, however using direct hydrogen injection into cylinders
Some researchers used hydrogen þ oxygen gas mixture method has some advantages such as high engine power
(they called it hydroxygen) as an additional fuel in Otto en- output, high volumetric efficiency etc, it requires using special
gines [28]. Karagoz et al. [28] studied on 4 cylinder, 4 stroke, direct injection hydrogen injectors which must be durable
naturally aspirated, 1.123 l SI engine, 0%, 3.75% (2.5% against high pressure and high temperature in cylinders. Also,
H2þ1.25% O2) and 7.5% (5% H2þ2.5% O2) hydroxygen addition these injectors haven't been used in the market. Moreover,
and water injections on performance of the engine and effects some special modifications must be done to install these in-
on emissions have been examined. As a result of those ex- jectors on cylinder head. For these reasons, hydrogen injec-
aminations, even though there are improvements in emis- tion into intake manifold or intake port and pilot diesel fuel
sions except NOx and engine performance, with water injection into cylinder is the best method for using
injection method NOx increase could not have been hydrogen þ diesel bifuel in compression ignition (CI) engines
prevented. [5,20]. When compared to diesel engines, hydrogen have su-
On the other hand, some researchers [29e31] studied perior properties as higher flame velocity and larger flam-
about natural gasehydrogen blends combined with EGR in mability limits, shorter quenching distence and higher
spark ignition engines. Hu et al. [29] experimentaly investi- diffusion parameter [34,39]. Using hydrogen in diesel engines
gated the effect of different hydrogen fractions and EGR rates as a dual fuel (diesel þ hydrogen) will create more homoge-
on performance and emissions of an SI engine. According to neous mixture and it will help to reduce particulate matter
their results, thermal efficiency is improved in the case of emissions [40]. Since hydrogen does not involve carbon atom,
small EGR rate and thermal efficiency is reduced with CO2, HC and CO emissions decrease. Studies about
increasing EGR rate. Also, they obtained that CO, CO2 and HC hydrogen þ diesel mixture fuelled CI engines in the literature
emissions are improved with hydrogen addition. In another are presented in the next paragraph.
6704 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 0 ( 2 0 1 5 ) 6 7 0 2 e6 7 1 3
developed by us for this kind of works and hydrogen dispatch cylinder pressure datas by oscilloscope. In-cylinder pressure
start timing is programmed to start on intake stroke. datas obtained in this work are evaluated by taking 100 cir-
cuits' average value in order to decrease cyclical differences.
In-cylinder pressure change
Heat release rate
In-cylinder pressure is obtained by Kistler branded 6061B type
pressure transducer and booster, datas are recorded via 2 GS/s In this work, single dimensional heat release rate model is
sampling rate digital oscilloscope. Piston position and crank used. Combustion process in examined according to heat
angle (CA) measurement is made by an incremental encoder release rate created by Krieger and Borman [38] and using
placed in crankshaft and recorded simultaneously with Janaf Tables.
By AVL DiCom 4000 device CO, THC, CO2 and NOx emissions are
measured, by AVL 415S smoke emission is measured. Though
AVL DiCom 400 device gives CO and CO2 rates in % volume,
THC and NOx in ppm; AVL 415S gives smoke emissions in FSN
or mg/m3, in this work all emission rates are converted to g/
kWh according to VDMA Exhaust Emission Legislation.
Experimental procedure
operating point engine speed (1100 rpm for test engine) was
Table 3 e Accuracy and measurement uncertainty.
selected in the experimental studies, since the aim this study
is to investigate the effect of hydrogen addition at different Measuring Measuring device Measurement
parameter
engine loads. 30% hydrogen energy content of total fuel en-
ergy was kept constant all load condition because of aim of Engine torque Load-cell ±0.05 Nm
this study (investigation of hydrogen addition effect at Engine speed Incremental encoder ±5 rpm
Fuel flow Sika VZ 0.2 ±1% (Reading value)
different engine loads). Hyrogen þ diesel fuel mixture was
Hydrogen flow New-Flow TLF 23 ±1% (Full scale)
tested and compared with pure diesel fuel at 40%, 60%, 75%
CO AVL DiCom 4000 0.01% hacim
and 100% engine loads which is equal to 1.20 kW, 1.80 kW, CO2 AVL DiCom 4000 0.1% hacim
2.25 kW and 3.00 kW engine brake power, respectively on the THC AVL DiCom 4000 1 ppm
test engine. Details about test conditions is given in Table 2. NOx AVL DiCom 4000 1 ppm
Also, measurement uncertainties of test devices and calcu- Smoke AVL 415S 0.4% Vol.
lated total accuracy values according to Kline ve McClintock Calculated results Uncertainty
Power ±0.26%
method [42] are presented in Table 3.
Bsfc ±2.26% (1.20 kW)
±1.92% (1.80 kW)
±1.85% (2.25 kW)
Results and discussion ±1.65% (3.00 kW)
Emission characteristics
Carbon dioxide
In Fig. 5, CO2 emissions' change with hydrogen enriched fuel
Fig. 3 e Effect of hydrogen enrichment on thermal and only diesel fuel can be seen. As it is seen in the Figure, CO2
efficiency at 40%, 60%, 75% and 100% engine load emissions dramatically decrease by filling enriched with
(1.638 bar, 2.457 bar, 3.072 bar and 4.069 bar BMEP). hydrogen. While only diesel fuel usage at 1.638 bar BMEP (40%
engine load condition) is scaled as 862 g/kWh, with diesel
fuel þ hydrogen usage it is scaled as 663 g/kWh. At 2.457 bar
BMEP (60% engine load condition) only diesel fuel usage CO2
is mentioned that this condition dilutes in-cylinder gas and
emissions are scaled as 898 g/kWh, CO2 emissions decrease to
accordingly decreases combustion efficiency [37]. Also,
650 g/kWh with diesel fuel þ hydrogen condition. At 3.072 bar
Owston et al. [46] on their work, mentioned, with hydrogen
BMEP (75% engine load condition), usage of diesel
addition heat flow rises and this condition causes increase of
fuel þ hydrogen decreases the emission from 932 g/kWh to
thermal loss. It is seen that results obtained on work are
596 g/kWh. At 4.069 BMEP (100% engine load), emissions
similar with the results of Christodoulou and Megaritis [36],
decrease from 924 g/kWh to 651 g/kWh. According to results,
Varde and Frame [45] and Zhou et al. [47].
specific CO2 emission values decrease at hydrogen enriched
filling conditions by 23.1%, 27.5%, 36.1% and 29.6% respec-
Bsfc
tively at 1.638 bar, 2.457 bar, 3.072 bar and 4.069 bar BMEP (40%,
In Fig. 4, effect of fillings enrichment with hydrogen on bsfc
60%, 75% and 100% engine load) power levels. Main reason of
value at different working conditions is given. Bsfc is found in
the decrease is that hydrogen does not involve carbon [48].
diesel fuel by adding equivalent diesel fuel amount, based on
Besides, with hydrogen addition, overall fuel's H/C rate in-
consumed hydrogen's lower heating value (LHV), to consumed
creases, combustion duration shortens and combustion effi-
diesel fuel. On hydrogen enriched condition, at all load con-
ciency increases [49,50]. Also, with the help of hydrogen's high
ditions (1.638 bar, 2.457 bar, 3.072 bar and 4.069 bar BMEP) it is
diffusion parameter, diesel fuels assembly heterogeneity gets
seen that bsfc increases. At 1.2 kW engine power (40% engine
better and more uniform premixed combustible mixture is
load), with only diesel fuel, bsfc value is 376.4 g/kWh, when
formed [22]. As the results suggest, with the addition of
diesel fuel þ hydrogen is used, bfsc value increases to 422.7 g/
hydrogen, specific CO2 emissions decrease.
Fig. 4 e Effect of hydrogen enrichment on bsfc at 40%, 60%, Fig. 5 e Effect of hydrogen enrichment on CO2 emissions
75% and 100% engine load (1.638 bar, 2.457 bar, 3.072 bar on 40%, 60%, 75% and 100% engine load (1.638 bar,
and 4.069 bar BMEP). 2.457 bar, 3.072 bar and 4.069 bar BMEP).
6708 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 0 ( 2 0 1 5 ) 6 7 0 2 e6 7 1 3
Carbon monoxide
Fig. 6 shows specific CO emission at different working condi-
tions (40%, 60%, 75% and 100% engine load condition) with
diesel fuel and hydrogen þ diesel fuel. It can be seen that CO
emissions decrease with hydrogen addition at all loads. At
40% engine load (1.638 bar BMEP) with only diesel fuel 5.7 g/
kWh CO emission is released, with diesel fuel þ hydrogen, this
value decreases to 2.01 g/kWh value. At 60% engine load
(2.457 bar BMEP) CO emission decreases from 2.6 g/kWh to
1.3 g/kWh with the usage of diesel fuel þ hydrogen, at 75%
engine load (3.072 bar BMEP) it decreases from 2.3 g/kWh to
1.1 g/kWh, at 100% engine load (4.069 bar BMEP) it decreases
from 2.5 g/kWh to 0.8 g/kWh. According to obtained results,
with the usage of diesel fuel þ hydrogen at 40%, 60%, 75% and
100% engine load, specific CO emission respectively decreases
by 64.3%, 51.7%, 54.7% and 68.4. On the work, all values scaled
regarding carbon monoxide are below emission regulations. Fig. 7 e Effect of hydrogen enrichment on THC emission on
However, according to results obtained from work with diesel 40%, 60%, 75% and 100% engine load (1.638 bar, 2.457 bar,
fuel þ hydrogen usage calculated via AVL DiCom 4000 device, 3.072 bar and 4.069 bar BMEP).
since device by %0.01 volume and the scaled values are below
device's scaling lower limit, we can not mention decrease
values made percentally are completely certain. With the BMEP (60% engine load) THC emissions increase from 0.05 g/
addition of hydrogen there can be lower values obtained than kWh to 0.10 g/kWh; at 3.072 bar BMEP (75% engine load)
device could measure so it is possible that those values in- values increase from 0.04 g/kWh to 0.07 g/kWh, at 4.069 bar
crease. Hydrogen's high flame speed increases in-cylinder BMEP (100% engine load) it increases from 0.02 g/kWh to
pressure and causes a little improvement on combustion ef- 0.04 g/kWh. At 40%, 60%, 75% and 100% engine loads, 36.3%,
ficiency. Besides, because of hydrogen's high diffusion 93.3%, 68.2% and 42.3% increase is obtained. Obtained THC
parameter, before combustion more homogeneous mixture results are below regulations and with the usage of diesel
forms and mixture's accesibility to oxygen increases [49]. This fuel þ hydrogen increasing amount of THC is negligible ac-
explains the decrease on CO emission. cording to regulations. In this study, hydrogen was injected
into intake manifold and it provides additional resistance for
Total hydrocarbon air flow during intake stroke since hydrogen flow rate is fixed
Unburned hydrocarbons in exhaust gas in generally stated as at 30% as energy basis. Therefore, it can be concluded that
total hydrocarbon (THC) [32]. In Fig. 7, THC emissions ob- the volumetric efficiency values were decreased with
tained at working conditions is shown. With the usage of increasing amount of fuel (especially hydrogen). The calcu-
diesel fuel þ hydrogen at every load stage, it can be seen that lated volumetric efficiencies of the test engine are 80%, 79%,
THC emissions increase. At 1.638 bar BMEP (40% engine load), 79% and 78% for neat diesel fuel; 80%, 79%, 79% and 78% for
diesel fuel þ hydrogen usage increases specific THC emis- 30% hydrogen addition for 1.2 kW, 1.8 kW, 2.25 kW and 3 kW
sions from 0.10 g/kWh to 0.14 g/kWh. Similarly at 2.457 bar brake engine power, respectively. For this reason, THC
emission increases with hydrogen addition due to decrease
of inlet air. Obtained results are parallel with the works of
Zhou et al. [47] and Horng-Wen and Zhan-Yi [38] in literature.
Smoke
In Fig. 8, change in smoke emissions on work can be seen. It is
seen that at every load stage specific smoke emissions
decrease with the usage of diesel fuel þ hydrogen. At 1.638 bar
BMEP (40% engine load) with the usage of diesel
fuel þ hydrogen specific smoke emissions decrease from
2.21 g/kWh to 1.31 g/kWh. At 2.457 bar BMEP (60% engine load),
it decreases from 1.08 g/kWh to 0.49 g/kWh. At 3.072 bar BMEP,
it decreases from 1.22 g/kWh to 0.33 g/kWh, at 4.069 bar BMEP
(100% engine load) it decreases from 2.29 g/kWh to 1.11 g/kWh.
According to results at 40%, 60%, 75% and 100% engine load,
specific smoke emissions respectively decrease by 40.5%,
54.3%, 72.6% and 51.3%. With the hydrogen addition both
overall fuels H/C rates [5] and hydrogen's high diffusion
Fig. 6 e Effect of hydrogen enrichment on CO emission at parameter, combustible mixtures homogeneity increase and
40%, 60%, 75% and 100% engine load (1.638 bar, 2.457 bar, with fuel's accesibility to more oxygen, smoke formation de-
3.072 bar and 4.069 bar BMEP). creases [22,49].
i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 0 ( 2 0 1 5 ) 6 7 0 2 e6 7 1 3 6709
Fig. 10 e Effect of hydrogen enrichment on in-cylinder gas pressure related to CA at 40%, 60%, 75% and 100% engine loads
(1.638 bar, 2.457 bar, 3.072 bar and 4.069 bar BMEP).
combustion phases can be obtained, during diesel According to obtained results, a critical result is achieved:
fuel þ hydrogen combustion, because of hydrogen's high the effect of hydrogen addition on NOx emissions varied
flame speed, unregulated combustion phase, an explosive depending on diesel engine load. By using hydrogen þ diesel
type of combustion is seen [5]. Since hydrogen was directly mixture fuel, both NOx and smoke emissions can be reduced
introduced into intake air, an explosive type combustion at partial loads. At full load condition, however smoke emis-
period is seen because of instantaneous combustion of sions are reduced with hydrogen addition, the dramatic in-
hydrogen. With using diesel þ hydrogen fuel mixture, any crease on NOx emissions couldn't be prevented. Thus, CI
combustion problems such as backfiring, pre-ignition etc. engine may reach high emission standards with using
didn't occur during studies since energy content of hydrogen hydrogen as additional fuel especially at partial load operating
fuel didn't exceed 30% of total fuel. Peak heat release rate conditions though any after treatment devices aren't used on
values were increased 27.06 J/ CA from 26.03 J/ CA at 40% the engine.
engine load (1.638 bar BMEP), 31.81 J/ CA from 26.77 J/ CA at
60% engine load (2.457 bar BMEP), 37.89 J/ CA from 28.61 J/ CA
at 75% engine load (3.072 bar BMEP) and 45.16 J/ CA from Conclusions
27.99 J/ CA at 100% engine load (4.069 bar BMEP) with
hydrogen enrichment. With using diesel þ hydrogen as fuel, The focus of this experimental work is to investigate the effect
the raise of peak heat release rate values were obtained, 3.9%, of 30% hydrogen enrichment (energy basis) at different engine
18.8%, 32.1% and 61.3% on 40%, 60%, 75% and 100% engine loads (1.638 bar, 2.457 bar, 3.072 bar and 4.069 bar BMEP) and
loads respectively, according to pure diesel fuel. Due to pres- 1100 rpm constant speed on a diesel engine. The effect of
ence of hydrogen in intake air, pre-mixed type explosive using diesel þ hydrogen fuel mixture on emissions, engine
combustion period shows the domination all of the engine performance and combustion characteristics were experi-
load with hydrogen enrichment. The results of this study are mentally investigated and the results were compared with
consistent with the results of Saravanan and Nagarajan [16] in pure diesel fuel condition. The obtained test results are listed
terms of heat release rate. below:
i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 0 ( 2 0 1 5 ) 6 7 0 2 e6 7 1 3 6711
Fig. 11 e Effect of hydrogen enrichment on heat release rate related to CA at 40%, 60%, 75% and 100% engine load (1.638 bar,
2.457 bar, 3.072 bar and 4.069 bar BMEP).
a) Brake thermal efficiency values were decreased at all en- e) Peak in-cylinder pressure values and peak heat release rate
gine loads with hydrogen addition. The decrease of brake values were increased at all engine loads, respectively with
thermal efficiency is changing between 6.3% and 10.9% hydrogen addition. Explosive type combustion is observed
with hydrogen addition compared to diesel fuel. and the pre-mixed type dominated combustion period
b) A great improvement on CO emission was acquired at shows the domination of all engine load with hydrogen
entire engine load conditions. CO emission was reduced up enrichment.
to 68.4% with 30% hydrogen addition. A sharp drop on CO2
emission was obtained with hydrogen enrichment. The
improvement on CO2 emission is varying between 23.1%
Acknowledgment
and 36.1% with hydrogen addition compared with neat
diesel fuel.
This research was supported by the Yıldız Technical Univer-
c) THC emission values were increased at all of the engine
sity Scientific Research Projects Coordination Department.
loads. However, obtained THC results are below regula-
Project Number: 2011-06-01-YULAP01.
tions and extremely low values; for this reason with the
usage of diesel þ hydrogen fuel mixture increasing amount
of THC is negligible according to regulations. references
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