The Working Fluid

STEAM

P-v Diagram

piston–cylinder – 1 kg liq water at 1 MPa

and 150°C - piston free to move, tightly
sealed - weights on top of the piston.
All liq - compressed liq, subcooled liq -
weights are removed one by one - P inside
cylinder decreases gradually. Water
exchanges heat with surroundings to keep T constant -
isothermal process.

• V increases slightly as P decreases (no heat addition to

keep temperature constant)

• At P = 0.4762 MPa – water starts to boil - cannot

reduce pressure and retain all liquid – saturated liquid
state - P = 0.4762 MPa is saturation pressure at
specified T = 150°C
add heat

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• P constant (= Psat) - no weights removed (isobaric
now as well as isothermal).
• The total vol continues to increase.
• 2 phases present: liq and vap - a distinct phase
boundary - liquid dense relative to the vapor, vg > vf
• As more heat added, more vapor appears, all while
P = 0.4762 MPa and T = 150°C.
• At a certain v, all vap no liq, still at P = 0.4762 MPa
and T = 150°C. - the saturated vapor state. Heat
supplied to change phase at const T and P called the
specific heat of vaporization
• as P decreased further - heat added (T remaining
constant), vol rises - water remains in all vap state.

Process in P−v diagram

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Repeat experiment at lower and higher T’s

For moderate T - same type of behavior – vol increases,

turns into vap isothermally and isobarically, vap vol
increases.

However,
• The saturation temp increases as pressure increases,
• specific vol of saturated liquid increases as P
increases
• As T increases vf becomes closer to vg.
• Heat of vaporisation decrease as pressure increases
• Above a critical temp, T = Tc = 374.14 ◦C. no phase
change observed

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At Tc, press critical value of pc = 22.089 MPa,
At pc and Tc (critical point) the specific volume takes
the value vf = vg = vc = 0.003155 m3/kg.

critical point - point at which saturated liquid and

saturated vapor states are identical.
At temperatures above Tc not a distinct phase change
process - specific volume continually increases - only
one phase present.
Above critical state no line separates the compressed
liquid region and the superheated vapor region.

For a simple compressible substance, two independent

intensive thermodynamic properties define the state of
the system.

a two-phase mixture - P and T are not independent. In

this case, we need another property to characterize the
system – usually the dryness fraction

the mass of dry steam present in the wet steam mixture

dryness fraction, x 
the total mass of the wet steam mixture

saturated liquid x = 0
dry saturated vapour x = 1
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Property Tables

For each substance, the thermodynamic properties are

listed in more than one table. In fact, a separate table is
prepared for each region of interest such as the
superheated vapor, compressed liquid, and saturated
(mixture) regions.

Saturation State Properties

Saturation pressure (0.34 bar) and corresponding

saturation temperature (72oC)
sp vol of dry saturated vapour, vg = 4.649 m3/kg
internal energy of saturated water, uf = 302kJ/kg
internal energy of dry saturated vapour, ug = 2472kJ/kg
enthalpy of saturated water, hf = 302kJ/kg
specific enthalpy of vaporisation
hfg = hg - hf = 2328kJ/kg
enthalpy of dry saturated vapour, hg = 2630kJ/kg

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Properties of Wet Vapour

Thus in 1 kg of wet steam with dryness fraction x

Mass of dry steam present = x kg
Mass of water present = (1 – x) kg
Therefore
v = xvg + (1 – x)vf
u = xug + (1 – x)uf
h = xhg + (1 – x)hf
Expanding the expression for h gives
h = xhg + hf – xhf or h = hf + x(hg – hf) or
h = hf + xhfg

Properties of Superheated Vapour

In superheated region T and P are independent

properties – T and P given state is defines – all other
properties can be found

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steam at 2 bar (Tsat=120.2 oC) and 200oC is superheated
degree of superheat = 200 - 120.2 = 79.8K
sp vol, vg = 0.1511 m3/kg
int energy, ug = 2681 kJ/kg
enthalpy, hg = 3248kJ/kg
To determine values of v, u and h at temperatures that
are at different pressures and temperatures to those
given in the tables, linear interpolation may be used

A mass of 200 g of saturated liquid water is completely

vaporized at a constant pressure of 100 kPa. Determine
(a) the volume change and (b) the amount of energy
transferred to the water

A rigid tank contains 10 kg of water at 90°C. If 8 kg of

the water is in the liquid form and the rest is in the
vapor form, determine (a) the pressure in the tank and
(b) the volume of the tank.

Determine the temperature of water at a state of

P= 0.5 MPa and h=2890 kJ/kg.

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THE PERFECT GAS

The characteristic equation of state

at T>>Tc and very low P vapour obeys

PV  nR T
R is molar gas constant = 8314.5 N  m
kmol  K

Specific heat capacity

Heat required to raise unit mass through one degree

temperature rise – c kJ/kg
𝑑𝑄 = 𝑚𝑐𝑑𝑇
For a gas this heat required depends on how the process
is executed. In thermo, we are interested in two kinds
of specific heats: specific heat at constant volume cv
and specific heat at constant pressure cp

𝑑𝑄 + 𝑑𝑊 = 𝑑𝑢
const vol - no work
𝑑𝑄 = 𝑑𝑢
const press

𝑑𝑄 = 𝑑ℎ
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 𝜕𝑢 𝜕ℎ
𝑐𝑣 = ( ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑝 = ( )
𝜕𝑇 𝑣 𝜕𝑇 𝑝
or
for a reversible non-flow process at constant press
dQ  mcp dT
for a reversible non-flow process at constant vol
dQ  mcv dT
for a perfect gas cp and cv are constant
Q  mcp T2  T1  or Q  mcv T2  T1 
for a real gas average values of cp and cv can be used

Joules law

dQ  dW  du
for const vol dW = 0 and dQ du
for unit mass dQ  cv dT
therefore dQ  du  cv dT
integrating u=cvT+K (const)
assume u=0 at T=0 then K=0

specific internal energy for a perfect gas

u = cvT or U = mcvT
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The properties of a certain fluid are related as follows:

u = 196 + 0.718t
pv = 0.287 (t + 273)

Where u is the specific internal energy (kJ/kg), t is in

°C, p is pressure (kN/m2), and v is specific volume
(m3/kg).

For this fluid, find cv and cp.

Relationship bet specific heat capacities

For a perfect gas

pv  RT where R is the specific gas constant
N  m kg  K or kJ kg  K
u  u T 
h  hT   u T   RT

Each perfect gas has a different specific gas constant

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For mass m occupying a volume V
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑚𝑅𝑇
differentiating wrt to temp
𝑑ℎ 𝑑𝑢
= +𝑅
𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑇

𝒄𝒑 (𝑻) = 𝒄𝒗 (𝑻) + 𝑹 for a perfect gas

Specific Enthalpy of a Perfect gas

for a gas obeying the ideal gas model, the specific

enthalpy depends only on temperature, so the specific
heat cp, is also a function of temperature alone. That is
dh
c p(T)=
dT
seperating variables
dh  c p(T)dT
integratin g
h  c pT since h  0 at T  0

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Ratio of specific heat Capacities

the ratio of specific heat Capacities, γ,

𝑐𝑝
𝛾=
𝑐𝑣

γ=1.4 for diatomic gases

=1.6 for monoatomic gases
=1.3 for triatomic gases

Relationship bet cp, cv, R, and γ

c p -cv=R
cp R
-1=
cv cv
R
γ 1 
cv
R
cv 
γ  1
γR
cp  γc v 
γ  1
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Two tanks are connected by a valve. One tank contains
2 kg of carbon monoxide gas at 77oC and 0.7 bar. The
other tank holds 8 kg of the same gas at 27oC and 1.2
bar. The valve is opened and the gases are allowed to
mix while receiving energy by heat transfer from the
surroundings. The final equilibrium temperature is
42oC.

Using the ideal gas model, determine (a) the

final equilibrium pressure, in bar (b) the heat transfer
for the process, in kJ.

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